a,  :l5  .  II 


^  PRINCETON,  N.  J.  ^ijj 

Presented    by     A  .  G^ .  CQ\-\nneTO^  ^  PV^.  iJ 
Divisioji  ..  «*W..>w!^0   I  \ 


Section 


<^!:5?^ 


THE\ 


^-•^^f/i^L  S£«-'^>- 


BIBLE  HAND-BOOK: 


AN  INTRODUCTION 


i>\t  ^tttbj  of  SatrtJr  Stripture. 


JOSEPH  ANGUS,  D.D., 

MEMBEE    OF    THE    KOTAL    ASIATIC    SOCIETY. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

WILLIAM   S.   &   ALFEED   MARTIEN, 

No.  144,  CHESTNUT  STREET. 

1856. 


(     iii     > 


PREFACE. 


The  followiug  pages  are  intended  as  an  introduction  to 
tlie  study  of  Scripture,  and  are  Avritten  with  the  ^^ew  of 
being  used  by  all  classes  of  intelligent  readers.  On  a 
first  perusal  by  younger  readers,  it  is  suggested  that  the 
sections  marked  (^)  in  the  table  of  Contents,  be  omitted, 
together  with  such  paragraphs  as  may  be  thought  too 
abstruse.  The  attempt  to  adapt  the  work  to  both  young 
and  advanced  students,  renders  such  a  selection  at  the 
outset  desirable ;  and  the  whole  has  been  written  so  as 
to  make  the  portions  read  in  the  first  instance,  easily 
intelligible  and  complete  in  themselves.  On  the  otlier 
hand,  any  who  wish  to  consult  the  book  on  particular 
subjects — as  on  the  study  of  the  Greek  Testament,  or  on 
the  proof  of  particular  doctrines — can  easily  do  so  by  the 
help  of  the  index. 

If  any  \^'ish  to  connect  the  study  of  these  pages  with 
the  study  of  Theological  Science  generally,  he  will  find 
the  following  classification  important. 

Theology  is  Exegetical,  Historical,  Systematic,  and 
Pastoral : 

TTnder  the  head  of  Exegetical  Theology  are  placed — 

Philology,  or  the  study  of  the  languages  of  Scripture,  with 
their  cognate  dialects,  see  ch.  i.  sees.  2,  4:  ch.  iv.  sec.  5. 

Criticism,  which  aims  first  to  establish  a  correct  text,  and 
secondly,  to  explain  the  peculiarities  of  the  style,  etc.,  of 
the  several  books,  see  ch.i.  sees,  i,  3,  5,  6:  ch.  vi.  sec.  i,  and 
Introductions  to  Pent.,  Gospels,  Epistles,  etc. 

Hermeneutics,  or  the  theory  and  practice  of  interpretation, 
ch.  i.  see.  6 :  ch.  iv.,  and  ch.  vi. 


iV  PREFACE. 

Under  tlie  head  of  Historical  Theology  are  placed — 

ARCiiiEOLOCY,  with  its  two  divisions;  Biblical  Arcliajology, 
which  treats  of  ancient  customs,  etc.,  see  ch.  iv.  sec.  6;  and 
Ecclesiastical,  whicli  treats  of  the  opinions  of  early  Jewish 
and  Christian  sects  and  writers,  see  ch.  iv.  sec.  6:  Pai*t  ii. 
ch.  iv.  sec.  2:  ch.  vi.  sec.  i:  ch.  vii.  sec.  i. 

History  of  Doctrine,  of  which  this  volume  does  not  treat. 

Under  the  head  of  Systematic  Theology  are  placed — 

Dogmatic  Theology,  which  treats  of  matters  of  faith,  etc. 
Practical  Theology,  which  treats  of  practice. 

See  chaps,  iii.,  v.,  vii.,  and  Introduction  to  Cor.,  Romans,  etc. 

Under  the  head  of  Pastoral  Theology  are  placed — 

HoMiLETics,  of  which  this  volume  treats  but  indirectly,  see 

ch.  vii. 
The  Pastoral  Care   and   Ecclesiastical  Law,   of   which 

nothing  is  said  here. 

The  Etidence  of  Christianity  and  the  External 
History  of  the  church  of  Christ  are  distinct  branches 
of  inquiry.  Of  the  first,  the  following  pages  treat  at 
some  length,  chap.  i.  sec.  i  ;  chap.  ii.  sees.  1-4,  etc. 

To  some  of  the  subjects  enumerated  in  this  list,  this 
volume  is  only  an  introduction  intended  to  guide  the 
advanced  reader  to  larger  works ;  but  on  most,  it  will  bo 
found  sufficiently  full  to  enable  earnest-minded  inquirers 
to  study  and  master  the  evidences,  facts,  and  doctrines  of 
Scripture  for  themselves.*  Its  aim  is  to  teach  men  to 
understand  and  appreciate  The  Bible,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  give  such  information  on  ancient  literature  and 
liistory,  as  may  aid  the  work  of  general  education  among 
all  classes. 

■  With  the  view  of  adapting  the  work  more  completely  for  use, 
a  set  of  questions  have  been  prepai'ed,  which  give  a  full  epitome 
of  the  whole,  and  may  be  had  at  5  6,  Paternoster  Row. 


CONTENTS. 

Preface iii 

PAET  I. 
Introddctory p.  I 

CHAPTER  I. 

On  the  Genuineness  of  Scripture  :  or  the  Bible  as  Inspired 

Men  wrote  it p.  4 

Sec.  I.  Genxiineness  defined  and  proved,  §  6-24. 

Sec.  2.^  The  original  languages  of  Scripture:   Hebrew  and  the 

Shemitish  languages  generally;  Hellenistic  or  Hebrew 

Greek  of  the  New  Testament  and  LXX,  §  25-41. 
Sec.  3."  The  manuscripts  of  Scripture,  §  42-64. 
Sec.  4.*  The  ancient  versions  of  Scripture,  §  65-74. 
Sec.  5.*  The  various  readings  of  Scripture:  rules  for  determining 

the  text,  §  75-112. 
Sec.  6.  The  English  version  on  the   whole  identical  with  the 

original  text,  §  113-134. 

CHAPTER  II. 

On  the  Authenticity  and  Authority  of  Scripture  .       .    p.  65 
Sec.  I.  Scripture  claims  to  be  regarded  as  an  inspired  teacher, 

and  as  the  only  inspired  teacher,  §  135-145. 
Sec.  2.  Inspiration,  §  146-150. 
Sec.  3.  The  canon,  §  151-166. 
Sec.  4.  Scripture  evidences,  §  1^7-213. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Bible  as  a  Revelation  from  God      p.  116 
Sec.  I.  A  revelation  of  God,  of  Christ,  and  of  human  natm-e, 

§  214.218. 
Sec.  2.  A  revelation  of  spiritual  religious  truth,  §  219-227. 
Sec.  3.  A  gi-adual  and  progressive  revelation,  §  228-238. 
Sec.  4.  The  unity  of  the  Bible,  §  239-245. 
Sec.  5.  Not  a  revelation  of  systematic  truth  or  specific  rules, 

§  246-253. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture   .         .        .         .      P-  139 

Sec.  I.  Of  the   necessity  for   care  in  the   study  of  Scripture, 

§  254-269. 
Sec.  2.  Of  the    spirit  in  which  the   Bible   should  be  studied, 

§270-273. 
Sec.  3.  Of  rules  of  interpretation,  §  274-309. 
Sec.  4.  Of  the  utility  and  application  of  rvdes  in  interpretation, 

§310,  311. 
Sec.  5.*  Of  the  application  of  these  rules  to  the  study  of  the 

original  Scriptures,  §  312-338. 
Sec.  6.  Of  the  use  of  external  helps  in  interpretation;  Jewish  and 

heathen  opinions;  history,  profane  and  ecclesiastical; 

chronology;    natural  history;    manners  and  customs; 

geography,  historical  and  physical,  §  3  39-404. 
Sec.  7.  Of  the  application  of  these  rules  to  the  interpretation  of 

allegories,  parables,  types,  and  symbols,  §  405-433. 
Sec.  8."  Of  the  interpretation  of  prophecy,  §  434-454. 


CHAPTER  V. 

On  the  Systematic  and   Inferential  Study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures      p.  309 

Sec.  I.  Of  the  study  of  the  doctrines  of  Scriptxire,  §  455-464. 
Sec.  2.  Of  the  study  of  the  precepts  of  Scripture,  §  465-472. 
Sec.  3.  Of  the  study  of  the  promises  of  Scriptiire,  §  473-480. 
Sec  4.  Of  the  study  of  the  examples  of  Scripture,  §  481-487. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Principles  and  Rules  illustrated  in  the  Quotations  of  the 

New  Testament  from  the  Old,  and  applied  to  the 

Solution  OF  Scripture  Difficulties    .         .        .      p.  332 

Sec.  i.**  Quotations  classified  and  examined  with  reference  to  the 

state  of  the  text,  the  truths  and  evidences  of  Scripture, 

and  principles  of  interpretation,  §  489-500. 

Sec.  2.  Scripture  difficulties,  §  501-523. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
On  the  Inferential  and  Practical  Reading  of  the  Bible,  p.  360 


CONTENTS.  Vii 

PAET  II. 

THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

Introductory P-  3  7J 

CHAPTEK  I. 

The  Pentateuch  and  xirE  Boc»k  of  Job  .        .        .        .      p.  378 

Sec.  I.  Genuineness  and  avithenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  §  7-13. 

Sec.  2.  The  Book  of  Job,  §  14-17. 

Sec.  3.  Of  Hebrew  poetry  and  the  Poetical  Books,  §  18. 

Sec.  4.  The  Books  of  the  Pentateuch  arranged  and  epitomized 
with  occasional  helps,  §  19-24. 

Sec.  5.  The  design  of  the  Law  ;  summary  of  its  religious  insti- 
tutions, §  25-31. 

CHAPTER  11. 

Historical  and  Poetical  Books  to  the  Death  of  Solomon, 

p.  419 
Sec.  I.  The  Historical  Books  of  Scripture  generally,  §  32-35. 
Sec.  2.  Brief  outline  of  these  Historical  Books,  §  36. 
Sec.  3.  The  Books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Ruth,  §  37-42. 
Sec.  4-  The  Books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  §  43-51. 
Sec.  5.  The  Poetical  Books — Psalms,  Song  of  Solomon,  Proverbs, 

and  Ecclesiastes,  §  52-62. 
Sec.  6.  The  whole  arranged  and  epitomized,  with  occasional  helps, 

§63-68. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Historical  Books  trobi  the  Death  of  Solomon  to  the  Close  oir 
THE  Old  Testament  Canon p.  466 

Sec.  I .  Brief  historical  view  of  this  period  ;  the  Prophets  in  con- 
nection with  history,  §  69-73. 
Sec.  2.  The  nature  of  Prophecy  during  this  period  ;  Predictions 

arranged  according  to  time  and  according  to  subjects, 

§  74-76. 
Sec.  3 .  The  Books  of  Jonah,  Joel,  Amos,   Hosea,  Isaiah,  Micah, 

Nahum,  §  77-87. 
Sec.  4.  The  Books  of  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  Habakkuk,  Daniel, 

Ezekiel,  and  Obadiah.     The  Captivity,  §  88-94. 
Sec.  5.  The  Books  of  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Esther,  Nehemiah, 

and  Malachi,  §  95-102. 
Sec.  6.  The  whole  arranged  and  epitomized,  §  103-106. 
Sec.  7.  Chronology  of  Scriptui^e  and  early  profane  history  from 

tiie  Deluge  to  the  close  of  the  Canon,  §  107. 


VUl  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Civil  and  Moral  History  of  the  Jews  trom  Malachi  to  John 
THE  Baptist p.  537 

Sec.  I.  Sketch  of  the  Civil  Histoiy  of  the  Jews  between  the  two 

Testaments,  §  108-115. 
Sec.  2.  Sketch  of  the  Moral  and  Religious  History  of  the  Jew4 

between  the  two  Testaments,  §  11 6- 12 8. 

CHAPTER  V. 

The  Gospels ?•  55 1 

Introductory,  §  129-134. 

Sec.  I.  The  Gospels  in  their  mutual  relations,  §  135,  136. 

Sec.  2.  The  genuineness  of  the  Gospels,  §  137. 

Sec.  3.  Introduction  to  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  §  138-141. 

Sec.  4.  The  Chronology  of  the  Gospels,  §  142. 

Sec.  5.  The  Gospels  Harmonized,  §  143-150. 

Sec.  6.  Topics  to  be  noticed  in  reading  the  Gospels.  Lessons  to 
be  gathered  from  a  comparison  of  passages,  §  151,  152. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Book  OF  Acts P-5  72 

Sec.  r.  The  Gospel  and  the  Gentiles,  §  1 53-161. 

Sec.  2.  Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Acts,  §  162,  163. 

Sec.  3.  Chronology  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  arranged,  §  164-166. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Epistles  and  the  Book  of  Revelation   .        .        .      p.  583 

Sec.  I.  On  the  study  of  the  Epistles,  §  167-169. 

Sec.  2.  On  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistles,  §  170. 

Sec.  3.  Helps  to  study  of  i  and  2  Thessalonians,  Galatians,  i  and 
2  Corinthians,  Romans,  James,  Ephesians,  Colossians, 
Philemon,  Philippiaus,  Hebrews,  i  Peter,  i  Timothy, 
Titus,  2  Peter,  2  Timothy,  Jude,  and  precepts  given 
in  each,  with  epitome  of  Doctrines,  §  1 71-195. 

Sec.  4.  Helps  to  the  Study  of  i,  2,  and  3  John,  and  to  the  Book 
of  Revelation,  §  196-204. 

Index P-  ^5 1 


THE 

BIBLE  HAND-BOOK. 


PART  I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

"  I  use  the  Scriptures  not  as  an  arsenal  to  be  resorted  to  only  for  arms  and  wea- 
pons .  .  .  but  as  a  matchless  temple,  where  I  delight  to  contemplate  the  beauty,  tho 
symmetry,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  structure ;  and  to  increase  my  awe  and 
excite  my  devotion  to  the  Deity  there  preached  and  adored."—  Boyle  •  On  the  Style  of 
Scripture,  jd  obj.  8. 

"  Scarcely  can  we  fix  our  eyes  upon  a  single  passage  in  this  wonderful  book  which 
has  not  afforded  comfort  or  instruction  to  thousands,  and  been  met  with  tears  of 
penitential  sorrow  or  grateful  joy  drawn  from  eyes  that  will  weep  no  more."^ 
Patson:  The  Bible  above  all  Price. 

"  This  lamp,  from  off  the  everlasting  throne, 
Mercy  took  down,  and  in  the  night  of  time 
Stood,  casting  on  the  dark  her  gracious  bow, 
And  evermore  beseeching  men  with  tears 
And  earnest  sighs,  to  hear,  believe,  and  live."— Pollok. 

I.  Even  as  a  literary  composition,  the  sacred  Scriptures 
The  Bible :  form  the  most  remarkable  book  the  world  has  ever 
its  ciauns.  seen.  Thej  are  of  aU  writings  the  most  ancient. 
They  contain  a  record  of  events  of  the  deepest  interest.  The 
history  of  their  influence  is  the  history  of  civilization  and 
happiness.  The  wisest  and  best  of  mankind  have  borne  wit- 
ness to  their  power  as  an  instrument  of  enhghtenment  and  of 
hoUness ;  and  having  been  prepared  by  "  men  of  God  who 
spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  ^  to  reveal  "  the 
only  true  God  and  Jesus  Christ  whom  he  has  sent,"  •>  they 
have  on  this  ground  the  strongest  claims  upon  our  attentive 
and  reverential  regard. 

The  use  of  a  hand-book  of  Scripture  requires  one  or  two 
cautions,  which  both  writer  and  readers  need  to  keep  before 
them, 

*  2  Pet.  I.  21.  «>  John  17.  3:  Ps.  19. 


2  THE  BIBLE — HOW  TO  BE  STUDIED. 

3.  First,  we  are  not  to  contemplate  this  glorious  fabric  of 
To  be  Divine  truth  as  spectators  only.      It  is  not  our 

faith^^d  ^^'^  business  to  stand  before  Scripture  and  admire  it ; 
obedience.  but  to  stand  within,  that  we  may  believe  and  obey 
it.  In  the  way  of  inward  communion  and  obedience  only  shall 
we  see  the  beauty  of  its  treasures.  It  yields  them  to  none 
but  the  loving  and  the  humble.  We  must  enter  and  unite 
ourselves  with  that  which  we  would  know,  before  we  can 
know  it  more  than  in  name.'' 

3.  Secondly,  nor  must  the  study  of  a  help .  to  Scripture  be 
A.11  helps  of  confounded  with  the  study  of  Scripture  itself, 
value  only  as  Such  heli^s  may  teach  us  to  look  at  truth  so  as  to 

they  lead  to  •,  -x-  j  i-  "u    4.    -4.    •      ^i, 

the  Bible  See  its  position  and  proportions,  but  it  is  the  en- 
itseif.  trance  of  truth  alone  which  gives  light.    The  road 

we  are  about  to  travel  may  prove  attractive  and  pleasing,  but  • 
its  great  attraction  is  its  end.  It  leads  to  the  "  weUs  of  salva- 
tion." To  suppose  that  the  journey,  or  the  sight  of  the  living 
water — perhaps,  even  of  the  place  whence  it  springs — wiU 
quench  our  thirst,  is  to  betray  most  mournful  self-deceit  or 
the  profoundest  ignorance.  Our  aim — "'  the  sabbath  and  port 
of  our  labours  " — is  to  make  more  clear  and  impressive  the 
Book  of  God,  "the  god  of  books,"*'  as  one  calls  it,  the  Bible 
itself. 

4.  The  names  by  which  this  volume  is  distinguished  are 
Its  names,  ^ot  wanting  in  significance.  It  is  caUed  the  Bible, 
The  Bible.  qj,  ^^le  book,  from  the  Greek  word  (^lSXoq,  book,  a 
name  given  originally  (like  liber  in  Latin)  to  the  inner  bark  of 
the  hnden,  or  teil-tree,  and  afterwards  to  the  bark  of  the 
papyrus,  the  materials  of  which  early  books  were  sometimes 
made. 

It  is  called  the  Old  and  New  Testament  (that  is,  covenant 
Old  and  New  or  appointment),  the  term  by  which  God  was 
Testament,  pleased  to  indicate  the  relation  or  settled  arrange- 
ment between  himself  and  his  people.  The  term  was  first 
apphed  to  the  relation  itself,*"  and  afterwards  to  the  books  in 
which  the  records  of  the  relation  are  contained. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  Old  Testament  was  called  "  The  Law, 

*  Prov.  2,  2-5:  John  7.  17.  ^  The  Synagogue,  No.  xiv. 

"  Ex.  24.  7"  2  Kings  23.  2:  2  Cor.  3.  6-14.  %ia.6rixv,  in  classic 
Greek  is  disposition,  or  a  will  ;  in  Hellenistic  Greek,  it  is  often 
equivalent  to  a-vvS'/ixn,  a  covenant.     Gen.  21.  27,  32:  26.  28:  31.  44. 


THE  BIBLE — ITS  TITLES.  3 

The  Law,  the  PropTiets,  and  tlie  Writings."  Sometimes  the 
and  Holy  ^'^^  "Writings,  or  (as  the  Greek  name  is)  the  Hagiogra2)hay 
Writings.  \eere  called,  from  the  first  book  under  the  division, 
the  Psalms.* 

What  books  were  included  in  these  divisions  vre  gather 
from  ancient  Jewish  authorities.  Josephus  reckons  two-and- 
twenty  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  whole 
may  be  thus  divided  : — 

The  five  books  of  Moses  [nYin].     Torah.    The  Law. 

The  Prophets  [D^N^np].     Nebiim. 

The  historical  division  D^DIt^NT  D^&5^n3,  Nebiim  Rishonim, 
namely — 

1.  Joshua.  6.  Daniel. 

2.  Judges  and  Ruth.  7.  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 

3.  Samuel,  i  and  2.  8.  Esther. 

4.  Kings,  I  and  2.  9.  Job. 

5.  Chronicles,  i  and  2. 

The  Prophets,  properly  so  called,  C^innx  D^N"*??.    Nebiim 
Acharonim. 
10.  Isaiah.  11.  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations. 

12.  Ezekiel.  13.  The  twelve  minor  Prophets. 

And  the  Hagiographa,  D^nini),  Cethubim,  namely — 
The  Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and 
Ecclesiastes. 
In  modern  copies  the  following  are  also  placed  among  the 
Hagiographa  : — 

Job,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah, and  Chronicles. 
And  this  is  the  arrangement  now  in  use  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures. 

The  terms,  "the  Scripture,"^  "the  Scriptm-es,'"'  and  "the 
Other  word  of  God,"  ^  are  also  apphed  in  the  Bible  itself  to 

names.  ^j^g  sacred  books  ;  as  is  the  expression, "  the  oracles 

of  God ;"  ^  though  this  last  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate 
the  jjlace  where,  under  the  old  dispensation,  the  will  of  God 
was  revealed.^     "The  Law ^"  and  "  the  Prophets '""  are  each 

*  Luke  24.  44.        *>  John  10.  35 :  Jas.  4.  5.         **  Luke  24.  27. 
<*  Luke  II.  28:  Prov.  30.  5.     ^  Acts  7.  38:  Rom.  3.  2:  Heb.  5.  13 
'    I  Kings  8.  6:  2  Chron.  4.  20:  Ps.  28.  2. 
^  Mat.  5.  18:  John  10.  34:  i  Cor.  14.  21. 
*"  Mat.  26,  56:  Acts  3.  18,  21:  28.  23. 

B  2 


4  THE  BIBLE — ITS  GENUINENESS. 

employed,  and  sometimes  unitedly*  by  a  common  figure  of 
speech,  to  designate  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  sacred  writings  were  sometimes  called  the  canon  of 
Canon  of  Scripture  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  a  straight 
Scripture.  rod,  and  hence  a  rule  or  law.  Gal.  6.  i6  :  Phil,  3.  16. 
This  term  was  employed  in  the  early  age  of  Christianity  with 
some  indefiniteness,  though  generally  denoting  a  standard  of 
opinion  and  practice.  From  the  time  of  Origen,  however,  it 
has  been  applied  to  the  books  which  are  regarded  by  Chris- 
tians as  of  Divine  authority.  The  Bible  therefore  is  the  canon, 
that  is,  the  authoritative  standard  of  religion  and  morality. 

5.  Of  all  these  titles,  the  "word  of  God"  is  perhaps  the  most 
The  word  of  impressive  and  complete.  It  is  sufficient  to  justify 
^od.  the  faith  of  the  feeblest  Christian,  and  it  gathers  up 

all  that  the  most  earnest  search  can  unfold.  We  may  say 
more  at  large  what  this  title  involves,  but  more  than  this  we 
cannot  say.  It  teaches  us  to  regard  the  Bible  as  the  utterance 
of  Divine  wisdom  and  love. 


CHAPTER  I. 

On  THE  Genuineness  op  Scripture  :  or  the  Bible,  as 
Inspired  Men  wrote  it. 

"  The  integrity  of  the  records  of  the  Christian  faith  is  substantiated  by  evidence, 
in  a  tenfold  proportion,  more  various,  copious,  and  conclusive  than  that  which  can 
be  adduced  in  support  of  any  other  ancient  writings."— Isaac  Taylor. 

Sec.  I.   Genuineness  defined  and  proved. 

6.  If  a  MS.  of  each  book  of  the  Bible  in  the  author's  hand- 
A  genuine  writing  were  still  extant,  and  if  the  fact  of  its  being 
MS.  what.  such  could  be  proved,  every  copy  that  agreed  with 
the  MS.  would  be  perfectly  genuine.  There  are  now,  however, 
no  such  autographs  of  any  ancient  books ;  and  yet  there  are  cir- 
cumstances attending  the  preservation  and  transmission  of 
the  MSS.  of  the  Scriptures,  which  prove  their  genuineness 
with  nearly  as  much  certainty  as  if  the  first  copies  were  still 
in  existence. 

7.  A  book  is  said  to  be  genuine  if  it  be  as  it  was  written  by 
Genuineness  *^^  author  whose  name  it  bears  :  if  the  present  text 
defined.         of  that  book  varies  from  the  text  he  wrote,  it  is  said 

^  Matt.  II.  13:  22.  40. 


GENUINENESS  :   PRINTED  COPIES.  5 

to  be  corrupt,  and  if  tlie  book  was  not  written  bv  tiie  pre- 
tended author,  it  is  said  to  be  forged  or  spurious. 

8.  The  question  of  the  genuineness  of  Scripture  is  much  sim- 

phfied  by  the  invention  of  printing.  That  art  fixes 
shortens  an  the  dates  of  books,  and  by  multiplying  copies  and 
inquiry.  editions  secures  the  text  from  corruption.  As 
printed  books  cannot  be  altered  by  the  pen,  any  material 
change  of  the  text  becomes  impossible  or  nugatory.  The 
!MSS.  of  printed  books  are  now  committed  therefore  without 
fear  of  falsification  "  to  the  immortal  custody  of  the  press." 

9.  There  are  still  extant,  for  example,  printed  copies  of  the 
P'.-inted  ^^^  Testament  in  Hebrew,  dated  Soncino,  a.d. 
copies  of  the  1488,  and  Brixise,  a.d.  1494.  A  copy  of  the  year 
A^D.^1433-  1488  is  in  the  library  of  Exeter  CoUege,  Oxford,  and 
'5^^-  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin  is  the  identical  copy 
(dated  1494),  from  which  Luther  made  his  German  translation. 
There  are  extant  also  copies  of  the  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
dated  Basil,  151 6,  edited  by  Erasmus,  and  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
dated  Alcala  or  Complutum  (in  Spain),  15 14.  On  being  com- 
pared with  each  other,  and  with  modern  editions,  these  copies 
are  found  to  agree  in  the  main.  They,  therefore,  prove  by  a 
single  step,  the  existence  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  15th  century. 
They  prove,  also,  that  the  text  of  modern  editions  has  not 
been  materially  impaired  during  the  last  350  years. 

10.  These  two  editions  of  the  New  Testament  which  are 
Textus  founded  upon  a  very  partial  examination  of  MSS. 
receptus.  fo^xi  the  basis  of  the  Received  Text.  The  first 
edition  of  that  text  was  printed  in  1624,  by  Elze^dr.  Besides 
the  two  editions  just  named,  he  had  the  advantage  of  con- 
sulting the  editions  of  Stephens  (Paris,  1546),  and  of  Beza 
(Gen.  1565),  but  did  not  introduce  from  them  many  important 
readings. 

11.  At  the  time  these  volumes  were  printed,  there  were  MS. 
MSS.  of  the  copies  of  the  Scriptures  in  most  of  the  pubhc 
Scriptures,  hbraries  of  Europe.  They  form,  with  the  writings 
1457  to  the  of  the  Fathers,  or  of  other  ecclesiastical  authors  of 
4ih  century.  ^^^  middle  ages,  the  bulk  of  most  hbrary  catalogues 
of  the  15th  century.  Dr.  Kennicott  collated  630  of  these  MSS. 
for  his  critical  edition  of  the  Hehreio  Bible.  De  Rossi  collated 
734  more.  And  upwards  of  600  MSS.  have  been  examined  for 
recent  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament. 


6  GENUINENESS  :    MANUSCRIPTS. 

12.  In  the  case  of  the  Greek  and  Eoman  classics,  twenty,  or 
Compared  "ten  MSS.  are  deemed  amply  sufficient  to  form  an 
^'^^''.'JSo'^'"^  accurate  text :  fifteen  MSS.  of  Herodotus  are  known 

with  MbS. 

of  Classics,  to  critics,  of  which  the  most  ancient  belongs  to  the 
loth  century  :  and  this  is  a  fair  average  of  the  ancient  MSS. 
of  classic  authors.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  advantage 
in  this  respect,  is  greatly  on  the  side  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
number  of  MSS.  has  afforded  ample  provision  for  restoring 
the  text  to  its  original  purity,  and  at  the  same  time  gives 
absolute  security  against  extensive  corruptions. 

13.  The  MSS.  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  now  extant,  were 

most  of  them  written  between  the  years  a.d.  iooo, 
MSS.VdV  and  a.d.  1457.  Some,  however,  belong  to  the  8th  and 
Greek.  ^^j^  centuries,  among  which  are  two  of  the  MSS. 

(Nos.  634,  503),  lately  in  the  possession  of  M.  de  Rossi,  by 
whom  the  various  readings  they  contain  were  published. 
The  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of  the  Septuagint  or 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old,  are  earlier  still.  The  Alexan- 
drian MS.  (Codex  Alexandrinus,  called  A  by  Wetstein, 
Griesbach,  and  other  critics),  now  in  the  British  Museum,  com- 
prising in  four  volumes,  small  folio,  both  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, must  have  been  written  before  the  close  of  the  5th 
century.  The  Vatican  MS.  (called  B),  preserved  in  the  hbrary 
of  the  Vatican  at  Rome,  belongs  to  the  4th,  as  does  probably 
the  Codex  Cottonianus  (I),  the  remains  of  which  are  now  in 
the  British  Museum,  the  various  readings  of  the  whole  being 
preserved  in  the  works  of  Archbishop  Usher.  The  Codex  Re- 
gius, or  Ephremi  (C),  so  called  from  the  author  whose  works 
were  written  over  it,  the  parchment  being  what  is  called  a 
rescript  (or  "twice-written,"  in  Greek  pahmpsest,  or  "rubbed 
again,")  belongs  to  the  6th  century.  The  Codex  Bezee  (D), 
given  by  the  reformer  Beza  to  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
belongs  (in  the  opinion  of  Wetstein)  to  the  5th  century ; 
critics  who  give  it  least  antiquity,  assigning  it  to  the  6th  or  7th. 

14.  A  Virgil  in  the  Vatican,  claims  an  antiquity  as  high  as  tJbLe 

4th  century  ;  but  generally,  the  MSS.  of  the  classics 
with  MSS.  of  belong  to  periods  between  the  loth  and  the  15th 
Classics.  centuries.  In  antiquity,  therefore,  as  in  numbers, 
they  are  greatly  inferior  to  the  MSS.  of  the  Scriptures. 

15.  As  we  reach  the  time  of  the  earliest  MSS.  of  the  Scrip- 
jjuotations      tures,  another  kind  of  evidence  presents  itself  no  less 


GENUINENESS  :   QUOTATIONS.  7 

f^e^in^"^'  impressive  :  namely,  tlie  quotations  of  Scripture, 
ecclesiastical  and  references  to  it,  which  are  found  in  the  writings 
Their"^^  of  the  early  Fathers,  and  in  the  Rabbinical  para- 

natvire.  phrases.     The  references  of  classic  authors  one  to 

another,  though  sufficient  to  establish  the  antiquity  of  the 
works  quoted  from,  form  a  very  inadequate  provision  for  cor- 
recting the  text  of  each.  They  are  generally  in  the  way  of 
allusion  only  to  some  fact  or  passage.  Even  when  the  re- 
ferences are  more  pointed,  they  are  generally  so  loosely  made 
as  to  be  of  httle  critical  value.  In  quotations  from  the  Scrip- 
tures the  case  is  entirely  different.  They  are  generally  made 
with  the  utmost  care,  the  very  words  of  the  sacred  writers 
being  introduced,  and  forming  the  subject  of  lengthened  dis- 
cussion, or  of  important  practical  teaching. 

1 6.  Looking  first  at  quotations  from  the  New  Testament,  we 
Quotations  in  have  in  the  5th  century  the  writings  of  Theodoret 
Cent,  v.-ii.  Qf  Cy|Drus,  in  Syria,  on  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  and  on 
most  of  the  Old  Testament,  Stiil  earher,  Cyril  of  Alexan- 
dria wrote  on  the  Prophets,  and  on  Johu.  In  the  4th 
century,  Chrysostom.  wrote  commentaries  on  the  whole  of 
the  New  Testament.  To  the  same  century,  belongs  also 
the  writings  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  In  the  2nd  and  3rd  cen- 
turies, we  have  the  writings  of  Origen  and  Theophilus,  of 
Antioch :  fragments  of  each  remain  (though  of  the  second,  in 
Latin  only),  and  are  often  quoted  by  later  wTiters.  In  the 
2nd  century,  we  have  the  writings  also  of  Irenseus,  and  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria.  Not  less  important  are  the  writings 
of  Jerome,  who  wrote  commentaries  on  Scripture  in  the  4th 
century.  To  the  same  century  belong  also  the  voluminous 
writings  of  Augustine.     For  a  complete  hst,  see  page  86. 

These  are  a  few  only  of  the  authors  of  the  early  age  of  the 
Number  of  Christian  Church.  In  not  less  than  one  hundred 
quotations,  ^nd  eighty  ecclesiastical  writers  (whose  works  are 
still  extant),  are  quotations  from  the  New  Testament  intro- 
duced ;  and  so  numerous  are  they,  that  from  the  works  of  those 
who  flourished  before  the  7th  centuiy,  the  whole  text  of  the 
New  Testament  (it  has  been  justly  said),  might  have  been 
recovered,  even  if  the  originals  had  since  perished.  The  ex- 
periment was  tried  by  Dr.  Bentley,  and  he  confirms  this  state- 
ment. 

1 7.  A  similar  process  of  investigation  into  the  Hebrew  text 


8  GENUINENESS  :   VERSIONS. 

carries  us  to  tlie  era  of  our  Lord.  The  Targum, 
or  interpretation  of  Onkelos,  translates  the  Penta- 
teuch into  Chaldaic  Hebrew  (though  of  the  purest  order),  and 
was  written  about  sixty  years  before  Christ.  The  Targum  of 
Jonathan  on  the  Prophets  and  historical  books,  was  written 
about  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  In  the  4th 
century,  Joseph  the  Blind  wrote  a  Targum  on  the  Hagiographa  ; 
and  a  little  later,  various  similar  versions  of  other  jparts  of 
Scripture  were  published.  These  Targums,  ten  in  all,  are  of 
great  value  in  determining  the  text  of  Scripture,  being,  for  the 
most  part,  very  literal  paraphrases  of  the  original  Hebrew. 

18.  To  corroborate  this  evidence  of  the  correctness  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  to  carry  still  further  back  the  evidence 
on  the  Old,  we  have  the  ancient  versions  of  the  Scriptures. 
Versions  ^^  ^^^  ptb  Century,  a  version  of  the  Bible  into  the 
from  the  9tii  Slavonic,  or  old  Russian  language  (of  great  critical 
the  1st.  value),  was  published.     In  the  6th  century,  was 

completed  a  version  of  the  whole  Bible  into  Georgian.  In  the 
5th,  a  version  into  Armenian,  under  the  care  of  Miesrob,  the 
inventor  of  the  Armenian  alphabet :  and  also  into  Gothic, 
under  Ulphilas.  In  the  3rd  and  4th  centuries,  aU  the  New 
Testament  and  parts  of  the  Old  were  translated  into  Coptic 
(or  Memphitic),  the  language  of  Lower  Egypt,  the  Copts  being 
Egyptian  Christians  :  and  also  into  Sahidic  (or  Thebaic),  the 
language  of  Upper  Egypt.  In  the  4th  century  a  translation 
was  made  into  Ethiopic,  the  language  spoken  in  Ethiopia,  the 
country  of  Candace  and  the  modern  Abyssinia.  Several  of 
these  versions  were  made  from  the  Septuagint,  •  some  from 
the  Syriac,  and  a  few  from  the  Latin  Vulgate. 

The  Peshito  (or  literal)  Syriac  version  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek  Scriptures  belongs  probably  to  the  ist  cen- 
Peshito.  ^^^^^  j^  ^^^  .^  general  use  among  the  Syrian 
churches  in  the  year  378,  and  is  then  quoted  by  Ephrem  the 
Syrian  as  the  version  generally  received,  and  so  ancient  as  to 
require  frequent  explanation.  The  true  Philoxenian  or  New 
Syrian  belongs  to  the  6th  century,  and  the  Haraclean  (com- 
monly called  the  Philoxenian)  to  the  7th.  Both  versions  take 
their  name  from  the  persons  under  whose  sanction  they  were 
made.  The  Peshito  >)eing,  as  its  name  imphes,  very  literal^  is 
of  great  value  in  determining  the  original  text. 

Nor  for  this  purpose  is  the  Vulgate  itself  of  small  im- 


genuineness:  versions.  9 

,    ,  portance.    The  text  it  contains  was  made  by  Jerome 

about  the  year  385.  Part  of  it,  including  the  New 
Testament,  he  took  from  an  older  Latin  version  called  the  old 
Italic,  which  is  quoted  by  TertuUian  in  the  year  220  ;  but  the 
greater  part  he  himself  translated  from  the  original  of  the 
Old  Testament.  This  version  was  gradually  ado^^ted  by  the 
Latin  Church,  and  was  the  first  book  ever  printed.  The 
present  text  is  very  corrupt. 

Still  more  ancient  than  most  of  these  are  the  versions  of 
Greek  the  Old  Testament  by  Symmachus,  Aquila,  Theo- 

versions.  dotion,  and  the  Seventy.  The  whole  were  in  the 
hands  of  Origen  in  the  year  228  a.d.,  and  were  used  by  him 
in  revising  the  text  of  the  Septuagint.  He  afterwards  pub- 
hshed  them  all  with  the  Hebrew  text  in  Hebrew  and  Greek 
letters  in  what  was  hence  called  his  Hexapla  or  Six- columned 
Bible.  The  version  of  Aqiiila  was  made  about  the  year  160 
for  the  use  of  Hellenistic  Jews,  and  is  quoted  by  Justin  Martyr 
(a.d.  160),  and  Irenseus  (a.d.  176).  It  is  extremely  literal,  and 
was  read  by  the  Jews  in  their  synagogues.  The  version  of 
Theodotion  appeared  about  the  same  time,  and  is  quoted  by 
the  same  authors.  The  version  of  Symmachus  is  of  later 
date,  and  is  expressed  in  plain  elegant  language  Without  being 
a  literal  translation.  These  three  texts  are  now  lost,  but  their 
important  variations  are  preserved  in  the  Hexaplarian  text  of 
the  Seventy,  published  by  Montfaucon  at  Paris,  1713. 

The  version  of  the  Seventy  (so  called  perhaps  from  the 
number  of  translators  supj)osed  to  have  been  en- 
gaged in  making  it)  is  the  most  ancient  of  all.  It 
has  generally  been  received  by  both  Jews  and  Christians,  is 
more  frequently  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  than  the 
Hebrew,  and  was  in  common  use  both  in  the  synagogues  and 
in  the  early  Christian  churches.  The  first  reference  to  it  is 
by  Aristobulus  who  lived  in  the  2nd  century  before  Christ. 
The  most  probable  date  of  the  completion  of  the  translation 
is  about  the  year  285  b.  c,  when  Ptolemy  Lagus  and  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  were  kings  of  Egypt.'' 

^  Hody  (on  the  authority  of  Clement  and  Eusebius),  Usher, 
"Walton,  Eichhorn,  and  others,  do  not  matenally  differ  in  the  date  they 
assign  to  it.  Some  (De  Wette  and  others)  suppose  that  it  was  written 
by  different  authors  and  at  different  times  ;  though  it  is  agreed  that 
the  whole  was  extant  in  the  time  of  the  son  of  Sirach,  b.  c.  130. 

b3 


10  GENUINENESS  :    SUMMARY. 

19.  Such   is    a  sample   of  the    evidence   by  which  it   is 

proved  that  in  the  ist  century  of  the  Christian 
era  (and  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testament  two 
centuries  earlier),  there  existed  and  were  known  throughout 
the  Roman  world  books  called  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  written 
by  inspired  men,  and  that  the  present  text  of  the  Bible  is 
identical  with  the  text  which  these  books  contained. 

20.  These  remarks  apply  without  exception  to  the  books  of 
Homoiogou-  ■til©  Old  Testament,  and  to  twenty  out  of  the 
mena,  twenty-seven  of  the  New.  These  twenty  are  the 
Antiiego-  four  Gospcls,  the  Acts,  th6  Epistles  of  Paul  (ex- 
^^^^'  cept  that  to  the  Hebrews),  and  the  first  Epistles 
of  John  and  Peter.  These  twenty  books  were  universally 
received  as  genuine,  and  were  therefore  called  Homoiogou- 
mena  (/.  e.  acknowledged).  The  other  seven  books  were  dis- 
puted for  a  time  by  particular  churches,  and  were  therefore 
styled  Autilegomena  (or  disputed).  After  a  deliberate  exami- 
nation, however,  they  were  at  last  received  as  genuine,  the 
very  delay  proving  the  closeness  of  the  scrutiny  which  their 
claims  had  undergone. 

21.  Decisive  as  these  facts  are,  they  give  a  very  inadequate 
Facts  more  ideH  of  the  amount  of  proof  of  which  the  genuine- 
decisive  still,  j^ess  of  the  Scriptures  is  susceptible.  The  MSS. 
are  innumerable.  They  belong  to  all  ages :  and  many  of  them 
are  very  ancient.  They  have  been  kept  for  centuries  in  dis- 
tant parts  of  the  world,  under  the  custody  of  opposing  sects, 
and  in  circumstances  that  made  extensive  or  important  altera- 
tions impossible.  The  possessors  of  these  MSS.  deemed  them 
of  the  highest  value,  and  professed  to  live  under  the  influence 
of  the  truths  contained  in  them.  Copyists  preserved  them 
with  the  utmost  reverence,  counting  every  letter  of  every  book, 
and  registering  the  very  tittles  of  the  law.  How  remarkable, 
how  decisive  as  an  evidence  of  Divine  care,  that  while  all  the 
libraries  of  Europe  and  of  the  world  containing  copies  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  have  been  examined,  all  ancient  versions 
extant  compared,  the  MSS.  of  all  countries  from  the  3rd  to 
the  1 6th  century  collated,  the  commentaries  of  all  the  Fathers 
again  and  again  investigated,  nothing  has  been  discovered, 
not  even  a  single  general  reading  which  can  set  aside  an}'  im- 
portant passage  hitherto  received  as  genuine.  This  negative 
conclusion,  that  our  Bible  does  not  essentially  differ  from  the 


GENUINENESS  :   VARIOUS  READINGS.  11 

Bible  of  tlie  Primitive  Church  is  indeed  an  ample  recompense 
for  all  the  labour  and  time  which  have  been  devoted  to  these 
pursuits. 

22.  To  give  the  reader  a  just  conception  of  the  expression 

Effect  of        ^^^^  ^^^  Bible  does  not  differ  essentially  from  the 

various  Bible  of  the  Primitive  Church,  we  may  notice  what 

^°°  '        the  various  readings  of  the  New  Testament  involve. 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  for  example,  which,  contains 
Epistle  to  433  verses,  there  are  at  most  four  passages,  the 
Romans.  meaning  of  which  is  modified  by  readings  which 
Griesbach  deems  of  weight : — 

In  ch.  7,  6,  fbr  "that  being  dead  in  which  we  were  held,"  he 
reads  "  We  being  dead  to  that  in  which  we  were  held:"  a  diflFerence  in 
the  original  between  0  and  e.     So  some  editions  of  the  tex.  rec. 

Inch.  II.  6,  he  omits  the  latter  half  of  the  verse. 

In  ch.  12.  II,  he  reads  '*  time  "  for  "  Lord;"  aif  for  vfn. 

In  ch.  16.  5,  he  reads  the  first  fruits  of  Asia  for  Achaia. 

These  are  the  only  corrections  that  affect  the  sense,  and  they 
are  all  unimjDortant.  To  make  them  he  examined  all  the 
principal  MSS.  already  named,  no  others,  and  30  from  Mount 
Athos  collated  by  Mattheei,  who  travelled  over  a  great  part  of 
Eussia  and  Asia  for  this  purpose. 
Epistle  to  In  Galatians  the  important  corrections  are  three 

Galatians.         onlv  " 

In  ch.  4.  17,  for  you  in  the  second  clause  he  reads  us :  a  change  in 
the  original  of  one  letter. 

In  ch.  4.  26,  he  omits  the  word  "  all." 

In  ch.  5.  19,  he  omits  the  word  "adultery.'' 

Corrections  which  make  no  difference  in  the  sense. 

In  the  7959  verses  of  the  New  Testament  there  are  not  more 
Xew  than  ten  or  twelve  various  readings  of  great  im- 

Testament.  portance,  and  these  affect  not  the  doctrines  of 
Scripture,  but  only  the  number  of  proof  passages  in  which  the 
doctrines  are  revealed. 

The  important  various  readings  sanctioned  by  Griesbach 
are  the  following  : — 

In  Acts  8,  37,  he  omits  the  verse. 
In  Acts  9.  6,  he  omits  the  first  part  of  the  verse. 
In  Acts  20.  28,  for  "the  church  of  God,"  he  reads  "  the  church  of 
the  Lord,"  a  change  depending  on  one  letter  K  for  e. 


12  GENUINENESS  :    VARIOUS  READINGS. 

In  Phil.  4.  13,  for  ''through  Christ,'"  he  reads  ''through  Him." 

In  I  Tim.  3.  16,  for  "  God  manifest,"  he  reads  "  who  was:"  a  dif- 
ference arising  from  the  supposed  omission  of  a  mark  in  one  of  the 
two  letters  of  the  word — O  for  ©. 

In  Jas.  2. 18,  for  "6^  thy  works,"  he  read3  "  without  thy  works, " 
as  do  many  copies  of  the  English  version. 

In  I  John 5.  7,  8,  he  omits  from  "in heaven,"  to  "in  earth." 

In  Jude  4,  he  omits  "  God." 

In  Rev.  8,  13,  for  "angel,"  he  reads  "eagle." 

These  corrections  are  all  sanctioned,  except  Acts  20.  28,  and 
I  Tim.  3.  16,  by  Scholz  and  Hahn.  In  these  two  passages  both 
writers  agree  with  the  common  text,  as  they  do  much  more 
frequently  than  Griesbach  in  other  unimportant  readings, 

Several  of  the  readings  of  Griesbach,  though  not  theologically 
important,  remove  difficulties  from  the  present  text. 

23.  Of  the  Old  Testament,  a  careful  examiner  has  noted 
OIQ  1314  various  readings  of  value.  Of  these,  566  are 
Testament,  adopted  in  the  Enghsh  version  ;  147  of  the  whole 
affect  the  sense,  but  none  can  be  regarded  as  theologically  im- 
portant :  generally  they  correct  a  date  or  complete  the  sense. 
See  Hamilton's  Codex  Criticus,  Lond.  1821. 

24.  The  writings  of  Terence  (six  pieces  only)  contain  30,000 

variations,  and  they  have  been  copied  many  times 
less  frequently  than  the  New  Testament.  We  may 
weU  acquiesce,  therefore,  in  the  language  of  Bengel,  who,  after 
laborious  research  into  these  topics,  wrote  to  his  scholar 
Reuss,  "  Eat  the  Scripture  bread  in  simplicity,  just  as  you  have 
it,  and  do  not  be  disturbed  if  here  and  there  you  find  a  grain 
of  sand  which  the  miU- stone  may  have  suffered  to  pass.  If 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  have  been  so  often  copied,  were 
absolutely  without  variations,  this  would  be  so  great  a  miracle 
that  faith  in  them  would  be  no  longer  faith.  I  am  astonished, 
on  the  contrary,  that  from  all  these  transcriptions  there  has 
not  resulted  a  greater  number  of  various  readings."^ 


But  many  expressions  have  already  been  employed  which 
need  to  be  explained.  If  their  meaning  be  clear,  yet  is  there 
much  to  be  said  in  relation  to  them  before  the  reader  is  tho- 
roughly prepared  to  understand  all  they  involve.    The  general 

*  Quoted  by  Gausseu  in  his  "  Theopneustia." 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  BIBLE  .    HEBREW.  13 

conclusion  that  our  Bible  is,  on  the  whole,  as  inspired  writers 
left  it,  is  undoubted ;  but  the  Bible-student  often  requires 
materials  for  closer  inquiry.  We  proceed,  therefore,  to  give 
a  brief  account  of  the  original  languages  of  the  sacred  volume 
— Hebrew  and  Hellenistic  Greek— of  the  manuscripts,  versions, 
and  various  readings  of  the  sacred  text. 

''Sec.  2.  The  Original  Languages  of  Scripture. — Hehreiv  and 
the  Shemitish  Languages  generally, 

25.  The  Hebrew  language,  in  which  nearly  all  the  Old  Testa- 

ment  is  written,  was  the  language  of  the  Hebrews 

or  Israehtes  during  their  independence.  The  people 
themselves  were  known  among  other  nations  by  the  name  of 

Hebrews  and  Jews,  not  by  the  name  of  Israelites. 

The  epithet  of  Hebrew,  however,  was  not  applied 
to  their  language  till  the  days  of  the  son  of  Sirach  (b.c.  130). 
It  occurs  first  in  the  Apocrypha,  where  it  means,  not  the  old 
Hebrew,  but  the  Aramsean,  or  Syro- Aramaean.  This  is  also 
the  meaning  of  the  term  in  the  New  Testament.  Josephus 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  applied  the  name  Hebrew 
language  (rXwo-ca  twv  'Ei^paiioy)  to  the  old  Hebrew,  and  this 
is  the  uniform  meaning  of  the  phrase  in  his  writings.  The 
Targums  call  the  Hebrew  "  the  holy  tongue,"  and  in  the  Old 
Testament  it  is  caUed  the  language  of  Canaan,  or  the  Jews' 
language.     Isa.  19.  18  :  36.  13. 

26.  That  the  Hebrew  language  was  the  common  tongue  of 
Really  Canaan  and  Phoenicia  is  generally  admitted  ;  a  con- 
Phoenician.     clusion  Supported  by  several  facts. 

(r.)  The  Canaanitish  names  of  persons  and  places  mentioned  in 
Scripture  are  genuine  Hebrew,  as  Abimelech,  Melchizedek,  Salem. 
&c. 

(2.)  Fragments  of  the  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  tongues  which 
still  remain  on  coins  and  in  inscriptions  preserved  in  Roman  and 
Greek  writers,  are  Hebrew.  Augustine  and  Jerome  both  testify, 
moreover,  that  the  Carthaginian  spoken  in  their  time  was  made  up 
chiefly  of  Hebrew  words,  while  there  is  evidence  that  Carthage  was 
founded  by  Phoenicians,  who  left  Canaan  before  the  Jews  could 
have  resided  long  in  their  country. 

(3.)  The  silence  of  Scripture  respecting  any  difference  between 

*  See  Preface. 


14  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  BIBLE  :   CHALDEE. 

the  language  of  Canaanites  and  Hebrews  is  also  remarkable.  They 
both  dwelt  in  the  land,  and  yet  no  difference  of  speech  is  noticed, 
though  the  difference  between  the  language  of  Hebrew  and  Egyptian 
(Psa.  8i.  5:  114.  i)  is  noticed,  and  even  between  the  Hebrew  and 
cognate  languages  as  in  the  case  of  the  Aramsean  used  by  the  Assy- 
rians (Isa.  36.  11);  and  of  the  Eastern  Ai  amsean  used  by  the  Chaldees 
(Jer.  5.  15).  It  may  be  added  that  the  Hebrew  of  Abraham's  day 
was  probably  closely  allied  to  the  original  tongue,  if  it  were  not 
itself  identical  with  it.  This  conclusion  is  based  chiefly  on  the 
proper  names  of  the  early  chapters  of  Genesis,  These  names  are 
all  significant  in  Hebrew,  and  the  meaning  in  that  tongue  always 
explains  the  reason  why  they  were  given.  See  Havei-nick's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Old  Testament,  p.  134:  see  also  Gesenius'  Monum. 
Phoenicia. 

27.  The  Hebrew,  or  modern  Phoenician,  as  we  may  call  it, 
belongs  to  the  Shemitish  family  of  languages,  and  is  most 
closely  connected  with  the  other  members  of  that  family,  both 
in  matter  and  in  form.     The  other  members  are  the  following, 

28.  The  Aramsean.     Of  the  old  Aramaean,  as  spoken  while 

Hebrew  was  a  living  tongue,  we  have  no  remains. 

But  there  have  been  discovered,  near  Palmyra, 
some  inscriptions  in  this  language,  which  were  written  about 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era.  The  language  was 
spoken  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia.  See  Gen.  31.  47,  and 
Jer.  10.  II. 

29.  From  this  common  root  sprang  the  Chaldee  or  Eastern 
Chaidee  and  Aramsean,  spoken  in  Chaldsea  and  Babylon,  and  the 
Syriac.  Syriac,  or  Western  Aramsean,  spoken  in  Northern 
Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  and  perhaps  the  Hebrew  itself.  The 
Chaldee  is  known  only  from  Jewish  memorials — the  i^'criptures 
and  the  Targums.  The  purer  style  of  Onkelos  is  called  the 
Babylonian  dialect,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  language  of  the 
later  Targums,  which  has  been  called  the  Jerusalem  or  Pales- 
tine dialect,  and  which  is  really  a  mixture  of  Hebrew  and 
Aramaean  or  Syriac.  What  is  now  called  Syriac  is  new  Ara- 
msean, as  formed  or  spoken  by  the  Christians  of  Emessa  and 
its  neighbourhood.  This  tongue  early  produced  a  hterature 
rich  in  ecclesiastical 'history  and  theology,  and  is  still  the 
ecclesiastical  language  of  Syrian  Christians.  Chaldee  is  the 
language  of  part  of  Ezra  and  Daniel :"  as  Syriac  was  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Jews  in  the  days  of  our  Lord. 

""  Ezra  4.  8:  6.  18:  7.  12-26:  Dan.  2.  4:  7.  28. 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  BIBLE  :   DIALECTS.  15 

30.  The  Samaritan  is  a  mixture  of  the  Hebrew  and  Western 

Aramaean.      All  the  ecclesiastical  matter  in  this 

Samaritan.        .  .      .       , ,        -  .  _^ 

tongue  IS  m  the  bamaritan  Pentateuch,  and  in 
some  poems  edited  by  Gesenius  (Leii3sic,  1824),  from  MSS. 
in  the  British  Museum.'' 

31.  Of  all  the  languages  yet  named,  the  Arabic  has  by  far 

the  richest  modern  hterature :    and  next  to  the 
Hebrew  it  is  the  most  important  of  the  Shemitish 
tongues.     It  is  still  spoken  in  a  large  portion  of  Asia,  and  in 
.  .       part  of  Africa.     The  two  chief  dialects  of  it  are  the 
^  "  ^  ■     Himyaritic,  formerly  spoken  in  Yemen,  and  now 
extinct,  and  the  Coreitic  spoken  in  the  north-west  of  Arabia, 
and  especially  at  Mecca.     This  was  a  spoken  lan- 
guage long  before  the  time  of  Mahomet,  and  is  still 
the  popular  dialect.     The  old  Arabic  differs  from  this  lan- 
guage in  its  forms,  which  are  more  various,  and  in  its  matter, 
which  is  more  copious. 

32.  A  colony  of  Arabians,  speaking  the  Himyaritic,  early 
.  settled  on   the   opposite  side  of  the  Bed  Sea  in 

Ethiopia,  and  introduced  their  language  into  that 
country.  This  language,  modified  by  time  and  circumstances, 
is  the  ancient  Ethiopic,  which  is  closely  related  to  the  Arabic. 
The  district  where  it  was.  spoken,  is  the  modern  Abyssinia, 
and  Amharic,  or  Geez,  is  the  present  language  of  the 
people. 

33.  All  these  languages  are  of  value  in  guiding  the  student 
Utmty  of  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
SkTtSS  ^^®  original  tongue,  and  no  Hebrew  Lexicon  can 
tion.  be  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  authority,  unless  com- 
piled with  a  constant  refereiice  to  the  meaning  of  the  roots  of 
Hebrew  words  in  the  cognate  tongues.  It  is  upon  the  know- 
ledge and  use  of  these  tongues  that  the  superiority  of  modern 
lexicographers  chiefly  depends. 


The  history  of  the  Hebrew  language  may  be  divided  into 
History  of  three  periods,  each  of  which  has  its  peculiarities  of 
the  Hebrew,    g^yle  and  idiom. 

^  At  Oxford  there  is  a  Liturgia  Damascena  in  Samaritan  :  whence 
Gesenius  has  given  a  complete  view  of  Samaritan  theology.  Do 
Sam.  Theol.,  Halle,  1822. 


16  HEBREW  :   ITS  PROGRESS. 

34.  (i.)  The  first  includes  the  language  as  spoken  in  the 
In  the  days  d&js  of  Moses,  and  as  used  in  the  Pentateuch.  In 
of  Moses.  those  books  are  forms  of  construction  and  phrase- 
ology not  found  elsewhere.  "Words  are  introduced,  which 
seem  soon  afterwards  to  have  become  obsolete  ;  or  they  are 
used  in  senses  which  early  became  unintelligible.  Sometimes 
a  knowledge  of  this  pecuhar  usage  is  important  only,  as  sup- 
plying evidence  of  the  antiquity  of  the  books  :  sometimes  it 
affords  access  to  the  meaning  of  particular  passages. 

(2.)  In  the  post-Mosaic  period  there  is  a  marked  change. 
The  Golden  ^^"^  words  are  introduced  ;  old  ones  seem  for- 
period.  gotten.     New  forms  of  expression  become  common, 

and  some  found  in  the  Pentateuch  are  gradually  discontinued  ; 
a  process  which  goes  on  till  the  days  of  David,  who  writes  the 
language  in  great  purity  and  elegance.  To  this  period  belong 
the  writings  of  Solomon  and  the  books  of  Judges,  of  Samuel, 
and  of  Ruth.  The  older  prophets,  Jonah,  Amos,  Hosea,  write 
in  a  style  of  simplicity  and  harshness,  not  found  in  their  im- 
mediate successors  :  but  stih.  their  language  is  pure.  Isaiah, 
Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  and  Obadiah,  are  remarkable  for 
the  beauty  of  their  style  ;  and  the  Hebrew  is  generally  pure, 
though  in  some  of  them  as  in  ]\Iicah,  and  in  part  of  Isaiah, 
there  are  forms  of  speech  (chiefly  Aramaean),  that  bespeak 
the  admixture  of  a  foreign  element.  AU  these  writers  belong, 
however,  to  the  golden  period  of  the  Hebrew  tongue, 

(3.)  Zephaniah  (the  contemporary  of  Josiah)  Jeremiah, 
The  period  of  Daniel,  and  Ezekiel,  belong  to  the  third  period,  and 
the  decline.  ^11  exhibit  the  influence  of  intercourse  with  fo- 
reigners :  as  do  the  writings  that  appeared  during  or  imme- 
diately after  the  exile — Ezra,  Esther,  and  Nehemiah  :  all  these 
writers  employ  words  and  phrases,  which  in  the  early  purer 
state  of  the  Hebrew  were  not  known.  The  later  prophets, 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  again  write  in  j)urer  idiom, 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  Hebrew  having  become  during 
the  captivity,  a  written,  rather  than  a  spoken  tongue.  As 
they  wrote  their  predictions,  it  was  less  necessary  to  use  forms 
of  expression  which  were  famihar  chiefly  in  conversation. 
Their  predictions,  it  was  probably  the  part  of  the  prophets 
to  explain.'' 

"■  A  few  examples  will  explain  these  statements  : 

"To  be  added  to  his  people"  is  a  phrase  peculiar  to  the  Penta- 


HEBREW  :   PROGRESS.  17 

35.  Of  the  Hebrew  of  all  these  periods,  it  may  be  remarked 
PecuUarity,  ^^^^  i^  ^^s  few  roots ;  SO  that  words  have  often 
Few  roots,  secondary  or  analogical  meanings.  Many  phrases, 
therefore,  sound  strange  to  our  ears,  and  some  are  susceptible 
of  fanciful  interpretations. 

36.  These  facts  give  evidence  of  the  antiquity,  and  of  the 
Importance  successive  composition  of  different  parts  of  Scrip- 
of  these  facts,  ture.  They  also  illustrate  the  importance  of  as- 
certaining the  meaning  attached  to  words  at  the  time  when 
each  writer  used  them,  before  investigating  their  meaning,  as 
employed  in  later  or  earher  times. 

teuch,  meaning  ''to  die."  ''To  sleep  with  his  father"  is  the 
common  phrase  in  later  books.  The  word  "people"  is  always 
applied  in  the  Pentateuch  to  the  Jews.  In  the  prophets  the  mean- 
ing is  more  extended,  Hos.  9.  i :  Isa.  11.  10.  The  expression 
"Arise,  0  Lord,"  was  at  fii-st  used  in  lifting  up  and  caiTying  the 
ark  as  a  prayer,  soliciting  the  Divine  presence.  In  the  Psalms  it 
often  means.  Assist  and  help. 

In  the  Pentateuch  there  are  many  words  and  forms  pecuhar,  which 
however  are  translated  as  ordinary  words — |''P  for  species,  22\)  for 
DDi  to  curse,  tJ^Dl  for  property,  [^  ^  fine  Hnen,  for  ^^-ll  the  later 
word,  Ex.  26,  i:  i  Chron.  15.  27.  See  also  Gen.  15.  9:  Deat.  32.  11 
(?Tb  for  |3),  Ex.  2.  20,  &c.  Of  such  phrases  Jahn  has  reckoned  in 
the  Pentateuch  upwards  of  two  hundred.  Foreigxi  words  are  all 
Egyptian,  Gen.  41.  2,  iH  (-iriN):  41.  45,  where  Joseph  is  called 
"Saviour  of  the  world"  (Jerome).  See  Jablonski  Opera  i.  45,  374: 
ii.  160,  and  Rosenmiiller's  Scholia  on  Old  Testament,  i.  30-32. 

So  in  other  books.  Job  has  several  grammatical  and  other  pecu- 
liarities, 3.  2  (p.  pual  m'n),  4.  12:  26.  14  (whisper),  4.  18  (hearer), 
5.  26:  30.  2  (age),  5.  2:  17.  7  (indignation).  Jerome  observed,  and 
Schultens  proved,  that  the  language  of  Job  is  peculiarly  rich  in 
S^T-iac  expressions,  and  also  in  Aramaisms,  4.  2:  39.  9:  16.  19. 

For  words  and  phrases  peculiar  to  later  writers,  see  i  Chron.  21. 
23  (L]^:;niD),  i  Chron.  2.  13  (^t^^^S*),  Esther  4.  n  (ID^nTt?'),  i  Chron. 
18.  5,  6:  I  Chron.  lo.  12  (na^-l  for  n»11l),  2  Chron.  11.  21  (HK^X 
i^y^i  for  r[\P,  Gen.  4.  19).  For  Peraian  words  see  In  ahum  3.  17, 
captain,  or  satrap.  Esther  3.  9:  Ezra  5.  17,  treasures — gaz,  hence 
Gaza.  For  Assyrian  words,  see  proper  names,  K^ebu — planet  Mer- 
cury :  Merodach — planet  ISIars.  Chaldaisms  need  not  be  enu- 
merated. 

See  HavernJck's  Introduction,  §§  31-35. 


18  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

HellenistiCj  or  Hehrew-Oreek  of  the  New  Testament^  and  LXX, 

37.  The  1 6th  century  witnessed  a  singular  discussion. 
Nevr  Testa-  Erasmus  ai>d  L.  Valla,  happening  to  affirm  that 
ment-Greek:  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  was  corrupted 
ou^itrtme"^  with  Hebraisms,  both  of  words  and  idioms,  were 
character.  opposed  by  H.  Stephens  with  great  vehemence. 
In  his  preface  to  the  New  Testament  (a.d.  1576),  he  undertook 
to  prove  that  the  Greek  of  the  inspired  writers  was  pure  and 
idiomatic.  A  long  controversy  springing  out  of  these  asser- 
tions, the  respective  parties  were  called  Purists  and  Hel- 
lenists, or  Hebraists.  The  topic  was  deemed  important  on 
several  grounds  : 

1.  It  involved  questions  of  theology ;  for,  if  the  writers  of  the 
Bible  be  inspired,  ought  they  not  to  write,  it  was  asked,  in  pure 
Greek  ?  Could  inspired  men .  do  anything  as  such  that  was  im- 
perfect. 

2.  On  the  other  side  it  was  deemed  important  as  a  question  of 
e^^dence  ;  for,  if  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  is  Hebraistic, 
this  fact  is  a  proof  that  it  was  written  by  Jews,  and  probably  in 
Judaea. 

3.  By  all  it  is  admitted  to  involve  an  important  canon  of  inter- 
pretation ;  for  if  the  dialect  of  the  New  Testament  is  pecuhai',  the 
study  of  the  common  tongue  {h  x.oir/i)  is  not  sufficient  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  Scripture.  The  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  and  of 
the  LXX  is  likely,  it  was  held,  to  have  rules  and  principles  of 
its  own. 

38.  Both  parties  seeru  to  have  forgotten  in  the  heat  of  con- 
troversy, that  the  question  was  purely  one  of  facts,  and  was 
not  to  be  settled  in  the  first  instance,  by  any  such  considera- 
tions. The  truth  is,  that  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  is 
iieaiiy  Hei-  Hellenistic  :  a  truth,  which  once  ascertained,  sug- 
leiiistic.  gests  important  lessons.  The  perfection  of  in- 
spired composition  is  clearly  not  so  much  classic  purity,  as 
intelligibleness  and  adaptation  to  its  proper  end.  The  Greek 
of  Scripture  was  evidently  written  by  Hellenists,  i.e.,  by  Jews 
who  spoke  Greek,  and  whose  modes  of  thought  were  formed 
on  Hebrew  originals.  Hence,  important  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  their  record.  Hence,  also,  an  instructive  rule  of  in- 
terpretation. The  prime  source  of  biblical  interpretation,  is 
clearly  the  Bible  itself:  and  we  must  gather  thence,  as  far  as 


GREEK  :    ITS  DIALECTS,  19 

possible,  the  meauing  and  illustrations  of  its  terms.  These 
are  all  important  lessons,  but  the  fact  on  which  they  are 
founded  must  first  be  established,  before  we  can  safely  apply 
them  ;  least  of  all  can  they  be  taken  as  proof  of  the  fact  itself. 
39.  The  Greek  tongue  is  itself  a  mixture  of  dialects.  The 
Hellenians  or  Greeks,  consisted  originally  of  several 
Greek. :  its      tribes,  of  whom  two,  the  Dorians  and  lonians,  were 

elements.         ^^^-^^^ 

The  Doric  dialect  is  first  in  time  and  in  influence  :  it  is 
rough  and  broad-sounding.  Among  its  chief  writers 
are  Pindar,  Sappho,  Theocritus,  and  Bion. 
The  Ionic  is  second  in  time.  It  is  soft  and  smooth,  was 
spoken  at  first  in  Attica,  and  then,  as  the  lonians 
migrated  to  Asia  Minor,  in  that  district.  Among 
its  authors  are  Herodotus  and  Anacreon. 

The  Attic  was  formed  after  the  lonians  left  Attica,  and  oc- 
cupies in  quahty,  a  middLe  place  between  the  Ionic 
and  Doric.     The  chief  Greek  authors  wrote  in  this 
dialect :  Thucidydes,  Plato,  Xenophon,  Demosthenes,  ^schy- 
lus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 

After  the  freedom  of  Greece  was  destroyed  by  Phihp  of 
HeUenic,  Macedon,  these  dialects  were  blended,  and  the  Hel- 
or  7)  Kotjoj.  lenic  or  common  dialect  was  formed,  of  which  the 
base  was  Attic. 

On  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  j)eople  of  Macedon  and 

Alexandria  occupied  the  first  place  in  literature,  as  in  power, 

and  from  their  influence,  Macedonian  and  Alexan- 

Alexandrian.     ,..,.,  ■       /-<  ^ 

drian  idioms  became  common  in  Greece,  and  es- 
pecially in  Egypt  and  the  East. 

At  Alexandria,  many  Jews  resided.  There  the  Septuagint 
was  written,  and  as  the  writers  were  Jews,  the  Alexandrian 
Greek  which  they  spoke,  was  modified  so  as  to  embody  the 
thoughts  and  idioms  of  the  Hebrew.  And  this  is 
the  language  of  the  New  Testament.  It  is  Hel- 
lenistic, or  more  properly,  Hebrew-Greek :  the  later  Greek, 
Elements  ^^^^  is,  chiefly  Attic,  with  a  mixture  of  other 
enmnerated.  dialects,  and  the  whole  modified  by  Jews  who  had 
resided  in  Alexandria,  and  in  Palestine.  Hence  words  and 
phrases  from  foreign  sources,  Aramsean,  Latin,  Persian, 
Egyptian :  hence  words  pecuhar  in  their  orthography,  or 
form,  in  their  mflexion  or  gender  :  hence  words  common  to 


20  HELLENISTIC  GREEK. 

the  ancient  dialects,  but  not  usual  in  the  Hellenic,  and  hence 
also  words  and  phrases  in  senses  pecuharly  Jewish  or  Christian. 

Aramaean  expressions  maybe  seen,  Mark  14.  36  (abba).  Acts  i.  19 
(field  of  blood),  Mark  3.  17  (sons  of  thunder).  Matt.  5.  22  (vain, 
foolish).  Latin  words.  Matt.  10.  29  :  18.  28:  5.  26:  17.  25:  27.27, 
65:  26.  53:  Mark  15.  39:  Luke  19.  20:  John  2.  15  :  Acts  19.  12  : 
and  phrases,  Matt.  12.  14:  Mark  15.  15  :  Luke  12.  58  :  Acts  17.  9: 
Persian  expressions.  Matt.  27.  32  :  Acts  8.  27:  Matt.  2.  i:  Mark 
6.  11:  Luke  23.  43  (paradise,  a  garden  of  beautiful  trees) :  Egyptian 
expressions.  Matt.  27.  59:  Luke  24.  12. 

For  a  full  account  of  grammatical  and  other  peculiarities,  see 
Planck's  Treatise  on  the  nature  and  character  of  the  Greek  style 
of  the  New  Testament,  Bib.  Repository,  1831,  p.  638.  See  also  a 
brief  account  in  M.  Stuart's  Syntax  of  the  New  Testament. 

40.  The  grand  lesson  taught  by  these  facts,  is  thalf  while 

we  need  a  knowledge  of  Greek  generally,  in  order 
to  read  the  New  Testament,  we  need,  in  order  to 
understand  it,  a  knowledge  of  New  Testament  Greek,  and  of 
the  Old  Testament  version.  So  essential  is  this  knowledge, 
that  a  merely  Enghsh  reader,  with  only  his  English  Bible, 
may  understand  the  New  Testament  better  than  the  scholar 
who  brings  to  the  investigation  of  a  particular  passage,  only 
classical  acquisitions. 

41.  For  aid  in  studying  Hebrew,  see  the  ordinary  grammars 

Aids  to  the     and   dictionaries   of  that  language.     In   studying 

study  of  the  Hellenistic  Greek,  see  Winer's  Idioms  :  any  good 
hew  Testa-  '  ''    ° 

ment.  grammar  of  the  New  Testament,  and  Thiersch  de 

Pentateuchi  Versione  Alexandrina.  The  "  Englishmen's  He- 
brew and  English,"  and  "  Greek  and  English  "  Concordances, 
are  of  great  value  to  a  mere  English  student.  The  careful 
study  of  the  LXX,  compared  with  the  Hebrew  and  the  New 
Testament,  is  of  course  the  best  aid. 

"  Sec.  3.   The  Manuscripts  of  Scripture. 

42.  In  speaking  of  the  MSS.  of  Scripture,  we  have  mentioned 

their  age,  and  their  comparative  value,  it  is  now 
tiie^age'of""  necessary  to  state  the  facts  on  which  these  dis- 
^^^-  tinctions  rest.     How,  it  may  be  asked,  is  it  pos- 

sible to  ascertain  the  age  of  a  MS.,  often  fragmentary,  and 

"  See  Preface. 


CRITICISM  :   ANCIENT  MANUSCRIPTS.  21 

How  ascer-  generally  exposed  to  influences,  which  cannot  have 
tained.  failed  to  obscure   or  modify  the  evidence  of  its 

date  and  character. 

43.  In  answering  this  question,  it  may  be  observed,  that  in 

some  MSS.  the  date  is  inscribed  upon  them ;  and 
from  dates  on  when  this  inscription  is  by  the  first  hand,  and 
the  MS.  Itself.  Q^^ier  evidence  is  confirmatory,  it  is  regarded  as 
pretty  decisive.  Such  inscriptions,  however,  are  never  found 
on  MSS.  earlier  than  the  loth  century. 

44.  Sometimes  the  traditional  or  known  history  of  a  MS. 

afibrds   important   aid.     The  Cod.  Alex.  (A),  for 

Or  from  Its  ,         ^       .  ,       ,,  ,    .        ■,        „  ^ 

known  his-  example,  was  given  by  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
^°^'  nople  (Cyril  Lucar),  to  Charles  I.,  with  the  tradition 

inscribed  upon  it  in  Arabic,  that  it  was  written  by  Thecla,  an 
Egyptian  princess,  who  hved  not  long  after  the  first  council 
of  Nice,  A.D.  325  :  a  tradition  supported  by  internal  evidence. 

45.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  question  of  date  is  more 
GeneraUyby  intricate,  and  can  be  settled  only  after  a  careful 
^f^ffi^uit*^  investigation  of  somewhat  abstruse  evidence,  sup- 
evidence,  phed  by  the  material  on  which  the  MS.  is  written, 
the  form  of  the  letters,  and  the  general  style  of  the  writing. 

46.  Some  parts  of  the  ancient  Scriptures  were  written  on 

skins  tanned,  or  dyed  red  or  yellow.  In  use,  these 
material  on  skins  Were  generally  connected,  so  as  to  contain  on 
Sp^sTrT""  o^e  ^^^^  ^^  volume,  ^  an  entire  portion  of  the  Bible, 
written.  as  the  Pentateuch,  or  the  Prophets.  Some  of  the 
Skins.  most  ancient  MSS.  in  the  world  are  copies  of  the 

Pentateuch  in  this  form. 

Next  in  durability  was  the  parchment  of  the  ancients,  so 
called  from  Pergamos,  the  town  where  it  was  first 
made.     Most  MSS.  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
earher  than  the  6th  century,  are  on  this  material. 

Sometimes  tables  of  wood^  or  of  stone,  called  caudices  or 
codices,  were  employed  :  hence  the  term  codex 
came  to  be  apphed  to  a  MS.  on  any  material.  For 
legal  purposes,  where  durability  was  important,  the  use  of 
such  tables  was  very  frequent,  and  from  this  cir- 
cumstance a  system   of  laws  was  called  a   code. 

•*  Isa.  8.  i:  Jer.  36.  2:  Zech.  5.  i. 

^  Ex.  32.  15:  Deut.  6.  9:  Isa.  30.  8:  Hab.  2.  2:   Luke  i.  63: 
2  Cor.  3.  3. 


22  ANCIENT  MANUSCRIPTS  :    AGE. 

These  tables  were  written  on  in*  their  natural  state  (or  when 
used  for  temporary  purposes  covered  with  wax),  with  an  iron 
needle  called  a  stylus.     From  the  name  of  this 
instrument  our  term  style  is  taken. 
For  many  ages  the  article  most  in  use  was  made  from  the 
P^-Pyrus,  or  flag  of  Egypt.     By  the  Romans  espe- 
cially this  manufacture  was  carried  to  great  per- 
fection.    Towards  the  end  of  the  pth  century,  however,  the 
papyrus  was  very  much  superseded  by  paper  made  from  the 
cotton  plant  (not  unlike  the  present  paper  of  India  and  China) ; 
and  a  little  later,  in  the  loth  and  nth  centuries, 
old  hnen  was  substituted  in  the  manufacture  for 
the  raw  material. 

Notices  of  these  different  materials  occur  occasionally  in 
Tjjese  ■  ancient  profane  writers.  Herodotus  mentions  the 
materials        skins  of  goats  and  sheep  roughly  dressed  as  being 

mentioned  ,  .  n         t^ 

by  ancient  uscd  by  the  lonians  (v.  58).  Pausamas  says  that 
authois.  YxQ  saw  in  Boeotia  the  works  of  Hesiod  engraved  on 
lead  (ix.  31).  Roman  laws  were  often  written  on  tables  of 
brass,  and  Pliny  states  that  papyrus  was  in  use  long  before 
the  Trojan  war  (b.c.  1184),  Nat.  His.  xii.  21-29.  "Libros 
linteos,"  books  of  cotton  cloth,  are  also  mentioned  by  Livy. 
The  material  47.  MSS.  on  all  these  materials  are  known  to  the 
ascertaL  the  antiquarians,  and  from  the  material  an  inquirer  is 
^^-      .         aided  in  ascertaining  their  age  and  origin. 

48.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Greek  writing,  the  dates  of 
which  are  known,  are  books  found  among  the  ruins  of  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii.  These  cities  were  destroyed  a.d.  79. 
The  books  recently  found  there  are,  at  latest,  of 
writing  and  that  date,  and  consist  of  sheets  of  the  papyrus, 
let™?  connected  together  with   gum   and  rolled.      The 

i^iss.  of  writing  runs  across  the  volume,  is  in  capital  or 
ompeu.  i^ncial  letters,  without  any  division  of  words  or 
sentences,  without  accents  or  ornaments,  and  with  but  very 
few  pause  marks.  These  books  give  evidence  of  the  most 
ancient  style  of  writing,  and  are  older  than  any  MS.  of  the 
New  Testament  Scriptures. 

In  the  Imperial  hbrary  of  Vienna  there  is  a  copy  of  an 
MS.  of  ancient  work  by  Dioscorides,  the  copy  written  for 

Lioscorides.     ^he  daughter  of  one  of  the  early  emperors  of  Co'^i- 
Btantinople,  and  certainly  belonging  to  the  5th  century.     It 


ANCIENT  MANUSCRIPTS  :   AGE.  23 

agrees  in  the  shape  of  its  letters,  and  in  the  absence 
C5. 0  ag..     ^^  ^^  ornaments  and  marks,  with  the  MSS.  of  Her- 
culaneum.     These  pecuharities   suggest  important  tests  of 
age. 

49.  In  the  earhest  times  the  Ijs'ew  Testament  was  divided 
Division  of  ^^^^  three  parts  :  the  Gospels  {to  evayyiXiov),  the. 
dSa'^teSl  Epistles  and  Acts  (ro  'A-oaroXiKoy),  and  the  Reve- 
testofage.  lation  (//  aTTOKaXvxI/ig).  In  the  3rd  century  the 
Gospels  were  divided  into  two  kinds  of  chapters,  the  longer 
called  titXoi,  or  breves  ;  the  shorter  tcecpaXaia,  or  capitula. 
The  latter  were  originally  introduced  by  Ammonius,  and  were 
thence  called  Ammonian  sections.  In  the  4th  century  they 
were  in  common  use  in  the  Gospels,  and  to  these  sections 
Eusebius  adapted  his  tables  of  references,  called  from  him  the 
Eusebian  Canons  (a.d.  3x5-340). 

50.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  same  century  (360),  Chrysostom 
Illumination  speaks  of  the  practice  of  writing  biblical  MSS.  on 
a  test  of  age.  -^j^e  finest  parchment  and  in  letters  of  gold  and 
silver,  as  already  introduced. 

Various  51-  In  tbe  year  458  Euthalius  pubhshed  an  edi- 

other^ts.  tion  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  in  which  he  gave,  for 
Euthaiian,  the  first  time,  the  contents  of  the  chapters.  In 
contents^  °^  49°  he  divided  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles  into  sec- 
tions. He  himself  states  also  that  he  introduced 
accents ;  accents  into  MSS.  copied  under  his  supeiTision, — 
a  custom,  however,  which  did  not  become  common  till  the 
subscriptions  ^^^  century.  He  also  added  to  the  books  of  the 
to  various  New  Testament  the  subscriptions  which  are  stiU 
found  in  the  Enghsh  version.  To  make  MSS.  more 
legible,  Euthahus  further  divided  them  into  lines,  called  a-L^oi, 
stichometric  consisting  in  some  instances  of  as  many  letters  as 
divisions;  ^ould  be  placed  in  the  width  of  a  page,  and  in 
others  of  as  many  words  as  could  be  read  uninterruptedly. 
This  style  of  writing  soon  became  common.  In  the  8th  cen- 
dots  •  *^^^'  ^ow®"^6r,  the  lines  ceased  to  be  written  sepa- 

rately, and  were  indicated  only  by  dots.     In  the 
same  century  other  marks  of  punctuation  were  introduced, 
and  later  still  the  stichometrical  dots  were  omitted, 
form  of  In  the  7th  century  lectionaries,  that  is,  MSS.  of 

letters;  Scripture  lessons  for  use  in  public  service,  were 


24  ANCIENT  MANUSCRIPTS  :   AGE. 

lectionary  multiplied,  and  about  the  same  time  the  letters  iu 
gospels;  which  MSS.  were  written  began  to  be  compressed 
and  sUghtly  indined.  In  the  8th  century  these  changes  were 
stops  •  s^i-^  more  marked  ;  in  the  9th  the  note  of  interro- 

gation and  the  comma  were  introduced ;  in  the 
letter;  loth  the  cursive  style  of  writing  had  nearly  super- 

chapter  and  seded  the  uncial ;  and  in  the  1 2th  the  present 
aiuestsof  division  of  chapters  -was  introduced  by  Hugo  de 
age.  Sancto. 

52.  From  these  facts  various  rules  are  deduced : — 
Negative  -^  ^^-  ^^^  ^^®  present  division  of  chapters  and 
results:          verses,  is  not  earlier  than  the  12th  century  : 

A  MS.  on  cotton  is  not  earlier  than  the  i  ith  century  : 

A  MS.  in  cursive  character  than  the  loth  century  : 

A  MS.  with  compressed  or  inclined  uncials,  or  with  notes 

of  interrogation  or  commas,  than  the  9th  century  : 

A  MS,  systematically  punctuated,  or  marking  the  ortj^oi, 

with  points  or  with  ornamented  initials,  than  the  8th  century  : 
A  MS.  in  uncial  letters,  divided  into  hues  or  accented,  or 

with  the  Euthahan  divisions  or  titles  or  subscriptions,  than 

the  5th  century : 

A  IMS.  with  Eusebian  canons,  than  the  4th  century. 

53.  These    rules   lead   (it   will  be   observed)   to   negative 

conclusions  only.  When  the  facts  are  appHed  to 
Positive.  ascertain  positive  results,  much  minute  inquiry  and 
skilful  criticism  is  necessary.  Full  information  may  be  ob- 
tained in  the  books  mentioned  below. 

On  the  whole  subj ect  see  Montfaucon's  Palgeographia  Grseca.  Hug's 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  ch.  vi.  Scott  Porter's  Lectures 
on  Bib,  Crit.,  and  Michaelis'  Introduction  (4th  edit.),  vol,  ii. 

54.  These  results  and  the  facts  on  which  they  are  founded 

were  reached  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  and 
these^tests  after  protracted  inquiry.  In  the  mean  time  pro- 
Sioli  gress  was  made  in  other  processes  of  investigation, 

criticism  which  led  to  results  no  less  important.  These 
?^  ASx)^New  results  will  be  best  understood  if  our  remarks  be 
Testament,     thrown  into  the  narrative  form. 

55.  The  received  texts  of  the  Greek  Testament  is  founded. 
The  textus  ^s  we  have  seen  (par,  10),  on  the  texts  of  Erasmus 
leceptus,        and  of  the  Complutensian   editors.     Both  thesa 


CRITICISM  :   HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  TEXT.  25 

texts  wore  printed  from  modem  MSS.,  and  therefore,  com- 
paratively speaking,  the  authority  of  the  "  received  text"  is 
not  high. 

The  examination  of  early  MSS.  was  the  work  of  many  years. 
London  I*  began  with  the  London  Polyglot  (1657),  which 

Polyglot.        added  to  previous  editions  the  readings  of  sixteen 
MSS,,   and    supphed   the    renderings    of    ancient    versions. 
Curce'iffius.     Curcellseus   also    examined    several  MSS.   for   an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  which  Elzevir  printed 
Dr.  Fell.         jq  1658.     In  1675  Dr.  Fell  pubhshed  an  edition 
with  the  readings  of  forty  more,  and  selected  Dr.  Mill  to  com- 
plete a  more  thorough  revision  of  MSS.  and  versions.     To 
this  work  Dr.  ]Mill  devoted  thirty  years,  and  gave  in 
his  edition  the  readings  of  a  large  number  of  MSS. 
not  previously  examined,  and  also  the  readings  of  the  early 
Fathers.     In  1734  these  readings  were  further  augmented  by 
Bengei.  ^^^  labours  of  Bengel.     Forty  years  after  MiU,  the 

edition  of  Wetstein  was  published  (i 751),  in  2  vols, 
fol.     His  text  is  the  Received  ;  but  he  applies  the 
results  of  his  inquiry  to  the  correction  in  notes  of  the  text 
wherever  he  deemed  it  faulty.     Upwards  of  forty  years  later 
still,  Griesbach  apphed  the  rules  and  investigations 
of  Wetstein   to   a   correction   of  the   text   itself 
(1796-1806),  and  added  many   various  readings   which  his 
own  inquiries  had  discovered. 

In  the  meantime  other  important  additions  to  our  know- 
ledge  had   been  made.      In    1782-8   Matthsei,  of 
Moscow,  pubhshed  an  edition,  remarkable  chiefly 
for  containing  the  readings  sanctioned  by  what  was  after- 
wards   called  the   Constantinopohtan   recension : 
while  Alter,  at  Vienna  (1786,  7),  Birch  and  Adler, 
in  Italy,  Moldenhauer  and  Tychsen,  in  Spain,  and  others  else- 
where, were  busy  completing  inquiries  which  were  to  supply 
Griesbach  with  the  materials  of  his  critical  apparatus.     The 
results  were  embodied  in  the  edition  of  the  New  Testament, 
pubhshed  by  Birch,  at  Copenhagen. 

56.  On  comparing  the  evidence  which  these  investigations 
Griesbach's  disclosed,  Griesbach  found  (as  his  predecessors  had 
^vmon  0  intimated)  that  characteristic  readings  distin- 
readings.  guished  certain  MS.  Fathers  and  versions,  and  that 
they  were  all  divisible  into  three  classes  :  MSS.  &c.,  having  one 

c 


26  CRITICISM  :   HISTORY  OP  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  TEXT. 

set  of  readings,  being  said  by  him  to  belong  to  the  Alexandrian 
family  or  recension  ;  those  with  another  set  to  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  ;  and  those  with  another  set  to  the  Western. 

This  conclusion,  supposing  it  well  founded,  was  a  most 
Its  important  discovery.    It  changed  the  whole  science, 

importance.  Hithefto  the  reading  favoured  by  most  MSS,  had 
been  regarded  as  having  the  best  evidence  on  its  side  ;  but 
from  this  time  not  the  number  of  individual  MSS.  in  favour  of  a 
reading,  but  the  number  of  famihes,  became  the  great  question. 

In  later  times  Scholz,  who  devoted  many  years  to  this 
Schoiz's  work,  divided  Greek  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament 

division.  f^^^gt  into  five,  and  then  finally  into  two  families,' — ■ 
the  Alexandrian,  which  includes  the  Western  of  Griesbach, 
and  the  Constantinopolitan.  Of  the  three  classes,  Griesbach 
himself  attached  most  importance  to  the  Alexandrian  and 
Western  families  ;  Scholz,  on  the  contrary,  preferred  the  read- 
ings of  the  Constantinopolitan  ;  Hahn  and  Lachmann,  it  may 
be  added,  agree  in  substance  with  Scholz,  but  attach  import- 
ance, the  first  to  internal  evidence,  and  the  second  to  the 
antiquity  of  MSS. 

57.  It  must  be  added  that  though  later  inquiries  have  not 
set  aside  this  principle  of  classification,  they  have  thrown 
doubt  upon  it.  It  is  now  a  question  whether  Griesbach's 
conclusions  be  not  an  instance  of  those  hasty  generahzations 
which  impede  almost  as  much  as  they  aid  the  progress  of 
true  science.  This  suspicion  is  strengthened  by  the  inquiries 
of  Dr.  Lawrence,  of  Dubhn.  Proposals  have  been  for  some 
time  before  the  world  for  the  pubhcation  of  a  text  founded 
not  on  famihes  of  MSS.,  but  on  the  readings  sanctioned  by 
the  most  ancient  authorities.  Dr.  Bentley  first  suggested  this 
principle.  Lachmann  has  practically  acted  upon  it  to  a  large 
.  extent ;  and  Dr.  TregeUes  now  proposes  to  adhere  to  it  strictly 
in  his  intended  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  Whether 
antiquity  alone,  however,  is  a  satisfactory  test,  may  be  gravely 
questioned.  The  earhest  transcribers  were  subject  to  local 
influences  as  well  as  the  later.  Cursive  manuscripts,  of  late 
date,  may  be  accurate  copies  of  very  early  ones,  which  are  now 
Jost,  and  their  testimony  is  not  to  be  disregarded  ;  and,  more- 
over, if  there  be  any  ground  for  the  division  of  MSS.  into 
fomilies,  mere  antiquity  may  be  like  mere  numbers,  a  deluaioD 
and  snare. 


UNCIAL  MANUSCRIPTS. 


27 


•I    g 


-s^ 


H  ^ 

h 

•a 

S  b  .-^ 

•a 

Wets. 
Cons.  Weta. 
Mill ;  used  I 
Mill.  Semler 
Const.  Col. 

stein. 
Const. 

II 
11 

i 

■5 

It 

:  1^: 

reac 
ke,  I 

.  . 

o 

•  • :  M  '■ 

. 

"S 

v^   ll-l 

3 

S       OM 


^ 


-  .-2     » 


^'1 


o 


t:%%i  -.§1  I    -I 
^"1  ill  si  h:?se1 


<-   p    CO 


50  «  aj       "o 
-^  "3  "p      c£  tw 


Sfl 


HJ 


J  ^  4:  ^  ^^^^s  ^  ij  S  "     •  I  Ji 

?  ^    1^  :s    l^-g-g&a  ^  ^?    f   s   li    ^  Za 

p  !>     p5  P     pd  (1,  p  fi5 1_^  p^     tH«     <j     H     SS     Ph     «^ 

g  to        •••m*  •         •({,         •        •        ••        •         •• 

•  g^  g  i  2  •  '"S  •  -o'l^i ;  • 

§  2  -a  I  S  •  -s  •  "g  -t^s  •  §  •  •  •  •  • 

i  i  ^  6  l-i§i:  si.^ll§  i   :•!   .  if 

1  i  I  o  iii|:g  i  =  i|':l  1  Si  i  li 

I  =  =  =  =-.  =  =  =  =  ==  =  .=-.  .. 

O 


c;  crhh; 


feO  O  O  CS  K  i-^> 


28 


UNCIAL  MANUSCRIPTS. 


O        ^ 

CO 

a,      « 
O       § 


(5      S" 


X  X*  >^'  '^. 
0)  «  a>  ^ 


^H 


i^  I 


o<i)o    o 


^6 


II 


S3        O 


f»  ?-  t> 


o  ©  o^ 


o  « 


I*  s.: 


;2  «H.  ^  <«  St^ 

4)  O  0)  O  J    O 

tn  L,  CO  T:  tj  tL 

<=  3  o  Sl2  S 

C5  PM  O  fi^(S 


a 

S 


§  .  »     8 


(S 


.S 


p.M"5bc  Wc  9.2  re's    ""^    r^-2S^^-^J?S 


^  5  'z:  .3  s 

_    ^    _  QUp      -    - 


.=3   S 


•a,   |§|sr§| 


d"    ««     ccHtJ      >     f:     ><     P^-sjP^' 


MANUSCRIPTS  :    NEW  AND  OLD  TESTAMENT  TEXTS.  29 

59.  In  addition  to  these  uncial  MSS.  Griesbach  has  given 
Total  the  numbers,  contents,  and  dates  of  236  cursive 

Sl[  ■''^^^^•'  ^  *°  ^3^  5  Matthsei  of  23  more,  237  to  259  ; 

examined.  Scholz  of  270,  which  he  for  the  first  time  collated 
either  in  whole  or  in  part,  260  to  469.  Particulars  may  be 
seen  in  the  introductory  explanations  of  the  editions  of  the 
New  Testament  by  Griesbach,  Matthaei,  Scholz,  and  Tischen- 
dorf ;  also  in  Home  ii.,  part  i,  ch.  iii,  §  2,  and  partly  in  Scott 
Porter's  Criticism,  p.  304. 

Of  Lectionaries,  Scholz  enumerates  176  Gospels,  and  48  from 
the  -Acts  and  Epistles  (Praxapostoli).  Of  the  former,  one 
(No.  135)  is  referred  by  him  to  the  6th  century,  and  most 
to  periods  between  the  loth  and  15th. 

Scholz  enumerates  in  all, — 


Uncial  MSS. 

Cursive  MSS. 

Of  Gospels 

27 

469 

Acts  and  CathoUc  Epistles 

8 

J92 

Paul's  Epistles    . 

9 

246 

Revelation 

3 

88 

Many  other  codices  have  never  been  collated,  of  which  31 
Others  still  are  enumerated  by  Home  as  existing  in  hbraries  in 
unexamined,  -j^i^jg  country,  and  others  are  known  to  be  preserved 
in  libraries  on  the  Continent. 

60.  The  history  of  the  Hebrew  text  is  much  briefer.  The 
process  of  inquiry  which  was  undertaken  in  the 
2.  Applied  case  of  the  Greek  text  within  the  last  two  centuries 
Hebrew  text  "^'^^  undertaken  for  the  Old  Testament  a  thousand 
of  the  Old  years  earlier  at  Tiberias.  There,  existing  MSS. 
were  revised  and  compared,  and  a  text  was  formed, 
on  the  whole  very  fair  and  accurate.  This  text  is  called  the 
Masoretic  Masoretic,  and  nearly  all  recent  investigations  have 
^rf  *'n  and  ended  in  sustaining  generally  its  readings.  On  the 
accuracy.  dispersion  of  the  Jews  through  the  influence  of 
Mahommedanism,  their  learned  men  moved  westward  into 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Central  Europe,  carrying  with  them  the  Ma- 
soretic text  of  Scripture,  and  in  process  of  time  multiplying 
the  editions  (as  they  may  be  called)  to  meet  the  wants  of  their 
nation.  The  value  of  these  editions  differed,  according  to  the 
care  with  which  they  were  written.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
Spanish  MSS.  are  generally  most  accurate  :  next  in  accuracy 
are  the  Itahan.  and  last,  the  G  erman 


30  HISTORY  OP  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  TEXT. 

6i.  It  IS  an  instance  of  the  slow  progress  of  tnith,  that 
Buxtorf,  one  of  the  greatest  Hebrew  scholars,  main- 

The  complete        .       i    •       i  i  i         i       i  / 

accuracy  tamed,  m  the  1 7th  century,  the  absolute  uniformity 
questioned,  ^f  ^^  ^^gg^  ^f  ^^^  Hebrew  text.  GappeUus  (1650) 
was  among  the  first  to  combat  this  view,  and  Bishop  Walton, 
Critical  "the  editor  of  the  London  Polyglot,  having  sided  with 

JoSSSced  Cappellus,  commenced  the  work  of  forming  a  critical 
London  apparatus.   From  this  time,  the  coUation  of  Hebrew 

Polyglot,        MSS.  was  made  with  vigour,  and  the  results  soon 
appeared  in  the  publication  of  an  improved  text.     In  1667, 
Athias,  a  rabbi  and  printer  of  Amsterdam,  pub- 
lished a  Hebrew  Bible,  the  text  of  which  was  founded 
on  MSS.  and  printed  editions.     In  1690,  Jablonski  published, 
Jabionski.       at  Berhn,  a  critical  edition,  and  in  1705  the  very 
Van  der         accurate  edition  of  Van  der  Hooght  was  printed  at 
°°^   ■         Amsterdam.     His  text  is  formed  on  that  of  Athias, 
with  Masoretic  readings  in  the  margin,  and  a  collection  of 
various  readings  at  the  end.     In  1709  Opitz,  at  Kiel,  and  in 
1720 1.  H.  Michaelis,  at  HaUe,  also  published  editions  of  critical 
value;   and   in    1746-53  Houbigant  published,  at 
Paris,  a  splendid  edition  in  4  vols,  foho,  though  its 
value   is   much   diminished  by  the  number   of  conjectural 
emendations  embodied  in  the  notes  and  translation.     In  the 
^     .  same  year  Kennicott  pubhshed  his  first  Dissertation 

on  the  state  of  the  printed  Hebrew  text,  and  in 
1776-80  his  Hebrew  Bible  was  printed  at  Oxford.  The  text 
is  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  with  the  various  readings  of  692 
different  authorities,  including  MSS.,  printed  editions,  and  rab- 
binical writings.  In  1784-8,  De  Rossi,  of  Parma, 
published  5  vols,  of  extracts  from  Hebrew  MSS. : 
and  in  1793  the  most  important  readings  of  Kennicott  and 
De  Rossi  were  published  in  an  edition  issued  at  Leipzig  1793, 
Jahn  ^^^  Doederlein  and  Meisner,  and  at  Vienna  by  Jahn, 

1806,  as  they  were  also  in  the  English  edition  of 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures  pubhshed  in   1810-16  by 
Boothroyd. 
62.  The  result  of  all  these  inquiries  is,  that  we  have  but  one 
Result:  but    class  of  MSS.,  the  Masoretic,  and  that  the  variations 
of  ]\fss"and    °^  reading  in  them  do  not  exceed  those   of  one 
readings.        family  of  MSS.  of  the  Greek  Testament.    An  edition 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  which  shall  give  the  readings  sanctioned 


HISTORY  OP  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  TEXT.  31 

by  ancient  versions  is  still  needed  ;  but  so  far  as  ibe  accuracy 
of  tbe  present  text  is  concerned,  such  a  work  is  rather  curious 
than  important. 

63.  The  general  uniformity  of  Hebrew  MSS.  makes  a  classi- 
Number  of  fication  of  them  less  important  than  in  the  case  of 
Heb.iiss.  Greek  MSS.  Kennicott  mentions  630,  of  which 
258  were  collated  by  him  throughout,  the  remainder  only  in 
part.  De  Rossi  collated  751,  of  which  all  but  17  were  collated 
for  the  first  time.  Many  others  remain  uncollated.  (SeeJahn's 
Hebrew  Bible,  vol.  iv.  App.) 

Though,  as  aheady  stated,  there  is  but  one  recension,  the 
Masoretic,  it  seems  that  in  the  loth  century  the  Jews  at 
Babylon  had  one  set  of  readings,  and  those  at  Tiberias  another. 
Hence  arose  the  distinction  of  Eastern  and  Western 
and  Western  famihes.  Bishop  Walton,  in  his  Polyglot,  has  given 
fanuiies.  ^-^^  difierences  on  which  this  distinction  is  founded. 
They  are  differences  in  the  letters,  and  are  about  220  in  all, 
none  of  which,  however,  materially  affects  the  sense  ;  and  in 
the  vowel  points,  these  amounting  to  about  860.  In  reference 
to  the  first,  our  printed  editions  vary  from  the  Eastern  read- 
ings in  55  places  ;  in  reference  to  the  second,  they  follow  the 
Masoretic  text  as  fixed  at  Tiberias.  Particular  copies  were 
long  celebrated  for  accuracy,  but  only  their  traditional  fame 
has  descended  to  our  times. 

64,  It  is  a  summary  proof  of  the  general  accuracy  of  the 

present  text,  that  the  Jew  agrees  with  the  Christian 
in  the  letter  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  Ro- 
manist with  the  Protestant  in  the  letter  of  the  New. 

On  this  subject  see  Home,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  ch.  ii.  §  i :  Scott  Portex', 
p.  75  :  Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures  on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation 
of  the  Bible  :  and  Davidson's  Bib.  Cr.,  vol.  i. 

*  Sec.  4.  The  Ancient  Versions  of  Scripture. 

65.  The  origin  and  history  of  the  LXX  were  long  matters 

of  controversy,  though  now  the  questions  connected 

with  it  may  be  regarded  as  settled.     The  story  of 

Aristeas,  a  writer  who  pretends  to  be  a  Gentile  and  favourite 

at  the  court  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  is,  that  this  version  wa,s 

"See  Preface. 


32  CRITICISM  :   ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 

made  by  seventy-two  Jews  (six  from  each  tribe)  sent  to  Alex- 
andria by  Eleazar  at  the  request  of  Demetreus  Phalareus,  and 
that  the  whole  was  completed  in  seventy-two  days.  To  this 
story  various  additions  were  made,  claiming  miraculous  inter- 
position for  the  work,  and  infallibihty  for  the  translators. 
Dr.  Hody  first  proved  that  the  narrative  could  not  be  authentic : 
though  nothing  has  been  discovered  that  materially  affects 
either  the  value  or  the  date  of  the  version.  Eegarding  the 
work  critically,  it  may  be  observed  that  it  contains  many 
Graeco-Egyptian  words,  and  that  the  Pentateuch  is  translated 
with  much  more  accuracy  than  the  other  books.  The  Book 
of  Job,  the  Psalms,  and  the  prophets,  are  all  inferior,  and 
especially  Isaiah  and  Daniel.  The  historical  books  are  often 
inaccurately  translated. 

In  the  early  Christian  church  the  version  was  deemed  of 
great  value,  tlaough  writers  often  appealed  against  it  to  the 
Origen's  Hebrew.  With  the  view  of  correcting  it,  Origen 
Hexapia.  formed  his  Hexapla.  This  work,  which  made  afto- 
gether  fifty  volumes,  perished  probably  at  the  sacking  of 
Csesarea  by  the  Saracens,  653  a.d.  ;  but  happily  the  text  of 
the  LXX  (which  formed  one  of  the  columns)  had  been  copied 
by  Eusebius,  together  with  the  corrections  or  additions  which 
Origen  had  inserted  from  the  other  translators.  This  Hexa- 
plarian  text,  as  it  is  called,  was  published  by  Montfaucon  at 
Paris,  in  17 14.  Of  the  two  celebrated  MSS.  of  the  LXX,  the 
Vatican  (B)  follows  the  original  version,  while  the  Alexandrian 
(A)  exhibits  many  of  the  readings  embodied  in  the  Hexapla, 
and  conforms  more  generally  to  the  present  Hebrew. 

The  four  chief  printed  editions  of  the  LXX  are — the  Aldine, 
exhibiting  many  of  the  readings  of  B ;  the  Complutensian, 
which  often  foUows  the  Masoretic  Hebrew  and  Origen's 
Hexapla  ;  the  Koman  or  Vatican  ;  9Jid  the  Grabian,  which  is 
taken  chiefly  from  A. 

The  version  is  rather  free  than  literal,  and  frequently  misses 
the  sense  of  the  original.  It  is  often  valuable  iu  interpretation, 
though  less  so  in  settling  the  text, 

66.  Among  the  earhest  versions  founded  on  the  LXX  was  the 
Versions  Italic.  In  the  days  of  Augustine  (died  430)  there 
I'^xK ^^^  were  several  Latin  versions  of  the  Bible,  of  which 
1.  TiieltaUc.  the  old  Italic  was  the  best.  Jerome  bears  the  same 
testimony  to  its  general  excellence.     It  was  made,  as  may  be 


CRITICISM  :   ANCIENT  VERSIONS.  33 

gathered  from  fragments  which  still  remain,^  from  the  Alex- 
andrian ]MS.,  and  is  ascribed  by  Eichhorn  to  the  ist  century. 

67.  The  diversities  and  imperfections  of  this  version  induced 
Jerome  (a.d.  382)  to  revise  the  text,  as  Origen  had  previously 
revised  the  version  of  the  LXX.  He  employed  for  this  purpose 
the  Hexapla  of  Origen,  and  carefully  corrected  the  whole  of 
the  Old  Testament,  though  portions  only  of  his  revision  remain. 
As  these  labours  of  Jerome  were  drawing  to  a  close,  the  LXX, 
though  long  favourably  received  by  the  Jews,  began  to  fall 
into  disrepute,  on  the  ground,  probably,  that  it  was  appealed 
to  by  Christians.  To  meet  this  feehng,  Jerome  undertook  to 
prepare  a  translation  into  Latin  direct  from  the  Hebrew.  He 
devoted  the  larger  portion  of  twenty  years  to  this  work,  and 
it  was  completed  in  405.  A  superstitious  reverence  for  the 
LXX  led  many  to  oppose  this  version,  but  it  gradually  gained 
influence,  and  in  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (604)  it  had 
at  least  a  co-ordinate  authority,  and  was  dignified  with  the 

name  of  the  Vulgate.  The  text  was  made  up  in 
Vulgate  in  part  from  the  old  Itahc,  in  part  from  Jerome's  im- 
part, proved  edition  of  that  version,  and  is  in  part  a  new- 
version  formed  immediately  from  the  Hebrew.  Jerome  was 
acquainted  with  Hebrew  expositors,  and  many  of  their  inter- 
pretations are  embodied  in  the  Vulgate,  but  generally  it  follows 
the  LXX,  even  when  that  version  differs  from  tiie  Hebrew. 
It  is  more  useful  for  interpretation  than  for  criticism,  though 
for  both  it  is  of  value.  The  version  of  the  Psalms  was  made 
from  Origen's  Hexapla,  and  is  called  the  Psalterium  GaUicanum. 
The  text  was  early  corrupted,  and  various  learned  men  have 
undertaken  to  revise  it,  among  whom  are  Alcuin  and  Lanfranc. 
The  two  chief  editions  are  those  of  Sixtus  v.  and  Clement 
viiL,  which,  however,  though  both  sanctioned  by  papal  autho- 
rity, contain  some  most  remarkable  errors.*'  (See  par.  76.) 

68.  Ecclesiastical  history  places  the  conversion  of  Ethiopia 
Other  about  A.D.  330,  and  to  the  same  century  belongs 
theTxx.^^"^  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Gheez,  the 
contmued.  sacred  language  of  Ethiopia.  Its  author  is  not 
Ethiopic.  known.  Perfect  copies  of  the  Old  Testament  are 
not  common,  though  Bruce  states  that  he  found  several ;  and 

*  Job,  Psalms,  some  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  parts  of  other  books. 

^  Of  the  Vxilgate,  as  prepared  by  Jerome,  the  most  unportant  MS. 

is  the  C.  Amiatinus,  now  at  Florence,  and  written  about  the  year  54.1.- 

c  3 


34  CRITICISM  :   ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 

there  are  MSS.  of  this  version  in  some  of  the  hbraries  of 
Europe.  Only  fragments  have  been  printed.  The  text  follows 
the  readings  of  A,  and  is  foimded  entirely  on  the  LXX.  The 
New  Testament  has  all  been  printed.  The  text  seems  to  be 
founded  on  the  Peshito  and  the  old  Itahc. — See  Ludolf,  Gieseler, 
and  the  Travels  of  Bruce. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testament  is  also  extant  in  the 
4,  5.  Coptic,  Coptic  and  Thebaic,  dialects  of  Egypt,  though  only 
Thebaic.  ^  portion  has  been  printed.  The  most  probable 
date  of  their  origin  is  the  3rd  and  4th  century,  though  some 
suppose  them  to  have  been  made  as  early  as  the  ist  and  2nd. 
Both  are  founded  on  the  LXX,  and  generally  follow  the 
readings  of  A.     The  translators  are  not  known. 

The  Gothic  version  of  the  Bible  was  made  by  Ulphilas,  a 

bishop  of  the  Moeso-Goths,  who   assisted  at  the 

Council  of  Constantinople  in  359.     The  version  was 

made  from  the  Greek,  and  is  of  considerable  critical  value, 

though  unhappily  only  fragments  of  it  remain.     The  most 

celebrated  MS.  is  the  Codex  Argenteus,  written  in  silver  letters, 

which  is  now  preserved  in  the  library  of  Upsal  in  Sweden. 

This  MS.  contains  only  the  four  Gospels,  and  is  imperfect. 

Of  the  Armenian  version  little  more  is  kno^vn  than  is  stated 

in  another  paragraph.     The  date  is  410,  and  the 

translator  Miesrob,  who  seems  to  have  used  the 

LXX  and  the  Alexandrian  recension  as  the  basis  of  his  version. 

The  Georgian  version  was  made  in  the  following  century,  from 

copies  of  the  Armenian  translation.   The  Armenian  version  has 

been  repeatedly  printed  (Bible,  Amst.  1666,  New  Testament, 

1 668- 1 698),  and  the  whole  Bible,  in  Georgian,  was  printed 

at  Moscow  in  1743,  parts  of  it  having  been  previously  printed 

at  Tiflis. 

To  the  9th  century  belongs  the  Slavic  or  Slavonic  version, 
supposed  to  have  been  made  by  the  sons  of  Leo,  a 
Greek  nobleman,  who  first  preached  the  gospel  to 
the  Slavonians.  It  is  generally  regarded  as  a  descendant  of 
the  LXX,  though  ancient  testimony  states  that  it  was  made, 
in  great  part,  from  the  Italic,  a  statement  which  recent  collation 
has  confirmed.  The  text  was  early  corrected  from  Greek 
MSS.,  and  it  is  hence  deemed  of  considerable  critical  value. 
The  whole  was  printed  in  1576,  and  several  editions  have  since 
been  issued  from  Moscow. 


CRITICISM  :   AXGIEXT  YERSIOXft.  35 

69.  From  the  F^^/^ya^e  were  formed  the  various  Anglo-Saxon 


Versions 


versions  of  parts  of  Scripture.  About  the  year  706, 
from  the  Adhekn,  the  first  bishop  of  Sherborn,  translated 
Vulgate.  ^i^g  Psalms  into  Saxon,  as  did  Egbert,  the  bishop 
of  Holy  Island,  the  four  Gospels.  About  the  same  time  Bede 
(A.D,  735)  translated  parts  of  the  Bible,  King  Alfred  imdertook 
to  translate  the  Psalms,  but  died  (900)  when  his  work  was 
about  half  finished.  ^Ifric  of  Canterbury  translated  the  Pen- 
tateuch and  some  of  the  historical  books.  To  the  same  version 
we  may  ascribe  the  various  translations  of  the  Old  Testament 
into  French,  Itahan,  and  Spanish,  executed  before  the  i6th 
century,  and  even  Luther  availed  himself  largely  of  its  render- 
ings in  making  his  German  translation  of  the  Bible.' 

70.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  rather  a  recension  than  a 
Samaritan  translation  of  the  Hebrew  text.  Copies  are  referred 
Pentateuch,  ^q  ]^j  Eusebius  and  Cyril,  but  it  was  long  thought 
that  the  whole  had  perished.  In  the  early  part  of  the  1 7th  cen- 
tury, however,  a  copy  was  transmitted  from  Constantinople  to 
Paris.  Usher  afterwards  procured  six  copies,  and  Kennicott 
collated  sixteen.  The  most  probable  account  of  this  recension 
is,  that  it  was  taken  from  the  copies  of  the  Pentateuch  which 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  Israelites  in  the  days  of  Rehoboam, 
when  the  kingdom  was  divided.  The  Psalms  and  the  writings 
of  Solomon,  which  were  known  to  pious  Jews  of  that  age, 
were  rejected  for  obvious  reasons. 

The  critical  value  of  the  readings  of  this  recension  was 
Critical  over-estimated  at  first,  but  now  they  are  held  to 

value.  i^g  not  at  aU  superior  to  the  Hebrew.     The  LXX 

seem  to  have  followed  it  more  frequently  than  the  present 
Hebrew  text,  from  which,  however,  it  does  not  materially 
difier.  Gesenius  deems  its  readings  preferable  to  the  Hebrew 
in  Gen.  4.  8,  where  it  supplies  the  words,  "Let  us  go  into  the 
field  ;"  in  Gen.  14.  14,  where  it  reads  "  he  numbered,"  instead 
of  "he  armed  ;"  in  Gen.  22. 13,  where  it  omits  the  words  "  be- 
hind Jiirn ;"  and  in  Gen.  59, 14,  where  the  difierence  is  in  expres- 
sion only  and  not  in  sense.  The  Samaritan  is  of  great  value 
in  determining  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  vowels,  and  in  con- 
firming the  general  accuracy  of  the  present  text,  but  it  is  not 
a  source  of  valuable  independent  emendation. 

The  characters  in  which  it  is  written  are  probably  the  oldei 
forms  of  the  Hebrew. 


36  CRITICISM  :    ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 

The  ancient  Samaritan  Pentateuch  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  more  modern  Samaritan  version  which  is 
printed  with  the  other  in  the  Polyglots.  This  is  a  very 
literal  translation  into  modern  Samaritan. 

71.  The  Peshito  version  of  the  S-criptures  w^as  probably 
Syriac  niade   by  those  translators   "  who  were   sent  to 

Horae  Palestine  by  the  apostle  Jude  and  Abgarus  king 

Syriacae.  ^f  Edessa."  Such  is  the  ancient  tradition,  and  it  is 
in  itself  sufficiently  probable.  From  internal  evidence  it  is 
behoved  that  the  translators  were  Jewish  Christians,  and  that 
they  translated  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  Hebrew. 
It  contains  all  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
all  those  of  the  New,  except  2  Pet. :  2  and  3  John  :  Jude  and 
the  Eevelation.  The  text  differs  from  all  the  chief  families  of 
MSS.,  and  each  in  succession  has  claimed  it.  The  New  Tes- 
tament was  first  printed  at  Venice  in  1555,  and  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots. 

Internal  evidence  and  tradition  agree  in  ascribing  it  to  the 
1st  century.  It  is  of  great  critical  value.  Several  ancient 
Arabic  versions,  and  the  Persian  version  of  the  Gospels  (printed 
in  the  London  Polyglot),  were  made  from  the  Peshito. 

The  Philoxenian  (New  Testament  only)  version  was  made 
from  the  Greek,  by  the  hand,  or  under  the  care, 
or  in  the  days  of  Philoxenius,  Bishop  of  Maberg, 
in  Syria,  about  the  year  508.  No  MS.  of  it  remains,  but 
various  readings  taken  from  it  are  given  in  a  MS.  in  the 
Vatican  (153).  Early  in  the  following  century  Thomas  of 
Harkel,  or  Heraclea,  the  successor  of  Philoxenius,  began  to 
revise  the  work  of  his  predecessor,  and  published 
eracean.  g^j^Q^j^gj.  version  in  616.  It  contains  the  whole  of 
the  New  Testament  except  the  Apocalypse.  The  most  com- 
plete MS.  of  it  is  one  which  formerly  belonged  to  Ridley,  and 
is  now  preserved  in  New  College,  Oxford.  The  style  is  ex- 
tremely literal,  and  in  consequence  frequently  violates  the 
Syriac  idiom. 

There  is  also  a  fourth  Syriac  version  of  Lessons  from  the 
Gospels  (Vat.  MS.  19).  The  date  of  the  MS.  is  1030,  but 
the  version  seems  to  belong  to  the  5th  or  7th  century.  The 
language  is  a  mixture  of  Chaldee  and  Syriac.  The  readings 
generally  favour  the  western  recension  ;  and  the  MS.  is  some- 
times called  the  Palestino-Syriac  or  Jerusalem  version. 


CRITICISM  :   VARIOUS  READIXGS,  37 

72.  The  Arabic  versions  of  several  of  the  books  of  Scripture,. 
Arabic  as  given  in  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots,  were 
versions.  ^^^de  from  the  LXX,  by  different  authors  be- 
tween the  loth  and  12th  centuries  ;  and  of  Job,  Chron.,  Judges, 
Euth,  Samuel,  and  parts  of  other  books  from  the  Peshito 
Syriac. 

73.  From  the  same  version  was  made  the  Persian  version 
Persian  of  ^^^  Gospels,  pubUshed  with  Le  Glerc's  Latin 
version.  translation  in  the  London  Polyglot ;  it  abounds 
with  Arabic  expressions,  and  must  have  been  later  than  the 
time  of  Mahomet,  Another  version  of  the  same  part  of 
Scripture  was  published  by  Wheelock  in  1652,  but  these,  mth 
the  more  recent  version  made  under  the  care  of  Nadir  Shah 
1 740-1,  are  of  little  critical  value. 

74.  From  these  facts  it  is  clear  that  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
^    .         tateuch,  the  LXX,  part  of  the  Vulgate,  and  the 

Peshito  Syriac,  are  all  more  or  less  valuable  for 
ascertaining  the  text  of  the  original  Hebrew  ;  but  that  other 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  being  made  from  these,  and  not 
from  the  original  are  of  httle  or  no  critical  value,  except  for 
ascertaining  the  text  of  those  versions  from  which  they  were 
made.  In  the  case  of  the  New  Testament  all  the  earlier  ver- 
sions from  the  Greek  are  of  value,  proportioned  of  course  to 
the  general  condition  of  their  texts,  and  to  the  obvious  accu- 
racy with  which  they  have  been  made. 

Modern  versions  (and  to  a  great  extent  the  ancient)  are  of 
value  only  as  helps  to  interpretation. 

Full  accounts  of  ancient  versions  may  be  seen  in  Le  Long's 
BibHotheca  Sacra  (Masch's  Edition),  or  in  Home's  Introduction, 
vol.  ii. 

^  Sec.  5.  The  various  Readings  of  Scripture ;  Rules  for 
determining  the  Text. 

75.  Of  Hebrew  MSS.  upwards  of  1300  have  been  collated, 
Number  of  a^d  of  Greek  upwards  of  600.  These  numbers,  it 
MSS.  ^jl2  be  observed,  do  not  represent  copies  of  com- 
plete Scriptures,  but  of  parts  only.  Each  of  the  three  divisions 
of  the  Old  Testament  (par.  4,)  forms  in  Hebrew  one  roll,  and 
each  of  the  New  Testament  divisions  (par.  49,)  generally  forms 
one  MS.  in  Greek. 

*  See  Preface. 


38  CRITICISM  :   VARIOUS  READINGS. 

76.  These  MSS.  have  been  exposed  in  transcription  to  many 
„  .  .  errors.    Nor  will  this  fact  excite  surprise  if  it  is 

vrrious*  remembered  that  carefully  printed  books  often 
readings.  contain  numerous  inaccuracies.  In  writing,  the 
risk  is  of  course  much  greater  than  in  printing.  Revision 
and  correction  are  less  practicable  in  the  first  than  the  second 
The  slowness  of  the  process  increases  the  probabihty  that 
letters,  syllables,  and  words  will  be  added,  omitted,  changed, 
or  transposed.  Sometimes  the  writer  transcribed  fi'om  a  MS. 
before  him  ;  sometimes  from  dictation.  In  the  latter  case  his 
ear  frequently  deceived  him,  and  in  the  former,  his  eye.  Dif- 
ferent words  having  often  the  same  final  syllable,  or  different 
sentences  having  the  same  final  word,  made  mistakes  the  more 
easy.  A  misunderstanding  of  the  MS.  from  which  he  copied 
would  sometimes  lead  to  the  same  result.  He  might  eitlier 
misinterpret  its  abbreviations,  or  inaccurately  divide  the 
words,  where  they  were  written  (as  in  most  ancient  MSS.) 
without  pause  marks  ;  or  the  MS.  might  be  wholly  or  partially 
effaced.  Independently,  therefore,  of  design,  these  causes  of 
error  were  always  at  work.  The  results,  however,  seldom 
aff'ect  the  meaning  of  the  text  materially  (though  they  do  so 
in  some  cases),  and  are  similar  to  the  mistakes  produced  in 
an  English  version  by  such  errors  of  the  press,  as  escaped  the 
eye  of  even  a  careful  reader.  Diff'erences  more  serious  may 
be  seen  in  the  Bibles  printed  "  by  authority  "  of  the  popes 
Sextus  and  Clement.  Eody  has  given  a  large  number  of  these 
discrepancies.  Compare  them  in  Prov.  25.  24  :  Matt.  27.  35  : 
Judo-,  17.  2,  3  :  which  are  left  out  in  the  Sixtine  edition  ;  and  in 
I  Sam.  24. 8  :  2  Sam.  8,8:  which  are  left  out  in  the  Clementine 
edition.  They  contradict  one  another,  moreover  in  Josh.  2.  18  : 
9.  19  :  Exod.  32.  28  :  Gen.  24.  24  :  i  Kings  2.  28. 

For  example : — 

77,  (i)  There  are  many  cases  in  which,  from  the  similarity 
Similarity  of  of  sound  or  of  form,  the  transcriber  would  naturally 
f^  ""^        ^^^^  ^  ^^"^^  reading. 

In  Gen.  14.  5,  the  Heb.  Sam.  and  LXX.  read  ''with  them" 
(Dm),  Behem.  The  English  and  seven  Sam.  MSS.  read  "  in  Ham  " 
(Dn3),  Becham. 

In  Judges  8.  16,  some  Hebrew  MSS.  and  the  English  read  "he 
taught"  (yn^),  Yadah  :  but  many  MSS.,  the  LXX,  Chald.,  Arab., 


CRITICISM  :   VARIOUS  READINGS.  39 

Syr.,  and  Vulg,,  read  ''he  tore  "  (pi*'),  Yadash,  which  is  clearly  the 
true  reading.  So  in  Numb.  22.5,  where  many  read  Ammon  instead 
of  "Ammo"  (his  people). 

In  I  Kings  i.  18,  "  And  noio"  is  our  English  version  (Hni^l),  Veatta 
but  200  MSS.  and  the  Chald.  read  "And  thou"  (nriNI),  Veatta. 
So  ver.  20. 

In  Jonah  r.  9,  "1  am  a  Hebrew"  CHy),  Ivri,  is  the  reading  of 
most  MSS.  and  of  the  English:  but  the  LXX  and  some  MSS. 
read  ""•  12]},  Ivdi,  "the  servant  of  Jehovah." 

N?  lo  (not)  is  put  for  r?  lo  (to  him)  fifteen  times  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  the  reverse  twice.  Though  there  is  this  change, 
the  text  which  the  Jews  use,  and  which  our  Version  translates,  is 
in  these  places  the  correct  one,  except,  perhaps,  in  one  passage, 
2  Kings  8.  10,  where  for  "Go,  say  unto  him.  Thou  mayest  certainly 
recover,"  we  ought  to  read,  as  the  present  Hebrew  MSS.,  "  Go, 
say  Thou  shalt  not  recover,  for — " 

In  Eph.  4.  19,  some  MSS.  read  "past  hope"  instead  of  "past 

feeling  "    (^u'^fikTiaon;  for  ci-prr,>-.yvixoTi;). 

Similar  cases  may  be  found  in  the  Hebrew,  of  the  following 
passages,  i  Sam.  20.  18:  Psa.  59.  9. 

Under  this  same  head  may  be  placed  the  transposition  of  lettei-s, 
or  even  of  words:  as  "  Shalmai,"  Nehem.  7.  48.  for  Shamlai,  see 
Ezra  2.  46:  "  almug-trees "  for  algum-trees ;  i  Kings  10.  11; 
2  Chron.  g.  10:  In  2  Sam.  6.  5:  and  i  Chron.  13.  8,  "all  manner 
of  fir- wood,"  and  "  with  all  their  might  and  with  singing"  differ 
chiefly  in  one  similar  letter  and  in  the  transposition  of  another. 
See  also  Hebrew  of  2  Sam.  6.  2,  compared  with  i  Chron.  13.6. 

The  Jews  never  pronounced  the  name  Jehovah,  but  when  it  oc- 
curred in  Scripture  read  Adonai  or  Elohim.  These  latter  words  are 
consequently  often  put  in  MSS.  for  the  former. 

We  have  noticed  elsewhere  how  similar  letters  have  beeh  con- 
founded in  the  case  of  numerals  (par.  117),  a  confusion  the  more 
easy  in  the  early  stage  of  the  Hebrew  language,  as  the  letters  more 
closely  resembled  one  another  than  at  present. 

Similarity  ot       7^-  (2)  Similarity  of  ending,  either  of  words  or 
endings.       ^f  whole  Sentences,  sometimes  created  mistake. 

There  are  different  readings  in  i  Chron.  9.  5,  from  this  cause. 
I  Kings  14.  23  seems  to  belong  to  this  class:  compare  2  Chron. 
12.  29.  See  also  the  Hebrew  of  Numb.  26.  3;  and  compare  Psa. 
37.  28  with  the  LXX. 

In  P^xod,  30.  6,  "  before  the  mercy-seat  that  is  over  the  testi- 
mony "  is  a  repetition,  probably,  of  the  previous  clause. 


40  CRITICISM  :   VARIOUS  READINGS. 

In  Matt.  28,  9,  the  expression  "  went  to  tell  his  disciples" 
(which  is  in  Greek  the  same  as  "to  bring  his  disciples  word"  in  the 
eighth  verse)  is  omitted  in  many  MSS.,  B,  D,  and  also  in  the  Vulg., 
Syr.,  Copt.,  Arm.,  Fers.,  Arab.,  Chrys..  Jer.,  Aug. :  but  it  is  found  in 
most  MSS.  On  the  other  hand,  the  last  clause  of  i  Cor.  10.  28,  is 
taken  from  ver.  26,  and  is  wanting  in  A,  B,  D,  in  most  ancient 
versions,  and  in  many  other  authorities. 

79.  (3)  A  large  class  of  various  readings  owe  their  origin 

to  the  use  of  synonymous  expressions  :  as  "  he 
synonymous  spoke "  for  "  he  Said,"  in  2  Kings  i .  10 : "  they  found " 
exprebsions.  ^^^  ^^  j^^^  saw"  {evpov  for  dloy),  Matt.  2.  II  :  "  this 
very  world"  for  ''this  present  world,"  Matt.  12.  32;  "the 
messengers  of  John  "  for"  the  disciples  of  John,"  in  Luke  7.  24  ; 
"  to  foUow  after"  for  "  follow,"  Mark  8.  34. 

80.  (4)  Many  copyists  w^ere  acquainted  with  other  Oriental 
Dialectic  languages,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  New  Testament, 
changes.  ^^h  other  dialects  ;  and  thence  arose  great  diver- 
sity in  the  orthography  even  where  the  readings  are  substan- 
tially the  same. 

Absence  of  ^i-  (S)  Ancient  MSS.  are  often  without  stops 
stops  and  ^nd  without  even  the  division  of  the  words  :  hence 
words.  occasional  mistakes,  though  fewer  than  might  be 

supposed. 

In  Psa.  48.  14,  for  '*'  unto  death"  some  MSS.  and  the  LXX  read, 
by  connecting  the  two  words,  ''forever."  And  Psa.  25.  17  may 
be  read,  through  a  similar  mistake,  ''Enlarge  the  troubles  of  my 
heart,  and  bring,"  etc.;  comp.  also  LXX.,  and  Heb.  of  Ps.  4.  3. 

82.  (6)  Sometimes  abbreviations  are  wrongly  interpreted, 

"••(J)  is  the  Heb.  abbreviation  for  "  Jehovah  ;"  and 
tioS^P-  it  means  also  MY:  hence  an  occasional  mistake, 
prehended.  ^^  ^^^  LXX  of  Jer.  6.  II,  "  the  fury  of  J"  is 
translated  "  my  fury."  So  in  i  Pet.  2. 3,  for  "  gracious,"- which 
is  sometimes  written  XS  (xp^oroc)  some  of  the  Fathers 
(Clem-Alex.,  Greg.  Naz.  Theoph.),  read  "Christ"  (xpt^roe), 
which  is  also  written  XS. 

83.  (7)  In  the  Old  Testament  MSS.  the  copyists  never 
Misukes  divided  a  word,  nor  did  they  leave,  at  the  end  of 
from  lines,  any  vacant  space  ;  and  hence  they  often  filled 
un^arum' •      up  the  line  with  Bome  favourite  letter,  or  with  the 


CRITICISM:   VARIOUS  READINGS.  41 

initial  of  the  next  word,  which  of  course  was  repeated  in  the 
following  line.  "  For  them,"  in  Isa.  35.  i,  is  an  example. 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  ignorant  copyists  have  mistaken  final 
letters  for  mere  cusfocles  linearum,  as  they  are  called,  and  have 
omitted  them. 

84.  (8)  Sometimes  marginal  readings  have  been  inserted  in 
Marginal  the  body  of  the  MSS.,  corrective  or  explanatory  of 
glosses.  the  original  text. 

The  repetition  "Surely  the  people  is  grass"  (Isa.  40.  7),  is  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  this  class,  and  is  not  found  in  the  LXX.  The 
number  50,000,  mentioned  in  i  Sam.  6.  19,  is  supposed  by  Jahn  to 
be  another  instance. 

In  Mark  i.  16,  the  word  "his"  seemed  ambiguous;  and  many 
MSS.  (54,  besides  all  Stephens')  read  "this  same  Simon." 

In  Luke  7.  16,  "God  has  visited  his  people  for  good"  (s?j  ayafiov) 
add  eleven  MSS.,  Arm.  and  Pers.,  in  explanation  of  a  phrase  which 
seemed  scarcely  clear. 

So  in  Luke  5.  7,  a  few  MSS.  add  "  a  httle "  (5r«««  t/). 

85.  All  the  sources  of  various  readings  noticed  thus  far  may 
Various  ^®  regarded  as  accidental.  Other  readings,  how- 
readings  ever,  were  intentionally  made,  either  fi-om  good 
StentioS"^  motives  or  from  bad.  A  Greek  copyist,  for  ex- 
aiterations.  ajj^pie^  accustomed  to  hear  his  own  language  spoken 
without  an  admixture  of  oriental  idioms,  and  regarding  a 
Hebraism  as  a  violation  of  grammar,  would  correct  it,  for- 
getting that  such  idioms  go  to  prove  the  genuineness  of  the 
inspired  writings.  He  would  sometimes  substitute  for  the 
original,  Greek  words  which  he  deemed  more  clear  and  easy. 
Sometimes  he  would  correct  one  Evangelist  by  another,  or 
fill  up  the  shorter  account  from  the  longer  one,  or  adapt  the 
quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  to  the  text  of  his  own 
copy,  whether  it  were  Hebrew,  or  Greek,  or  Latin. 

In  other  instances  motives  less  honourable  may  account  for 
deviations  from  the  original  text. 

Mistakes  86.  (9)  Sometimes,  for   example,   in  particular 

'^d^^^^'^t^  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  a  mistake  in  the  speUing 
injure  theMS.  of  a  word,  once  made,  is  retained  throughout  the 
book. 

The  Hebrew  for  a  boy  is  put  twenty-one  times  in  the  Pentateuch 
ior  a  girl  ("liO  for  myj  na-ai',  na-ara),  which  latter  is  found  but 


42  CRITICISM:   VARIOUS   READINGS. 

once  (Deut,  22.  19).  All  the  versions  and  the  Masora  direct  us  to 
read  it  as  a  feminine  noun.  So,  in  Ezek.  40.  there  is  a  solecism  in 
grammar,  through  the  omission  of  the  ordinary  sign  of  the  plural 
(before  the  suffix  1  viz.  *•)  in  thh'ty-four  words,  though  the  Keri 
directs  us  to  read  it.  Some  critics,  it  may  be  added,  ascribe  these 
variations  to  other  causes. 
Attempts  to        ^7-  (^°)  Sometimes  attempts  vrere  made  to  im- 

improve  the    prove  MSS.,  by  making  the  language  more  clear  and 
style. 

easy. 

Many  passages  of  the  Chronicles,  for  example,  when  compared 
with  Samuel,  -svill  be  found  to  give  more  modern  words,  in  place  of 
the  obsolete  ones  of  the  earlier  writer.  These  passages,  when  com- 
pai-ed  by  copyists,  gave  rise  to  various  readings.      See  Hebrew  of 

1  Sam.  31.   12:   I  Chron.  x,  12:  2  Sam.  7.  23  :  i  Chron.  17.  21: 

2  Sam.  6.  16:  I  Chron.  15.  29. 

So,  in  Luke  16.  9,  for  "the  mammon  of  unrighteousness,"  which 
is  a  Hebraism,  some  read  (MS.  Bezse)  "the  unrighteotis  mammon." 

In  Luke  i.  64,  "was  loosed"  is  added  in  some  MSS.  (Bez.  and 
Compl.  text). 

In  Exod.  15.  3,  it  is  said  that  "■  The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war"  The 
word  seemed  to  the  Sam.  copyists  objectionable;  and  they  have  put 
"mighty  one  of  war." 

In  Gen.  2.  2,  it  is  said  that  God  finished  his  work  on  the  seventh 
day.     The  Sam.  and  Syr.  seem  to  have  read  "on  the  sixth  day." 

In  the  Pentateuch,  the  word  for  God  is  plural  (Elohim) ;  and  is 
sometimes  joined  with  a  singular  verb  and  sometimes  with  a  plural 
verb.  In  all  the  latter  cases,  there  is  a  variety  of  readings  :  most 
of  them  (as  in  the  Sam.)  in  favour  of  a  singular  noun  (as  the  Holy 
One),  retaining,  however,  the  plural  verb:  the  object  being,  pro- 
bably, to  prevent  a  supposition  that  the  Scriptm-es  favoured  poly- 
theism.   See  Gen.  20.  13:  35.  7. 

MSS.  of  the  Alexandrian  family,  it  may  be  observed,  often  alter 
words  to  make  what  was  deemed  better  grammar;  as  MSS.  of  \he 
Vv  estem  alter  them  to  make  the  meaning  more  clear. 

88.  (II.)  Sometimes  alterations  were  made  to  suit  the 
ParaUei  parallel  passage,  or  to  make  the  text  agree  with 
passages.  the  passage  from  which  it  is  quoted.  See  Schulz's 
edition  of  Griesbach  (Ber.  1827),  for  a  view  of  the  influence 
in  this  respect  of  the  LXX  on  the  text  of  the  New  Testament. 

Luke  4.  18,  "to  heal  the  broken-hearted,"  is  wanting  in  several 
MSS.  It  is  probably  taken  from  the  LXX  of  Isa.  61.  i.  Matt. 
12.   35,   "of  the  heart"   is   omitted  in  many  MSS.,  and  in  the 


CRinCISM  :   VARIOUS   READES'GS.  43 

Vulg.,  Syr.,  Copt.,  Fers.,  Arab.  It  is  pi'obably  from  Luke  6,  45. 
Matt.  20.  22,  23,  "  the  baptism  I  am  baptized  with  can  ye  be 
baptized  with  ?"  is  wanting  in  several  MSS.^  and  in  the  Vulg.,  Ethiop., 
and  Copt.,  probably  from  Mark  10.  38,  39.  Matt.  27.  35,  "That 
it  might  be  fulfilled, "'  etc.,  is  wanting  in  ABDEFGHKLM,  etc., 
and  many  other  MSS.,  the  Syr.,  Copt.,  Ethiop.,  and  Arab.  It  is,  pro- 
bably, from  John  19.  24.  Acts  9:  22:  26:  and  Acts  10:  11 :  have 
been  peculiai-ly  liable  to  various  readings  on  this  ground,  i  Cor. 
15.  5,  '-'the  twelve"  being  not  strictly  accurate  (for  Thomas  was 
absent),  some  MSS.  read  "the  eleven."  So,  in  Mark  8.  31,  some 
MSS.  read  ''after  three  days,"  and  others  "on  the  thii'd  day." 

89.  (12.)  Sometimes  a  passage  has  been  altered  wilfully  to 
Alterations  serve  the  purposes  of  a  party,  or  to  favour  what 
purposes.       vras  deemed  the  cause  of  truth. 

In  Deut.  27.  4,  the  Heb.  reads  "  Ebal,"  and  the  Sam.  "Gerizim," 
which  was  in  the  Samaritan  territory;  and  the  passage  is  used  as  a 
reason  for  erecting  there  a  Samaritan  temple.  In  Judg.  18.  30, 
"  Manasseh"  is  written  in  many  MSS.  for  Moses,  to  save  the  honour 
of  his  family.  So  R.  Solomon  Jarchi  acknowledges.  Isa.  64.  4, 
has  been  altered,  and  is  now  unintelhgible.  It  is  quoted  in 
I  Cor.  2.  9.  Isa.  53.  14,  for  "  Sitthee"  some  MSS.,  the  Chald., 
Syr.,  and  Vulg.  read  "  at  him."  Such  intentional  alterations, 
however,  are  very  rare  in  the  Old  Testament ;  nor  are  there  many 
in  the  New  Testament  Greek.  In  Matt.  i.  18,  "  before  they 
came  together,"  and  the  word  "first-bom,"  are  omitted  in  some 
MSS.  and  Versions,  in  favour  of  the  perpetual  virginity.  In  Mark 
13.  32,  "neither  the  Son"  is  omitted  in  several  MSS.  and  Fathers, 
as  seeming  to  favour  Arianism.  Luke  22.  43  is  omitted  in  AB, 
and  some  other  MSS.,  because  supposed  to  detract  from  our  Lord's 
Divinity, 

90.  (13.)  There  are  also  various  readings,  which  can  be  ex- 

plained only  on  the  supposition  of  carelessness  on 
the  part  of  transcribers,  and  which  are  not  referable 
to  any  of  the  causes  just  enumerated. 

In  I  Chron,  6.  28,  there  is  an  omission  of  the  name  Joel  (see 
ver.  33:  I  Sam.  8.  2),  The  verse  really  reads  "And  the  sons  of 
Samuel,  the  first-born  Joel,  and  the  second  (now  translated  Vashni), 
Abiah."  Bishop  Lo'xth  has  noticed  that,  in  Isaiah,  there  are  as 
many  as  fifty  shght  omissions  ;  none  of  them,  however,  affecting  the 
sense.  A  singular  instance  may  be  seen  in  2  Sam.  21.  19,  which 
ought  to  be  read  in  the  same  way  as  i  Chron.  20.  5.        Read  in 


44  CRITICISM  :   VARIOUS   READINGS. 

Samuel  n^  for  fl^l,  eth,  betli,  and  PIN  for  ni<,  acb,  eth.  The 
word  W'yii^  (weavers),  has  come  up  improperly  from  the  end  of 
the  verse.  The  430  years  mentioned  in  Exod.  12.  40,  as  the 
time  of  the  sojourning  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  is  not 
correct  ;  it  was  only  215  years:  and  the  text  as  it  stands  is  hardly 
consistent  with  Gal.  3.  17:  Gen.  12.  4;  17.  i,  21:  25.  26.  The 
Sam.  Alex.  LXX,  and  some  MSS.,  read  '•'  and  of  their  fathers  who 
dwelt  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  in  Canaan."  Perhaps,  however, 
there  is  here  a  latitude  of  expression,  easily  understood  by  Jewish 
readers. 

91.  The  readings  which  have  originated  in  these  and  similar 

causes,  amount  to  many  thousands,  but  in  nearly 
such  various  all,  any  various  reading  may  be  adopted  without 
readings.  materially  affecting  the  sense.  The  most  inac- 
curate text  ever  written  (it  has  been  justly  said),  leaves  the 
truths  of  Scripture  substantially  unchanged. 

92.  It  is,  nevertheless,  a  question  of  much  interest,  how  is 

the  comparative  value  of  various  readings  to  be  de- 
rative  value  cided?  The  following  principles  are  recognised 
alSSd^^  by  all  competent  scholars  in  this  branch  of  inquiry. 

They  are  taken  substantially  from  Griesbach,  Wet- 
stein,  and  other  critics.  Griesbach's  rules  may  be  seen  at 
length  in  his  Prolegomena,  or  abridged  in  Planck's  Sacred 
Philology,  p.  245,  etc.,  and  Wetstein's,  in  his  introduction  to 
the  Greek  Testament.  Eules  approved  by  Eichhorn  and  De 
Wette,  with  special  reference  to  the  Old  Testament,  may  be 
seen  in  De  Wette,  Introduction,  i.  319. 

93.  (i.)  When  MSS.,  versions,  and  quotations  agree  in  a 
External  reading,  the  external  evidence  in  its  favour  is 
evMencr"*^^  Complete,  and,  when  the  reading,  thus  fixed,  agrees 
what.  '  with  the  nature  of  the  language,  the  sense,  the 
connection  of  historical  facts,  and  parallel  passages,  the 
internal  evidence  is  complete.  Where  these  concur,  the 
reading  is  undoubtedly  genuine  ;  and  this  is  the  evidence 
found  in  the  case  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  Scriptures,  as 
contained  in  the  common  editions. 

94.  (2.)  Generally,  the  value  of  a  reading  is  in  proportion 

to  the  age  of  the  MSS.,  because  the  older  it  is, 
as  to  external  the  less  likely  is  it  to  be  a  transcript  of  many  pre- 
-ividence.  yious  transcripts,  (ihough  a  recent  MS.  certainly 
copied  from  a  very  early  one,  may  be  of  greater  authority 


CRITICISM  :   A^ARIOUS  READINGS.  45 

than  one  less  recent) :  to  the  number  of  MSS.  in  which  it 
is  found  ;  to  the  family  to  which  it  belongs,  (some  preferring, 
with  Griesbach,  the  Alexandrian  ;  and  others,  with  Schulz, 
the  Constantinopohtan) ;  and  to  the  obvious  care  with  which 
the  MS.  is  written. 

In  the  case  of  Hebrew  MSS.,  we  speak  rather  of  the  coun- 
tries where  they  were  written,  than  of  families  formed  on  any 
other  principle.  Spanish,  ItaHan,  German,  representing  their 
origin,  and  the  order  of  their  critical  value. 

The  following  rules  mr.y  be  laid  down  for  guiding  the 
inquirer  in  determining  the  correct  reading. 

95.  (i.)  When  the  external  and  internal  evidence  are  op- 
Externai  evi-  posed,  the  former  ought  GENERALLY  to  be  preferred, 
imwrtanr  ^ecause  the  "genuine  reading"  is  an  expression 
than  internal,  that  refers  rather  to  external  than  to  internal 
evidence.  It  is  the  sum,  not  of  reasons,  so  much  as  of  au- 
thorities. 

96.  (2).  Yet  the  internal  evidence  may  be  so  strong,  as  to 

counterbalance  a  greater  degree  of  external,  (as  in 

c  p  ions.     ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  most  of  the  Masoretic  readings  of  the 

Old  Testament) :  wherever,  in  fact,  the  readings  are  clearly 

false,  or  where  the  introduction  of  a  particular  reading  can  be 

easily  explained. 

97.  (3.)  Readings  are  certainly  right  when  they  are  sup- 
Various  ported  by  the  most  ancient  MSS.,  by  most  of  the 
rea^ngs  ancient  versions,  by  quotations,  by  parallel  places, 
highly  pro-     r^^^  by  the  sense,  though  such  readings  are  not 

bableorcer-  •{        ,,  -.ro-^c  •       i  • 

tain.  found  in  ail  MSb.,  or  m  the  common  version. 

Isa.  60.  21,  "  MY  planting;"  i  Kings  i.  18. 

98.  (4.)  Readings  are  most  probably  right,  when  they  are 
supported  by  a  few  ancient  MSS.,  the  ancient  versions,  quo- 
tations, parallel  places,  and  the  sense,  though  not  found  in 
MOST  MSS. 

2  Chron.  11.  18,  ''  Rehoboam  took  the  son  (p  ben,  Dl  bath),  of 
Jerimoth  to  wife;"  so  most  MSS.  :  the  E.  v.  says  rightly,  "  the 
daughter"  E.  v.  Psa.  22.  16,  most  MSS.  read  "  like  alion  my  hands 
and  my  feet,"  ("""IXD  Kaari).  Thi-ee  MSS.,  two  printed  editions,  the 
LXX,  Syr.,  and  Vulg.,  read  "they  pierced;"  as  does  the  English 
version,  C^iO  or  -IIXD,  Kore  or  Kaaru).  Others,  however,  re- 
gard the   present  masoretic  text  as  defensible,  (Vitringa,  Stuart). 


46  CRITICISM:   VARIOUS   READINGS. 

Ezek.  II.  7,  most  MSS.  read  ''he  will  bring  forth"  (i^^V^n 
hotzi).  A  few  MSS.,  all  the  versions,  and  the  English  read  ''  /  will 
bring  forth,"  (N^^^IK  otzi).  Eph.  5.  9,  most  MSS.  read  "  of  the 
Spirit:"  but  A,  and  nine  others,  with  the  Syr.,  Copt.,  Ethiop.,  and 
Vulg.,  read  "  of  the  Hght." 

99.  (5.)  Readings  in  the  Pentateuch,  supported  by  the  Sam., 
a  few  Heh.  MSS.,  the  ancient  versions,  parallel  places,  and  the 
sense,  are  certainly  right,  though  not  found  in  most  MSS. 

Gen.  47.  3,  "Thy  servants  are  a  shepherd,"  (sing.):  read  with 
thirty  MSS.  and  the  Sam.  "  shepherds.'*  Even  if  the  reading  is 
not  found  in  any  Heb.  MSS.,  it  may  be  true.  Gen.  2.  24,  "  They 
TWO  shall  be  one  flesh:"  so  Sam.  LXX,  Ital.,  Syr.,  Arab.,  Vulg.; 
Matt.  19.  5.     So  Exod.  12.  40. 

100.  (6.)  The  concurrence  of  the  most  ancient  MSS.,  and 
the  sense,  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  show  that  a  reading, 
though  not  general,  is  right. 

Isa.  57.  13,  "  Let  thy  companies  deliver  thee."  Most  MSS.  have 
a  singular  verb :  but  ten  read  in  the  plural.  This  rule  is  especially 
applicable  to  the  New  Testament. 

loi.  (7.)  The  concurrence  of  the  most  ancient  versions,  and 
the  sense,  or  a  parallel  passage,  will  sometimes  show  the  pro- 
priety of  a  reading,  especially  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Psa.  68.  18,  "  He  received  gifts  for  men."  Eph.  4.  8,  says  "  He 
gave  gifts  unto  men."  So  Targ.,  Syr.,  Ethiop.,  Arab.,  and  some  of 
the  Fathers.  The  present  Heb.  is  nnp?  lakachta:  the  transposi- 
tion of  the  lettei's  explains  the  difference;  np?n  chalakta.  Isa. 
59.  20,  "  unto  them  that  tvirn  from  transgression  in  Jacob"  is  the 
present  reading.  But  the  Versions,  and  Eom.  11.  26,  read  ''that 
turn  transgression  from  Jacob."  In  both  these  passages,  how- 
ever, the  ISTew  Testament  may  be  intended  to  give  rather  the  general 
meaning,  than  the  words. 

102.  (8.)  When  a  text  is  very  corrupt,  a  parallel  passage 
may  suggest  the  true  reading. 

2  Kings  25.  3,  for  ''  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  month"  read  "  of 
the  fourth  month,"  as  in  Jer.  52.  6.  i  Chron.  i.  17,  for  *'  The 
sons  of  Shem  ....  Aram  and  Uz,"  read  "  The  sons  of  Sbem,  and  the 
sons  of  Aram,"  &c..  Gen.  10.  23.  Isa.  30.  17,  for  ''At  the  re- 
buke of  five  shall  ye  flee,"  read  "  At  the  rebuke  of  five  shall  ten 
thousand  flee,"  Lev.  26.  8. 

103.  When  v.^0  come  to  consider  readings  which  are  but 


criticism:  various  readings.  47 

Doubtful  probable,  being  equally,  or  more  or  less  nearly 
readings.  equally  Supported  by  external  evidence,  the  rules 
of  criticism  become  more  difficult,  and  the  appHcation  of  them 
must  be  made  with  less  rigidity. 

104.  (i.)  Of  two   readings,  equally  supported  by  external 
Various  evidence,  that  is  the  most  probable  which  best 

nUes.  suits  the  sense,  or  which  could  not,  so  easily  as  the 

other,  have  been  written  by  mistake. 

2  Cor,  5.  14,  "  (If)  one  died  for  all,"  il  is  omitted  in  many  MSS., 
but  the  sense  requires  it,  and  it  is  easily  omitted  before  u;.  Act? 
It.  20,  ''unto  the  Grecijns"  is  the  reading  of  many  MSS.  ;  but, 
probably,  it  ought  to  be,  as  many  read,  "to  the  Greeks;"  The  fact 
seems  noticed  because  of  its  remarkableness,  and  justly  so,  if  it  be 
the  second  case  of  the  success  of  the  gospel  among  the  heathen,  see 
chap.  10.  44,  45,  for  the  first.  Grecians  were  Jeics  who  resided  out 
of  Palestine.  2  Cor.  5.3,  '*  If  so  be  that  being  clothed"  (sv^uffciiu.ivoi) : 
so  very  many  MSS.  Others  read  ix^u<rcifji,ivoi,  "  U  we  be  even  im- 
clothed,  yet  shall  we  not  be  found  naked,  for  we  have  a  glorious 
body,  etc." 

It  may  be  noticed  as  a  general  rule,  that  readings  no  better 
than  the  received  text,  should  not  be  placed  in  it ;  but,  if  as 
good,  or  nearly  so,  they  may  be  placed  in  the  margin. 

105.  (2.)  Of  two  readings,  equally  probable,  the  fuUer  reading 
IS  more  likely  to  be  genuine  ;  unless  there  is  reason  to  sus- 
pect an  interpolation,  or  there  is  something  in  the  text  to 
suggest  an  addition ;  and  then  the  rule  is  reversed. 

In  I  Chron.  11.  32,  we  have  "Abiel;"  but  in  2  Sam.  23.  31, 
"  Abi-albon."  The  last  syllable  might  easily  be  omitted.  So  in 
Matt.  2.  I,  "  in  the  days  of  Herod"  is  omitted  in  several  MSS.;  but 
it  is  genuine. 

Yet,  if  there  is  reason  to  suppose  an  interpolation,  or  if  there 
is  something  in  the  text  to  suggest  an  addition,  the  rule  is 
reversed  ;  as  copiers  were  more  hkely,  from  intention,  to  add 
than  to  omit ;  though  they  were  more  likoly,  from  accident, 
to  omit  than  to  add. 

Acts  8.  37,  is  wanting  in  A,  and  sixty  other  MSS.,  also  in  the 
Syr.,  Ethiop.,  and  Copt.     It  is  perhaps  added  from  Rom.  10.  9. 

106.  (3.)  Of  two  readings,  the  one  classical  and  the  other 
oriental,  the  latter  is  the  more  probable. 

107.  (4.)  Of  two  readings,  the  one  easy  and  the  other  diffi- 
cult, the  latter  is  generally  to  be  preferred.    All  the  eminent 


48  CRITICISM  :   VARIOUS   READINGS. 

critics,  Wetstein,  Griesbach,  Bengel,  and  others,  have  admitte>i 
and  maintained  this  rule,  which  they  deem  of  essential  value. 

1 08.  (5.)  Of  two  readings  (equally  probable),  that  is  to  be 
preferred  which  best  agrees  with  the  style  of  the  WTiter,  or 
with  his  design,  or  with  the  context. 

Jude  I,  "  sanctified  by  God  the  Father  "  ('/lytafffiivois),  is  more  pro- 
bable than  "beloved"  (Jiya^ijfiivoi;),  because  more  common  in  the 
commencement  of  Epistles.  Acts  17.  26,  ''of  one  blood"  is 
more  probable  than  "  of  one"  (as  in  Rom.  9.  10),  because  it  is  a 
good  Hebraism.  John  6.  69,  "  Thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son 
of  the  hving  God"  (w«j),  is  preferable  to  Griesbaeh's  readmg  "  the 
Holy  One  of  God "  {oiyio;),  because  this  last  is  nowhere  applied  to 
Christ,  except  in  the  confession  of  the  demoniac.  Mark  1.  2, 
"  in  the  prophets  "  is  preferable  to  "  in  the  prophet  Isaiah,"  which 
is  the  reading  of  Gxiesbach  and  Mill,  because  two  prophets  are  quoted, 
(Isa.  40.  3:  Mai.  3.  I.) 

109.  (6.)  Conjectural  readings,  supported  by  the  sense,  or 
similar  texts,  may  be  probable  ;  but  must  not  be  received  as 
true,  unless  they  are  confirmed  by  evidence. 

In  Gen.  i.  8,  "  God  saw  that  it  was  good"  is  wanting  at  the  end 
of  the  second  day's  creation,  but  is  found  in  ver.  10,  in  the  middle 
of  the  third  day's  woi-k.  There  has,  therefore,  probably  been  a 
transposition  of  the  clause,  especially  as  the  LXX,  reads  the  phrase 
in  ver.  8.  Josh.  24.  19,  "Ye  cannot  serve  the  Lord  "  (fain  N7), 
seems  strange  at  the  end  of  an  exhortation,  to  serve  him,  "  Cease 
not  to  serve  him"  (-"l^Dh  ^57j,  is  probably  the  true  reading,  but  it 
wants  confirmation.  Isa.  52.  15,  "So  shall  he  sprinkle  many  na- 
tions "  (H-r  yazze),  is  generally  interpreted  "  he  shall  purify  or  make 
expiation  for  them ;"  but  this  sense  does  not  agi-ee  with  the  pai-allel, 
and  the  verb  has  eveiy  where  else,  a  preposition  after  it  (y]}).  The 
LXX  reads  "  Many  nations  shall  admire  him."  They  probably 
read(")|n''yechezu),  asin  Psa.  11.  7:  27.  5.  The  lexicographers  give 
this  meaning  to  the  present  word.  Isa.  17.2,  "  the  cities  of  Aroer  " 
(lyny  Aroer),  are  broken :  but  to  say  that  the  cities  of  a  city  are 
broken  is  unmeaning;  and,  besides,  this  has  nothing  to  do  with 
Damascus.  Perhaps  (HViy  adadi),  is  the  true  reading.  The  LXX 
reads  "  for  ever;"  as  this  last  reading  means,  and  the  Chald.  reads 
*'  are  laid  waste." 

no.  In  the  New  Testament  (as  MSS.  are  numerous  and 
Conjectural  varied),  conjectural  emendations  are  not  admis- 
emeudations.  gible,  and  but  very  rarely  in  the  Old. 


CRITICISII  •    VARIOUS   READINGS.  49 

111.  In  a  few  cases,  passages  have  two  or  more  various 
readings  ;  all  of  wliich  are  suitable  to  the  sense,  and  arc 
supported  by  MSS.,  vereions,  and  quotations  :  and  in  these 
cases,  the  jwobabihties  vary  with  the  evidence  ;  and  the 
work  of  determining  the  true  reading,  is  one  that  requires 
much  discrimination  and  care.  It  is  highly  satisfactory,  to 
know  that,  in  the  Bible  generally,  the  text  is  clear  and  certain 
beyond  doubt. 

112.  To  aid  the  reader  to  apply  these  rules,  we  take  as  an 
Ruiesappiied  instance,  I  John  5.  7. 

o  n  5. 7.  rpj^g  passage  is  printed  in  the  Clementine  editions  of 
the  Vulgate,  in  the  Complutensian  of  the  Greek,  in  the  third  edition 
of  Erasmus;  and  so  thence  foimd  its  way  into  the  common  texts 
of  Stephens,  Beza,  and  Elzevir. 

Against  its  genuineness  it  may  be  said, 

1.  That  no  Greek  MSS.  of  certainly  earlier  date  than  the  15th 
century  contains  it.  It  is  omitted  in  174  Cui'sive  MSS.,  and  in 
A,  B,  G,  H. 

2.  It  is  wanting  in  all  the  ancient  versions,  except  the  Latin,  nor 
is  it  found  in  the  most  ancient  MS.  of  the  Vulgate,  the  C.  Amiatinus, 
or  in  any  earlier  than  the  9th  century.  It  is  wanting,  for  example, 
in  the  two  S>ji\,  Arab.,  Copt.,  Ethiop.,  Armen.,  Slavonic  ;  though  some 
PRINTED  editions  of  the  two  latter,  and  of  the  Feshito  insert  it. 

3.  Ancient  Greek  Fathers  have  never  quoted  it.  Ver.  6,  8,  9,  are 
quoted  more  than  once,  but  ver.  7,  never. 

4.  The  best  critical  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  omit  it :  the 
first  and  second  of  Erasmus,  Aldus,  Harv:ood,  Matthcei,  Griesbach, 
Lachman,  Scholz,  Tisch.,  Hahn:  Though  on  the  other  hand.  Mill 
and  Bengel  retain  it. 


In  favour  of  its  genuineness  it  may  be  said, 


1.  That  it  is  inserted  in  some  Greek  MSS.,  the  Codex  Baviamis,  at 
Berlin,  Cod.  Guelph,  and  three  others;  concerning  which,  however, 
it  is  remarked,  that  the  first  is  a  forgery;  the  second  has  the  passage 
written,  not  in  the  text,  but  in  the  margin;  and  that  the  others  belong 
to  the  15th  century,  or  later,  and  are  therefore  modem  authorities. 

2.  It  is  found  in  the  old  Latin  versions,  except  in  copies  made  in 
Africa.     This  is  another  form  of  part  of  the  statement  above,  IS"o.  2. 

3.  It  is  supposed  to  be  quoted  by  some  of  the  Latin  Fathers,  £w 
Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  Fulgentius.  It  is  not  cleai',  however,  whether 
the  quotations  are  from  the  7th,  or  from  the  6th  and  8th  veraes. 

4.  It  is  quoted  in  a  Confession  of  Faith,  given  in  the  history  of 

D 


50  CRITICISM  :   ENGLISH  VERSION. 

the  Vandalic  persecution  iu  Africa,  and  which  Coufessiou  is  said  to 
have  been  presented  by  a  body  of  Christians  in  the  year  484.  This 
alleged  fact,  however,  is  thought  not  sufficient  to  weaken  the  posi- 
tive evidence;  and  is,  moreover,  itself  doubtful. 

5 .  It  is  said  to  be  required  by  the  construction  and  connection  of 
the  passage :  an  argument  of  which  the  English  reader  can  himself 
judge. — Porter's  "  Biblical  Criticism." 

On  the  whole,  it  is  better  not  to  rely  upon  this  passage, 
when  we  are  quoting  proofs  of  Scripture  doctrine. 

Sec.  6  The  English  Version  on  the  whole  identical  with  the 
original  Text. 

113.  A  question  of  much  interest  remains  :  Is  the  EngHsh 
English  version  of  the  Bible  accurate  ;  and  may  the  reader 
Op^infous  ou  regard  it  as,  on  the  whole,  expressive  of  the  mind 
its  accuracy,  ^f  the  Spirit  of  God  ]  And,  again,  the  answer  is  at 
hand.  The  English  Bible  is  essentially  the  Bible  of  the 
Primitive  Church.  The  Committee  appointed  in  the  days  of 
the  Commonwealth  to  inquire  into  the  possibihty  of  improving 
it  reported,  that  while  it  contained  some  mistakes,  it  was,  iu 
their  judgment,  "  the  best  of  any  translation  in  the  world." 
A  later  witness,  Dr.  Geddes,  admits  "  that,  if  accuracy,  fidelity, 
and  the  strictest  attention  to  the  letter  of  the  text  be  sup- 
posed to  constitute  the  qualities  of  an  excellent  version,  this, 
of  aU  versions,  must  in  general  be  accounted  the  most  excel- 
lent." "  Of  all  the  European  translations,"  says  Dr.  A.  Clarke, 
"  this  is  the  most  accurate  and  faithful :  nor  is  this  its  only 
praise.  The  translators  have  seized  the  very  spirit  and  the 
soul  of  the  original,  and  expressed  it  almost  every  where  with 
pathos  and  energy.'"^  Dr.  Doddridge  bears  the  same  testi- 
mony ;  and  adds,  that  his  "  corrections  affect  not  the  funda- 
mentals of  rehgion  ;  they  seldom  reach  any  further  than  the 
beauty  of  a  figure,  or  at  most  the  connexion  of  an  argument."»> 

114.  But  while  this  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of  compe- 
May  be  tent  authorities,  there  are  points  (it  is  admitted) 
improved  j^  which  the  translation  might  be  improved :  and 
these  improvements,  though  not  of  vital  importance  as 
affecting  the  doctrines  of  Scripture,  would,  if  made,  often  serve 
to  remove  objections  which  are  now  urged  against  it. 

*  Preface  to  Commeutaiy  on  Old  Testament,  p.  19, 
•>  Works,  ii.  p.  329. 


CRmCIS5I  :    ENGLISH   VERSION.  51 

115.  (i)  In  some  cases  the  English  version  has  given  a 
Examples  of  wrong  meaning  to  the  words  or  expressions  of  the 

inaccurate        „   ■    •„„! 
translation,      ongmal. 

In  Exod.  3.  22,  the  IsraeUtes  are  said  to  f^ve  "  horrou-ed"  of  the 
Egyptians  things  which  they  never  intended,  to  return.  The  original 
says  simply,  that  they  asked  for  them.  In  2  Sam.  12.  31,  a  pre- 
position is  translated  under,  instead  of  to.  David  cruelly  tortured 
his  captives,  is  the  meaning  of  the  Enghsh  version.  He  put  them 
to  ignominious  employments,  is  the  meaning  of  the  original.  So 
Ps.  73.  4,  for  "no  bands  in  their  death,"  read,  no  bands,  or  di£S,- 
culties,  till  their  death  (7).     Rosenm. 

It  may  be  observed,  generally,  that  the  use  of  prepositions  and 
particles  is  often  indeterminate  in  our  version.  For  sometimes 
means  because,  2  Cor.  5.  i;  sometimes,  instead  of ,  Isa.  60.  17;  some- 
times, in  order  to,  Rom.  4,  3.  So,  of  means  from,  as  in  John  8.  40, 
42;  and  ly,  as  in  i  Cor.  15.  5.  These  ambiguities  are  not  in  the 
original.  In  the  narrative  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  2.  23,  the  word 
translated  ''children"  is  translated,  elsewhei-e,  "young  men;"  and 
is  apphed  to  Isaac  when  he  was  twenty-eight  years  old,  and  to  Joseph 
when  he  was  thirty.  In  i  Chron,  19.  7,  a  word  is  translated 
"chariots,"  instead  of  "riders;"  and  the  passage  is  made  to  con- 
tradict 2  Sam.  10.  6.  This  correction  makes  the  passages  consistent; 
32,000  men  (cavalry  and  foot-soldiers)  being  the  entire  number. 

In  2  Kings  6.  25,  the  article  sold  for  five  shekels  of  silver  was  a 
kind  of  pulse,  or  vetch,  as  Bochai-t  has  shown;  the  fourth  part  of  a 
cab  being  about  a  pint.  Gen.  4.  15  ;  for  "set  a  mai'k  upon,"  read, 
"gave  a  sign  or  asstirance  to."  Lev.  7.  10;  for  "mingled  with 
oil  and  dry,"  read,  or  dry  (i.  e.,  whichever  it  be).  Deut.  33.  25; 
for  "shoes,"  iron  and  brass,  read  bars,  alluding  to  the  chain  of 
mountains  which  protected  Asher  from  the  inroads  of  the  Gentiles. 
Judges  15.  8,  11;  for  "top,"  read  "cleft."  Josh.  24.  14,  15;  for 
*' flood,"  read  "river."  i  Kings  i.  45;  for  "inGihon"  (a river), 
read  "at  Gihon."  i  Kings  4.  ji;  for  " sons  of  Mahol,"  read, 
"players  on  the  timbrel."  Compare  i  Chron.  2.  6.  i  Kings  18. 
42;  for  "he  cast  himself  down  upon,"  read,  "he  bowed  down 
to."  I  Kings  18.  43;  for  "  he  said  go  again  seven  times,"  read, 
"  he  said  seven  times,  go  again."  2  Chi-on.  8.  2  ;  for  "  had 
restored,"  read,  "had  given."  2  Chron.  21.  11;  for  "com- 
pelled," read,  "sent  bJTn  astray,"  as  in  Deut.  30.  17:  4.  19.  Neh. 
6.  it;  for  "to  save  his  life,"  read,  "and  live."  Not  being  a 
priest,  Nehemiah  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  holy  place.  Psa. 
86.  2;  for  "  I  am  holy,"  read,  "  I  am  a  devout  man,  or  the  object 
of  thy  favour." 

d2 


52  CRITICISM  ;   ENGLISH   VERSION. 

In  Jolin  10,  2S,  29,  for  ''no  man,  any  man,"  read,  ''none,  any.'' 
In  Acts  7.  45,  for  "that  came  after,"  read,  "having  received.'' 
In  Acts  17.  23,  for  "  ignorantly,"  read,  "without  knowing  him." 
In  Acts  22.  23,  for  "cast  off,"  read,  "threw  up."  In  Acts  27,  12, 
for  "lieth,"  read,  "  looketh."  In  verse  15,  for  "into  the  wind," 
read,  "against  the  vvdnd."  In  Acts  26.  18,  for  "to  turn  them," 
read,  "that  they  may  turn."  In  2  Cor.  3.  6,  for  "who  hath 
made  us  able  ministers,"  read,  "  who  hath  fitted  us  to  be  ministers." 
In  Gal.  4.  24,  the  history  of  the  sons  of  Hagar  and  Sarah  is  said 
to  be  an  "allegory,"  or  a  fictitious  narrative.  The  apostle  merely 
says  that  it  represents  important  spiritual  truth:  the  Jews  of  the 
apostles'  day,  "Jerusalem  that  now  is,"  answering  to  Ishmael; 
and  true  believers — the  Church — to  Isaac,  the  heir  of  the  promise. 
In  2  Pet.  I.  5,  for  "and  beside  this,"  read,  "and  for  this  very 
reason."  Miletiis  (not  urn),  Euodia  (not  as),  Urbautis  (not  e), 
are  the  correct  renderings;  and  Joshua  is  less  liable  to  mistake 
than  Jesus,  in  Acts  7.  45  :  Heb.  4.  8. 

116.  (2)  In  some  cases,  the  full  force  of  the  original  is  not 
Examples  of   expressed. 

inadequate 

translation.  In  John  i.  14,  the  word  is  said  "to  have  dwelt  among 
us :"  the  original  connects  his  appearance  with  the  ancient  tabernacle 
as  the  dwelling-place  of  the  Divine  glory.  In  i  Cor.  4.  13,  the 
apostles  are  said  to  have  been  made  as  "the  filth  of  the  earth  :" 
literally,  "the sweepings "  (classical usage),  or  " appeasing  offerings " 
(LXX  and  classical  usage).  "  Rid  of  us,  the  world  will  deem 
itself  comparatively  clean  ;"  or  "  it  offers  us  in  expiation  to  its  gods," 
John  16.  2.  In  Heb.  12.  2,  Christians  are  described  as  "looking 
to  Jesus:"  the  original  implies,  looking  up  to  him,  and  away  from 
every  other  object  of  trust.  In  2  Tim.  2.  5,  read,  "if  a  man 
contend  in  the  games."  So  in  1  Cor.  9.  25.  In  i  Thess.  4.  6, 
read  "in  that  matter."  In  i  Pet.  2.  13,  read,  "Submit  your- 
selves therefore." 

In  several  passages  the  sense  of  the  original  is  weakened  by  a  mis- 
translation of  the  Greek  article.  In  2  Thess  i.  12,  e.g.,  we  read, 
"according  to  the  grace  of  our  God  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ:" 
the  original  reads,  "according  to  the  grace  of  our  God  and  Lord, 
Jesus  Chi'ist:"  and  so  in  2  Pet.  t.  i,  in  Titus  2.  13,  the  original 
reads,  "the  glorious  appearing  of  our  great  God  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ."  In  i  Thess.  4.  13,  read,  for  "even  as  others,"  "even 
as  tlu:  rest  of  the  world."  In  2  Thess.  2.  15,  read,  "whether  by 
our  word."  In  i  Cor.  4.  5,  read,  "and  then  shall  every  man 
have  of  God  the  praise  that  is  hts."        In  i  Cor.  5.  9,  read  "in  my 


CRmCISM  :   ENGLISH   VERSION.  53 

epistle,"  and  for  "I  wrote,"  read,    ''I  have  written,"  referring  pro- 
bably to  the  same  epistle. 

The  Hebrew  article,  though  less  definite  than  the  Greek,  is  often 
important.  In  Exod,  17,  14,  read^  "in  the  book  (viz,  of  the  law}:" 
in  Psa.  89.  37,  i-ead,  ''as  the  faithful  witness  in  heaven  (the  rain- 
bow)." In  Isa.  7.  14,  Bp.  Lowth  reads,  following  the  Hebrew, 
"  Behold  the  Virgin  conceiveth,  etc.'* 

1 1 7-  (3)  I^  some  cases  the  29ec2<Ziar  idiom  of  the  original 
Examples  of   ^^^  ^^en  Overlooked, 
peculiar"  ^^  ^  Kings  2.  8,    9,    where   David   says   concerning 

idiom.  Shimei,   "  Hold  him  not  guiltless but  his  hoaiy 

head  bring  down  with  blood  to  the  grave,"  the  word  not  ought  (in 
Dr.  Kennicott's  opinion)  to  be  repeated  in  the  second  ckuse,  as  it 
is  in  Psa.  i.  5:  9.  i-i:  38.  i:  75.  5:  Isa.  23.  4(orig.jetc.  The  event 
shows  that  Solomon  understood  David's  language  in  this  sense. 
He  immediately  put  Joab  to  death:  but  Shimei,  though  he  held 
him  not  guiltless,  he  merely  bound  to  remain  in  Jerusalem, 
as  a  person  who  might  not  be  trusted  elsewhere.  Kennicott's 
Remarks,  p.  131.  In  i  Cor.  4.  4,  "1  know  nothing  by  myself," 
is,  **I  am  not  conscious  of  anything"  (viz.,  wrong).  In  Gal.  5. 
17,  the  expression  is  ambiguous,  and  should  be,  "So  that  ye  do  not 
the  things  that  ye  would."  In  Acts  17.  23,  for  "devotions," 
read,  "objects  of  devotion."  In  i  Cor.  i.  21,  for  "  the  foolish- 
ness oi  preaching"  read,  "the  foolishness  of  the  preaching"  i.e., 
with  special  reference  to  the  doctrine  preached.  So  Luke  11.  32 
In  2  Pet.  2.  5,  read,  "  Koah,  v:ith  seven  others"  In  Heb.  12.  18, 
read,  "  the  moimtain  that  coidd  be  touched." 

Both  in  the  Old  and  Nev^  Testament,  again,  verbs  are  some- 
times translated  in  the  wrong  tenses. 

Mtauy  of  the  imprecations  in  the  Psalms  are  really  predictions, 
and  express  the  rule  of  the  Divine  government  rather  than  the 
prayer  of  the  author.  In  2  Kings  23.  30,  read  "in  a  chariot 
d'jing"  See  2  Chron.  35,  24.  The  present  translation  of  John 
15.  2,  "supper  being  ended,"  contradicts  ver.  26-28,  The  original 
is,  "  supper  being  come."  So  in  Acts  2.  47,  for  "  such  as  should  be 
saved,"  read,  "such  as  were  being  saved."  So  i  Cor.  i.  18:  2  Cor. 
2.  15,  16:  4.  3.  In  Luke  5.  6,  read,  "  began  to  break,"  or  "  was 
breaking"  (see  ver.  7).     So  Matt.  8.   24:  Luke  8.   23:  Mai'k  4.  37: 

1  Cor.  ir.  23:  2  Pet.  i.  16. 

In  2  Cor.  5 .  14,  read,  "  then  are  all  dead,"  or  "  have  all  died."       In 

2  Cor.  12.2,  3,  for  "I  knew,"  read,  "I  know."         In  Luke  23.  4G, 
read,  "  And  Jesus  cried  with  a  loud  voice,   saj-ing."         In  Philem. 


54  CRITICISM  :   ENGLISH   VERSION. 

21,  for  ''I  wrote,"  read,  "I  have  Avritten,"  as  in  ver.  19.  See  also 
Jas.  2,  21:  I  Tliess.  i.  10:  Acts  7.  36. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  the  numbers  men- 
tioned seem  enormously  large,  and  may  be  corrected  by  the 
idiom. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  that  at  Bethshemesh  (a  small  town)  the 
Lord  smote  50,070  men,  i  Sam.  6.  19:  and,  in  Judges  12.  6,  there 
are  said  to  have  fallen  of  the  Ephraimites  42,000:  while  a  short  time 
before  the  tribe  contained  only  32,500  persons.  Both  passages  are 
corrected  by  a  mode  of  notation  still  common  among  the  Arabians. 
They  say,  in  the  year  12  and  300  for  312.  Translating  literally,  we 
have  for  the  first  passage,  "  the  Lord  smote  seventy  men,  fifties  and 
a  thousand,"  or  11 70.  And  for  the  second,  "there  fell  of  the 
Ephraimites  40  and  2000,"  or  2040. — Taylor  in  Calmet. 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  generally  that  numerical  state- 
ments in  oriental  languages  are  peculiarly  liable  to  error  in 
transcription. 

In  the  Hebrew,  for  example,  N  is  i;  j<  is  looo;  1  is  2;  D  is  20; 
y  stands  for  7000;  |  for  700;  and  the  one  letter  being  inadvei'tently 
written  in  very  early  copies  for  the  other  has  given  rise  to  some 
apparent  contradictions,  2  Sam.  8.  4:  i  Chron.  18.  4.  There  is  a 
similar  error  in  2  Sam.  10.  18,  700  (|);  see  i  Chron.  19.  18,  7000 

(y).  "  I  Kings  4.  26,  40,000  ({^icy^nX  probably)  ;  see  2  Chrou, 
9.  25,  4000  (j<ni?n"lK).  I  Kings  9.  23,  550  (31);  see  2  Chron. 
8.  10,  250  01).  I  Kings  9.  28,  420  nn);  see  2  Chron.  8,  18, 
450  on).  2   Kings  8.    26,   22   (13);    see  2    Chron.   22.    2,   42 

(3D).         The  numerals  in  Josephus  are  similarly  corrupt. 

118.  (4.)  In  some  cases,  the  same  v^ord  in  the  original  is 
Same  words    rendered  by  different  words  in  the  English. 

translated  by- 
different  lu  Isa.  37.  3,  an  accurate  translation  would  suggest 
°"®^-  that  the  insult  Rabshakeh  had  ofFered  to  Judah  was  to 
recoil  upon  himself.  He  rcproned  Judah,  and  God  reproved  him. 
In  Psa.  132.  6,  "  the  fields  of  the  wood"  is  the  translation  of  what  is 
really  a  proper  name,  "  of  Jearim,"  as  it  is  given  in  i  Chron.  13.  5, 
"Kirjath"  (or  the  city  of)  "Jearim."  In  Lev.  19.  5,  "  at  your 
own  will,"  should  rather  be,  ''  that  it  may  be  accepted  of  you,"  as 
in  ver.  7,  ?ind  so  22.  20,  21. 

In  Matt.  25.  46,  the  eternal  life  of  the  lighteous  and  the  ever- 
lasting punishment  of  the  wicked  are  expressed  by  the  same  word. 
To  "  apprehend"  may  be  translated  to  lay  hold  of  or  ohtain  in  Phil. 


CRITICISM  :   ENGLISH   VERSION.  55 

3.  12,  as  in  I  Cor,  9.  24.  The  same  -word  is  translated  "  imputed," 
"  cormted,"  and  "  accounted"  in  Rom.  4.  3:  Gal.  3.  6;  James  2,  23. 
"  Attendance  "  is  everywhere  translated  "  heed"  or  "  attention," 
except  in  i  Tim.  4.  13,  "  Comforter,"  (John  14.  16:  15.  26: 
16.  7)  is  the  word  translated  "  advocate  "  in  i  John  2,  i,  and  the  idea 
is  given  in  the  word  "  consolation"  in  Luke  2.  25,  and  elsewhere. 
In  2  Cor.  3.  and  Heb.  8.  "  covenant"  and  "  testament"  represent 
the  same  words.  In  Acts  19.  2,  a  word  is  translated  "  if  there  he" 
a  Holy  Ghost,  which  is  rendered  more  accurately  in  John  7.  39, 
"  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  yet  given." 

The  following  shoiild  be  translated  uniformly:  i  Cor.  15.  24,  26 
(put  down):  Rom.  3.  2,  3,  11  (rejoice,  glory,  joy):  Rom.  8.  19,  22 
(creature,  creation):  Matt.  20.  31:  Mark  10.  48  {charged,  vebnkedC): 
Mark  8.  35,  36  (life,  soul):  i  Cor.  r.  4,  5:  Eph.  i.  3  (in,  by): 
I  Cor.  7.  12,  13  (leave,  put  away).  See  also  Heb.  9.  23  (ver.  14): 
1.3:  10.  2:  Tit.  2.  14:  I  John  I.  7:  John  15.  2,  3:  and  Rom. 
15-4,  5- 

119.  (5.)  On  the  other  hand,  different  words  in  the  original 
Different        ^^^  often  rendered  by  the  same  word  in  English. 

translated  by  ''■^  ^^®  ^^^  Testament  the  word  "  vanity  "  represents 
the  same  three  Hebrew  words  at  least,  one  meaning  "breath" 
^^^^  '  or    nothingness,  as   in   Psa.   62.    9;    another  meaning 

wicked  profitless  deception,  as  the  heathen  idols,  Isa.  41.  29;  and  a 
thirds  meaning  falsehood,  as  in  Psa.  41.  6:  Job  31.  5.  All  these 
terms  convey  sometimes  the  ideas  of  profitlessness  and  of  sin;  but 
the  first  especially  is  used  to  indicate  mere  insignificancy.  In  Psa. 
89.  47,  the  sense  is,  How  vain  (fleeting,  insignificant)  are  the  sons 
of  men,  whom  thou  hast  created. 

Lord  in  capitals  is  the  translation  of  Jehovah,  and  Lord  in  small 
letters,  of  another  word.  See  Psa.  no.  i.  This  distinction  is  im- 
portant. 

The  word  ''  repentance  "  is  used  to  translate  a  word  denoting  that 
change  of  disposition  {/jciravoia)  to  which  the  term  is  properly  ap- 
plied: and  this  is  the  common  meaning.  But  it  is  also  used  to 
translate  another  word,  denoting  merely  regret  or  a  change  of  plans 
{fjt.ira.fjt.ixua,),  without  implying  any  change  of  disposition.  This  is 
the  meaning  in  Matt.  21.  29,  32:  27.  3:  2  Cor.  7.  8,  10:  Hob.  7.  21. 
Elsewhere,  the  former  word  is  used. 

"Conversation"  again  is  the  translation  of  two  words;  and 
means  (r)  citizenship,  as  in  Phil.  i.  27:  3.  20;  and  (2)  everjrwhere 
else  in  the  Xew  Testament,  course  of  life,  or  behaviour.  The  Greek 
word  for  conversation,  in  the  modern  sense,  is  translated  in  our 
version   "communication,"  Matt.  5.  37:  Liike  24.   17:  Eph.  4.  29. 


56  CRITICISM  :   ENGLISH  VERSION. 

In  I  Cor.  15.  33,  however,  communication  is  the  rendering  of  a 
word  which  signifies  intercourse. 

"  Hell"  again  means  (i)  the  invisible  state,  the  place  of  departed 
spirits,  without  reference  to  their  condition  of  happiness  or  misery, 
as  in  Matt.  11.  23:  16.  18:  Luke  10.  15:  16.  23:  Acts  2.  27,  31: 
I  Cor.  15.  55:  Rev.  i.  18:  6.  8:  20.  13,  14:  and  (2)  the  place  of 
eternal  punishment,  as  in  Matt.  5.  22,  29,  30:  10.  28:  18.  9:  23. 
15,  ^^:  Mark  9.  43,  45,  47:  Luke  12.  5:  James  3.  6.  These  two 
meanings  are  represented  in  the  original  by  different  words. 

The  word  ''temple"  is  the  translation  of  two  words;  and  means 
either  the  whole  consecrated  precinct  {Upov),  or  the  portion  appro- 
priated as  the  local  abode  of  God's  presence  (vaoj).  In  the  first 
sense  (including  the  outer  or  imroofed  court)  markets  were  held  in 
it  (Matt.  21.  12),  and  the  rabbis  met  their  pupils  there.  It  is  to  the 
second  that  our  Lord  refers,  when  he  said,  "  Destroy  this  temple" 
(alluding  to  the  indwelling  of  the  Divine  nature  in  his  person).  So 
is  it  applied  to  Christians  in  i  Cor.  3.  16:  6.  19. 

''Ordain"  is  the  ti-anslation  of  several  words;  and  means  deter- 
mined in  Acts  10.  42:  17.  31;  and  foredetermined  in  i  Cor.  2.  7. 
The  word  used  in  the  following  passages  is  different;  and  means 
ordained,  with  the  idea  of  setting  in  order,  Acts  13.  48:  Rom.  13.  i: 
Gal.  3.  19:  I  Cor.  9.  14.  In  Acts  16.  4,  it  represents  a  word  that 
means  to  decide.  In  Eph.  2.  10,  to  prepare  (as  in  Rom.  9.  23). 
In  r  Tim.  2.  7,  to  appoint  (as  in  2  Tim.  i.  11:  Acts  13.47:  20.  28). 
In  Heb.  5.  i:  8.  3,  to  constitute  or  establish.  In  Jude,  ver.  4,  to 
write  up  in  the  face  of  men,  or  denounce,  or  to  write  concerning  a  thing 
before  hand.  In  Acts  i.  22,  and  Rom.  7.  10,  there  is  no  correspond- 
ing word  in  the  original. 

The  word  "devils"  (pi.)  should  a/wa^/s  be  ti-anslated  demons  or 
evil  spirits :  and  the  word  devil  should  be  translated  demon  in  the 
following  passages:  Matt.  9.  32:  11.  18:  12.  22:  15.  22:  17.  18: 
Mark;  wherever  found.  Luke 4.  33,  35:  7.  33:  11.  14:  ^ohn  7.20: 
8.  48,  49,  52,  In  all  other  passages  the  word  is  rightly  translated 
the  devil,  as  in  Matt.  4.  i:  Rev.  20.  2. 

"  WilV  is  sometimes  the  translation  of  the  future;  but  some- 
times of  an  independent  verb,  as  in  John  5.  40:  7.  17:  8.  44:  Matt. 

11,  14,  27:  T 6.  24,  25:  19.  17.  21:  Luke  9.  24:  13.  31:  I  Pet.  3.  10: 
Rev.  II.  5.  In  two  passage  "/momW"  expresses  a  duty  in  addition 
to  a  wish  {otptXov),  Gal.  5 .  1 2 :  Rev.  3.15.  "  Shall "  is  sometimes  used 
imperatively,  and  sometimes  as  a  simple  future.  It  is  a  simple 
future  in  Matt.   17.  22:  Mark  10.  32:   Luke  24.   21:  John  6.  71: 

12.  4:  Acts  23.  3:  Rom.  4.  24:  8. 13.  The  word  translated  "shall" 
in  some  of  these  passages  (^='xXw)  is  translated  "  will"  or  "  would" 
m  Matt.  2.  13:  Luke  10.  i:  John  6.  6:  7.  35:  i4-  22:  Acts  16.  27: 


criticism:  English  vehsiox.  5/ 

--:5.  4:  27.  10 ;  Rev.  3. 16.  Simple  futurity  is  expressed  in  each  On 
the  other  hand,  duty  or  necessity  (2«)  is  found  in  Matt.  26.  35. 
This  is  the  word  generally  translated  "  must"  or  "  ought." 

"  Shall "  is  not  now  used  as  a  simple  future,  except  where  "  will " 
would  be  ambiguous. 

See  also  Acts  19.  15:  Rev.  4.  6  (comp.  chap.  13):  i  Cor.  2.  15 
(comp;  2.  14). 

120.  (6)  Some  of  the  expressions  of  our  English  version  are 
Obaoiete         obsolete  in  the  sense  in  which  the  translators  used 

terms.  iYiQm. 

Audience  means  the  ^act  of)  hearing,  Luke  7.  i.  Carriage 
expx-essed  what  is  now  called  baggage,  1  Sam.  17.  22:  Acts  21.  15. 
Charger  means  a  large  dish,  Matt.  14.  8.  Charity  means  love, 
2  Cor.  15.  2,  To  C03IF0RT  means  to  strengthen,  as  a  helper,  to 
succour;  and  hence,  to  encourage  and  cheer.  So  advocate  meant 
one  called  in  on  an  emergency.  The  first  word  is  now  confined  to 
consoling  the  afflicted ;  and  the  second  is  used  in  a  restricted  sense. 
In  Scripture  the  idea  is  general,  to  strengthen,  to  guide,  stimulate, 
aid,  encourage,  i  Cor.  14.  31:  i  Thess.  5.  ir,  14  (where  it  is  rightly 
translated  ''exhort"):  Rom.  15.4.  Convince  has,  in  old  English, 
the  sense  of  convict,  John  8.  46,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  writings  of 
Lord  Bacon  (Essays).  Damnation  would  be  more  correctly 
rendered  "condemnation"  in  i  Cor.  11.  29;  so  in  Rom.  14.  23. 
Dispensation  of  the  guspel  means  "stewardship,"  i  Cor.  9.  17. 
To  EAR  the  ground  is,  to  till  it,  i  Sam.  8.  12.  Frankly  or 
Freely  means  gratuitously,  "  Fx-eely  ye  have  received,  freely 
give."  "  He  frankly  forgave  them  both."  Harness  in  Exod.  13. 
18:  1  Kings  20.  II,  denotes  armour.  The  word  in  the  original  may 
also  mean  in  files  or  rows.  Heir  often  meant,  in  old  English,  heritor 
or 2)ossessor.  "Heir  of  the  righteousness  by  faith"  is  possessor  of 
it;  Heb.  11.  7.  So  Christ  was  appointed  heir  or  possessor  of  all 
things,  Heb.  i.  2.  His  is  the  old  English  form  of  its,  Matt.  12. 
25:  24.  32:  25.  52;  Acts  12.  10:  I  Cor.  15.  38:  I  Cor.  13.  5. 
Instant,  Instantly,  means  urgent;  closely  applying  oneself  to  a 
business,  Luke  23.  23  :  Acts  26.  7.  Leasing  means  lying,  Psa.  4.  2. 
To  LET  means  to  hinder,  Isa.  43.  13:  2  Thess.  2.  7:  Rom.  i.  13. 
Lewd  means  ignorant,  untaught,  idle,  bad,  Acts  17.  5.  Malice 
(from  Malitia)  always  means  vice  or  wickedness  generally.  It  refers 
to  sin  in  its  intrinsic  nature ;  sin  or  transgression  having  reference 
to  it  as  the  violation  of  Divine  law,  i  Cor.  14.  20:  i  Pet.  2.  16.  So 
in  James  1.  21,  where  the  same  word  is  translated  "naughtiness." 
Mortify  means  to  kill,  to  put  to  death,  Rom,  8.  13:  Col.  3.5. 
To    OFFEND   means  sometimes   to   give   offence;    but   its   ancient 

D  3 


68  CRITICISM  :   ENGLISH   VERSION. 

meaning  is  to  cause  or  give  occasion  to  stumble,  as  in  i  John  2.  lo: 
Matt.  5.  29.  It  may  often  be  translated  "insnare."  Mystery 
now  means  a  doctrine  or  fact  which  is  incomprehensible;  involving 
often  the  idea  of  apparent  and  to  us  irreconcileable  contradiction. 
In  Scripture  it  means  a  revealed  secret,  a  truth  not  previously  known, 
Rom.  16.  25,  26;  I  Cor.  2.  7-10:  Eph.  i.  9:  6.  19:  Col.  i.  26,  27. 
Of  course.  Scripture  doctrines  often  involve  mystery  in  the  common 
sense  of  the  word.  But  it  is  not  in  this  sense  that  Scripture  uses  it. 
The  doctrine  that  God  would  receive  the  Gentiles  into  the  church, 
e.g.,  is  called  by  St.  Paul,  "  a  mystery,"  because  it  "  was  not  made 
known  unto  the  sons  of  men"  till  the  gospel  revealed  it,  Eph.  3. 

3,  5.  ''Mystery"  is  also  used  in  Eph.  5.  32,  and  in  Rev,  for  a 
symbolical  representation,  i.  20:  17.  5,  a  meaning  not  materially 
different  however  from  the  above.  It  signifies  an  emblem  of  revealed 
truth.  Nephew  is  an  old  word  for  descendant,  i  Tim.  5.  4. 
Penny  was  originally  any  piece  of  silver  money.  It  is  now  confined 
to  our  largest  copper  coin.  The  value  of  the  Roman  penny  was 
neai-ly  %d.,  John  6.  7.  See  Rev.  6.  6,  where  the  sense  is  reversed 
by  our  present  translation:  "a  measure  of  wheat  for  a  penny," 
giving  rather  the  idea  of  plenty  than  of  want.  Prevent  means 
to  come  before  or  anticipate,  Psa.  119.  148:  Matt.  17.  25:   i  Thess. 

4.  15:  or  to  surprise,  2  Sam.  22.  6,  19.  Purge  is  to  cleanse,  to 
clear  away,  John  15.  2  (applied  to  pruning):  Heb.  9.  14.  Quick 
means  alive,  2  Tim.  4.  i:  Eph.  2.  i:  Psa.  124.3.  Religion  is 
never  used  in  Scriptm'e,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word,  for 
godliness  or  piety;  but  for  religious  worship  or  observance.  It  is 
found  only  in  Acts  26.  5:  Col.  2.  18  (orig.):  and  James  i.  26,  27. 
It  means  (as  in  the  last  case)  the  outward  expression  of  religious 
feeling.  Room  means  place  (as  in  Acts  24.  27):  Matt.  23.  6: 
Mark  12.  39:  Luke  14,  7:  20.  46.  To  take  thought  means  to 
be  distracted  or  anxious.  Matt.  6.  25.  Vain  is  unreal,  false, 
delusive,  immoral;  especially  as  connected  with  a  groundless  and 
idolatrous  creed,  Rom.  i.  21:  i  Pet.  i.  18:  Rom.  8.  20:  Eph.  4.  17. 
So  "made  a  road,"  means  went  for  spoil,  or  made  a  "raid,"  in 
I  Sam,  27.  10:  "  in  a  several  house"  for  "alone,"  2  Kings  15. 
5  ;  "fetched  a  compass,"  for  made  a  circuit,  in  Acts.  For  coasts, 
read,  borders  or  districts  in  Judges  18.  2:  Matt,  2.  i6;  15.  21. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  most  of  these  obsolete  terms  have 
f-arnished  objections  to  the  truth  of  the  sacred  Scriptures. 
Very  many  of  the  objections  urged  by  Voltaire  are  founded  on 
similar  mistranslations  in  the  Vulgate." 

*  Newcome's  Historical  View  of  English  Biblical  Translations, 
p.  206. 


CRITICISM  :   ENGLISH   VERSION.  •       59 

121.  It  may  be  added  that  there  are  several  apparent. 
,„  .  discrepancies  in  Scripture  from  want  of  uniformity 
uniformity  in  of  translation. 

translating 

the  same  In  Psa.  19.  4,  "  line"  may  be  translated  "  sound,"  as 

words.  jj^  E,om.  10.  18.         Jer.  31.32,  ''  though  I  was  a  husband 

unto  them/'  may  be  rendered,  "  and  I  rejected  them/'  as  in  Heb.  8. 
9.  So  Hos.  14.  2  (Heb.  13.  15):  Isa.  28.  16  (Rom.  9.  n):  Mic,  5.  2 
(Matt.  2.  6):  Psa.  104.  4  (Heb,  i.  7):  Psa.  68.  18  (Eph.  4.  8). 

122.  Some  words  are  untranslated  :  as 

Words  Amen  ;    true,    or  so   be   it.  H alleluia;    praise 

untranslated.  Jehovah.  Hosanna;  save  now.  ^Masimon;  riches. 
Maranatha;  in  the  coming  of  the  Lord.        Sabaoth;  hosts. 

123.  The  precise  meaning  of  a  very  few  words  is  unknown. 
Meaning  *'  Higgaion "  occurs  in  the  Psalms  seventy-one 
not  kno\vn.  times,  and  thrice  in  Hahakkuk.  It  was  probably  a 
musical  mark.  "  Selah  "  is  equally  uncertain  ;  but  may  have 
been  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

124.  The  marginal  readings  of  the  Enghsh  version  often 
Marginal  deserve  attention.  They  express  another  sense,  of 
readings,  which  the  original  is  capable  :  and  they  sometimes 
throw  light  upon  the  meaning.  They  might  be  multiphed 
with  advantage,  e.  g. 

Gen.  21.  14,  Hagar  vxmder ed  inio  the  wilderness,  as  if  in  despair, 
or  she  '  lost  her  way,'  having  probably  set  out  to  return  to  Egypt. 
Rom.  I.  18,  '  who  held  the  truth,'  or  '  repress,'  or  '  impede,'  a  sense 
more  consistent  with  the  scope,  and  Avith  Scripture  generally. 
The  marginal  reading  in  the  following  passages  is  preferable ;  Judges 
II.  31:  Gal.  5.  24. 

125.  It  is  to  be  observed,  further,  that  words  printed  in  the 

Enghsh  version,  in  Itahcs,  are  not  generally  in  the 
original.     They  are  often  necessary  to  express  the 

sense,  and  they  often  express  it  happily,  but  they  sometimes 

add  a  sense  which  is  not  in  the  sacred  text. 

Of  felicitous  Itahcs,  there  is  an  instance  in  Psa.  109,  4  ;  "  I  give 
myself  to  prayer :"  and  again  in  Psa,  133.3;  ' '  -^s  the  dew  of  Hermon, 
and  as  the  dew  that  descended  upon  the  mountains  of  Zion."  Without 
the  words  in  Italics,  the  passage  would  be  inconsistent  with  physical 
facts,  Hermon  being  upwards  of  a  hundred  miles  distant  from  Zion. 

Oa  the  other  hand,  the  sense  is  obscured  in  Matt.  20.  23,  wliere 
Christ  is  represented  in  the  English  version  as  having  no  power  to 


60  ENGLISH   VERSION  :   DIVISIONS. 

give  honours  in  heaven.  The  omission  of  the  words  in  Italics, 
exhibits  the  true  meaning.  "  To  sit  upon  my  right  hand,  is  nol 
mine  to  give,  except  for  whom  it  is  prepared."  See  John  17.  2: 
Eev.  3.  21. 

In  some  cases  the  Italic  words  ought  to  be  printed  in  Roman 
letters :  as  the  auxiliary  verbs,  the  word  *  not,'  in  such  passages  aa 
Deut.  33.  6:  Psa.  75.  5:  Isa.  38.  18:  Job  30.  20,  25:  the  Hebrew 
idiom  not  requiring  the  repetition  of  the  negative. 

126.  The  analysis  of  the  chapters  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
Analysis  of  titles  and  subscriptions  of  the  books  of  the  New 
and^ubscrip-  Testament,  form  no  part  of  the  inspired  writings, 
tions.  (See  §  51). 

127.  The  present  division  of  the  Scriptures  too,  into  chap- 

ters and  verses,  and  the  order  of  the  several  books, 

Divisions.  j       ^    t\-    •  •    •  xi  n  j. 

are  not  of  Divine  origin,  nor  are  they  01  great 
antiquity.  The  books  are  now  arranged,  not  with  reference  to 
their  historical  connexion,  but  chiefly  with  reference  to  their 
contents,  and  the  position  of  their  authors.  The  Vulgate  was 
the  first  version  divided  into  chapters  :  a  w^ork  undertaken 
by  cardinal  Hugo,  in  the  I3tli  century,  or  as  Jahn  thinks,  by 
Langton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1227.  He  introduced 
the  division  of  chapters  only.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were 
similarly  divided  by  Mordecai  Nathan,  in  1445,  and  in  1661 
Athias  added  in  his  printed  text,  the  division  into  verses. 
The  New  Testament  was  divided  in  the  same  way  by  Eobert 
Stephens,  who  is  said  to  have  completed  it  in  the  year  1551, 
during  a  journey  (inter  equitandum),  from  Paris  to  Lyons. ' 

As  might  be  expected,  these  divisions  are  very  imperfect: 
and  even  when  not  inaccurate,  they  tend  to  break  the  sense 
and  to  obscure  the  meaning. 

The  subject  of  2  Kings  begins  at  the  24th  verse  of  chap.  6. 
The  description  of  the  humiliation  and  glory  of  Christ,  (the  subject 
of  Isa.  53.)  begins  at  chap.  52.  13:  and  the  previous  verses  of  chap. 
52.  belong  to  chap.  51.  The  6th  verse  of  Jer.  3.  begins  a  dis- 
tinct prophecy,  which  is  continued  to  the  end  of  chap.  6. 

The  first  vei-se  of  Col,  4.  belongs  to  chap.  3.  Connect  in  the 
same  way,  Gen.  2.  1-3,  and  chap,  i:  Horn.  15.  1-13,  and  chap. 
14:  I  Cor.    II.  I,   and  chap.   10.:    2  Cor.  4.  and  chaps.  5.  6.   7. 

The  latter  part  of  Matt.  9.  belongs  to  the  loth  chapter.  John 
».  I,  belongs  to  the  7th;  and  the  last  two  verses  of  Acts  4.  belong 
to  chap,  5. 


ENGLISH   VEESION  :  DIVISIO>'S.  61 

As  a  iTile,  no  importance  is  to  be  attaclied  to  the  division  of 
verses  or  of  chapters,  unless  it  coincide  with  the  division  of 
paragraphs.  Follow  the  pauses  of  the  narrative,  and  mark  the 
change  of  the  subjects  discussed. 

128.  The   ancient   divisions    of    the  New   Testament   are 

noticed  in  §  49.  To  complete  information  on 
sion  of  Old  this  point,  we  append  a  brief  account  of  the  ancient 
Tesumeni.     clivisions  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Modern  Jews  use  the  present  division  of  chapter  and  verse. 
But  ancient  MSS.  were  differently  divided.  The  law  had 
fiftj-four  greater  divisions,  called  Parashoth,  and  the  Prophets 
had  similar  divisions  called  Haphtaroth,  or  dismissions,  being 
read  shortly  before  the  close  of  the  service.  One  of  each  of 
these  divisions  was  read  on  the  sabbath.  Smaller  divisions 
were  employed  especially  in  the  law,  called  also  Parashoth, 
sometimes  "  open  "  (mhinS),  where  there  is  an  obvious  break 
in  the  sense,  and  sometimes  "  shut,"  or  leaning  upon  (HIDiriD 
or  ri'D-IDD),  where  the  sense  runs  on.  Of  these,  there  are  in 
the  Pentateuch  alone,  669.  They  are  marked  Q  and  D  res- 
pectively. 

129.  When  Jews  referred  to  the  Old  Testament,  it  was  their 
Scripture  how  custom  to  mention  the  subject  of  the  paragi^aph, 
quoted.  ^g  j^  g^iH  js  amoug  the  Arabs,  in  quoting  from  the 
Koran. 

'In  Ellas/  Rom.  11.  2,  (marg.)  refers  to  i  Kings  17-19. 
'  The  bow'  in  2  Sam.  r.  18,  refers  to  the  poem  so  called,  in  the  book 
of  Jasher:   So  perhaps  "  in  the  bush"  to  Exod.  3. 

130.  These  corrections  must  not  lead  to  a  depreciation  of 
our  Enghsh  Bible.  The  more  we  examine  it,  the  higher  will 
be  our  estimate  of  its  general  excellence.  But  zeal  for  any 
version,  must  yield  to  zeal  for  that  Divine  word  which  it  seeks 
to  represent. 

131.  They  have  been  given  at  considerable  length,  for  se- 

^^.  ,  ^  veral  reasons.  They  furnish  answers  to  objections, 
Object  of  1  •  1    1  1  1  1 

these  which  have  been  brought  agamst  Sacred  Scripture, 

corrections.  Thej  remove  difficulties  and  reconcile  apparent 
contradictions.  They  are  of  value  moreover,  because  they 
illustrate  very  fuUy  the  nature  of  the  differences  which  exist 
between  the  Enghsh  version  and  the  original  text.  Tt  is 
obvious  that  very  many  of  these  differences  may  be  rectified 


62  HISTORY  OF  ENGLISH   VERSION. 

by  a  comparison  of  parallel  passages,  so  that  the  Enghsh 
reader  has  in  his  own  hands  the  means,  to  a  large  extent,  of 
correcting  them.  Nor  do  they  disturb  the  conclusion  to 
which  the  most  competent  authorities  have  come,  that  the 
English  Bible  is  on  the  whole,  identical  with  the  Bible  of  the 
early  Church. 

132.  The  Enghsh  version  of  the  Scriptures  now  in  use,  is 
itself  the  result  of  repeated  revisions.  In  the  pre- 
Engiish  face  to  the  Bishops'  Bible,  (a.  d.  1568),  a  distinct 

version.  reference   is  made   to  early   Saxon  versions,  and 

Saxon  there  are  still  extant,  parts  of  the  Bible  in  Saxon, 

translated  by  Bede,  by  Alfred  the  Great,  and  by 
^Ifric  of  Canterbury.  Early  Saxon  MSS.  of  the  Gospels  are 
still  preserved  in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Museum,  and 
Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge. 

The  first  complete  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  by 
Wyciiffe's  "^'l/ci'ff^}  about  A.D.  1380.  It  existed  only  in  MS. 
version.  for  many  years,  but  the  whole  is  now  in  print  (New 

Testament,  1731  ;  Old  Testament,  1848).  The  work  was  re- 
garded with  grave  suspicion  ;  and  a  bill  was  introduced  into 
the  House  of  Lords  for  suppressing  it ;  but  through  the  in- 
fluence of  John  O'Gaunt,  this  was  rejected.  In  1408,  however? 
in  a  convocation  held  at  Oxford,  it  was  resolved  that  no  one 
should  translate  any  text  of  Scripture  into  English,  as  a  book 
or  tract,  and  that  no  book  of  the  kind  should  be  read.  This 
resolution  led  to  great  persecution,  though  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  that  notwithstanding,  many  MSS.  of  Scripture  were 
at  that  time  in  extensive  circulation  throughout  England. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Bible  in  Enghsh,  was  pub- 
lished  by  Tyndale,  the  New  Testament  in  1526,  and 
yn  a  e  s.  ^^^  Bii^je  in  part,  in  1532.  Tonstall,  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don, and  Sir  Thomas  More,  took  great  pains  to  buy  up  and 
burn  the  impression,  but  with  the  effect  thereby,  of  enabling 
the  translator  to  publish  a  larger  and  improved  edition." 

On  the  death  of  Tyndale  (who  died  a  martyr  to  the  truth), 
Coverdak,  Miles  Coverdale  revised  the  whole,  and  dedicated 
^'^c.  it  to  king  Henry  the  8th,  a.  d.  1535,  and  in  1537, 

John  Bogers,  who  had  assisted  Tyndale,  and  was  then  residing 

"'  See  Anderson's  Annals  of  the  English  Bible :  and  "Our  English 
Bible,"  published  by  the  Religious  Tract  Society. 


HISTORY   OF   ENGLISH   VERSION.  63 

at  Antwerp,  reprinted  ■  an  edition,  taken  from  Tyndale  and 
Coverdale,  This  edition  was  published  under  the  assumed 
name  of  Thomas  Matthews.  A  revision  of  this  edition  again 
was  pubhshed  (a.  d.  1539),  by  Pdcliard  Taverner. 

The  Great  Bible  appeared  a.  d.  1539.  It  was  Coverdale's, 
revised  by  the  translator,  under  the  sanction  of  Cranmer.  It 
was  printed  in  large  foho.  For  the  edition  of  1540,  Cranmer 
wrote  a  preface,  and  it  is  hence  called  Cranmer's  Bible.  It  was 
pubhshed  '  by  authority.' 

During  the  seven  years  of  king  Edward's  (YI.)  reign,  eleven 
editions  of  the  Scriptures  were  printed  :  but  no  new  version 
or  revision  was  attempted. 

During  the  reign  of  Mary,  was  published  the  Geneva  Bible, 
A.  D.  1557-60.  Coverdale  and  others  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  Geneva,  edited  it,  and  added  marginal  annotations. 

Archbishop  Parker  obtained  authority  from  Queen  Ehza- 
beth,  to  revise  the  existing  translations,  and  with  the  help  of 
various  bishops  and  others,  pubhshed  in  1568  what  was 
called  the  Bishops'  Bible.  It  contains  short  annotations, 
and  in  the  smaller  editions  (from  1589,)  the  text  is  divided, 
hke  the  Genevan,  into  verses. 

The  same  text  was  afterwards  printed  (in  1572),  in  a  larger 
size,  and  with  various  prefaces,  under  the  name  of  Mattheiu 
FarJtti's  Bible.  It  continued  in  common  use  in  the  churches 
for  forty  years,  though  the  Genevan  Bible  was  perhaps  more 
read  in  private. 

The  Rhemish  New  Testament,  and  the  Bouay  Old  Testament, 
form  the  Enghsh  Bible  of  the  Romanists.  The  former  was 
printed  at  Eheims  (a.  D.  1582),  and  the  latter  at  Douay  (a.  D. 
1609-10). 

In  1603,  King  James  resolved  on  a  revision  of  the  ttanslation, 
and  for  this  purpose  appointed  fifty-four  men  of  learning  and 
piety.  Forty-seven  only  undertook  the  work,  and  in  four 
years  (from  1607- 11),  it  was  completed.  The  text,  as  thus 
prepared  and  printed  in  1611,  is  the  authorized  version. 

133.  What  wisdom  is  seen  in  the  fact,  that  we  have  a  ivrlt- 

^^^^  word :  Scripture  and  not  tradition :  and  not 

a  written        many  Bibles,  but  one.     A  revelation  more  than 

record.  ^^^^^   would   have  multiphed    the    difficulties    of 

inquiry.     A  revelation  less  than  this,  would  long  ago  ha^'e  lost 


64  VALUE   OF   A   WRITTEN   REVELATION. 

Its  distinctness.  Apart  from  any  desire  to  vitiate  a  Divine 
message,  merely  oral  tradition  must  have  suffered  from  the 
condition  of  those  to  whom  it  was  addressed.  So  incessant 
is  the  influence  of  man's  moral  state  upon  his  judgment  and 
perceptions,  any  unwritten  revelation  must  have  undergone 
essential,  though  perhaps  insensible  modifications.  Every 
truth  too,  which  had  ceased  in  one  age  to  be  of  present  im- 
portance, would  have  been  omitted  in  the  number  of  truths 
handed  down  to  the  next.  But  for  the  Bible,  we  should  have 
had  a  fearfully  mutilated  revelation,  and  of  what  remained 
we  should  have  been  contending,  not  so  much  for  the  sense 
of  our  Master's  words,  as  for  the  v/ords  themselves.  What 
grace  is  it,  therefore,  that  in  a  world  prone  to  deteriorate 
everything  holy,  and  to  falsify  everything  true,  whatever  may 
have  grown  old  with  age,  has  the  means  of  renewing  its  youth  : 
whatever  may  have  been  lost  from  the  memory  of  the  church, 
is  not  lost  irrecoverably.  We  have  the  seeds  of  reformation, 
and  of  renevv^ed  knowledge  :  the  very  "  word  of  the  Lord, 
which  liveth  and  abideth  for  ever." 

134.  And  yet  this  blessing  of  a  written  Bible  will  prove  a 
Danger  to  curse,  if  on  that  account  we  forget  the  reverence 
which  a  that  is  due  to  it.     As  each  truth  of  Scripture  was 

lationmay  made  known  of  old,  God  gave  sensible  evidence 
expose  us.  whence  it  came,  and  wherefore  it  was  sent.  Men 
were  called  to  believe  the  report,  because  the  arm  of  the  Lord 
was  revealed.  Awe  and  submission,  and  the  consciousness  of 
a  Divine  approach  v/ere  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  men  by 
the  most  instructive  solemnities.  Adam  heard  God  in  the 
garden,  before  he  had  to  answer  for  his  disobedience.  When 
God  spoke  to  the  children  of  Israel,  they  had  such  sensible 
proofs  of  his  power,  that  they  desired  to  hear  his  voice  (with- 
out a  Mediator)  no  more.  When  He  spoke  to  Moses,  the 
cloud  was  on  the  tabernacle,  or  his  thunders  shook  the  moun- 
tain. Samuel  was  taught  by  miraculous  signs  to  give  the 
Divine  message  a  fervent  welcome.  Isaiah  witnessed  the 
scenes  which  we  now  read  with  so  little  awe,  and  he  cried 
out  in  conscious  unworthiness,  "  Woe  is  me,  for  I  am  of  un- 
clean lips."  John  was  prepared  to  receive  his  visions  by  a 
spectacle  which  absorbed  all  his  faculties,  and  made  him  fall 
down  as  one  that  was  dead.  A  complete  tvritten  revelation 
is  clearly  inconsistent  with  such  miraculous  evidence  :  and 


SCRIPTURE  CLABIS  TO  BE  DIVINE.  65 

there  is  danger  lest  the  famihar  tone  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
every-day  appearance  of  the  volume  itself,  should  tempt  us 
to  read  it  as  a  common  composition.  We  need,  therefore,  to 
supply  by  our  thoughtfulness  and  solemnity,  the  feelings  which 
were  produced  of  old  by  sensible  images  of  the  (Creator's 
presence  and  authority.  It  is  not  the  word  of  an  equal ;  and 
if  we  would  have  it  bless  us,  we  must  study  it  with  the  col- 
lected and  reverential  frame  of  mind,  which  becomes  an  inter- 
view with  Him  who  is  its  Author  and  our  Judge. 


CHAPTER  U. 
On  the  Authenticity  and  Authority  of  Scripturk 

"  This  reverence  have  I  learnt  to  give  to  those  books  of  Scripture  only  which  are 
called  canonical.  Others  I  so  read  that  I  think  not  anything  to  be  true  because  they 
so  thought  it,  but  because  they  were  able  to  persuade  me  either  by  those  canonical 
authors,  or  by  some  probable  reason  that  it  did  not  swerve  from  truth." — 
AUGUSTIXE,  Ep.  19  :  died  430. 

"  If  any  of  these  books  were  disputed  at  first,  but  on  examination  were  admitted, 
tliey  are  confirmed  by  their  trial."— Gajxeier's  Moral  Evidence. 

"  If  those  facts  (on  the  origin,  nature,  and  progress  of  the  Christian  religion)  aro 
not  therefore  established,  nothing  in  the  history  of  mankind  can  be  beUeved." — 
Chief  Justice  Bushe. 

Sec.  I.    Scripture  claims  to  he  regarded  as  an  inspired  teacher, 
and  as  the  only  inspired  teacher. 

135.  In  proving  the  genuineness  of  the  books  of  Scripture, 
A.uthority  nothing  has  been  said  of  their  Divine  authority, 
ofs.s.  as  They  have  come  to  us  as  their  writers  left  them, 
&riptuJe  and  this  is  all  that  is  proved.  What  they  are,  and 
Itself.  -what  they  claim,  must  be  first  gathered  from  the 
books  themselves. 

A  httle  attention  wiU  easily  satisfy  the  reader  of  the  truth 
of  the  following  statements  : — 

136.  (i.)  The  books  of  Scripture  represent  the  mission  of 
Mission  of  our  Lord  as  Divine.  He  professes  to  be  a  teacher 
represeift3d  ^^^^  from  God,  and  from  the  first  announces  that 
as  Divine.       he  is  to  give  liis  hfe  for  the  salvation  of  the  world. 

John  8.  42:  7.  16:  17.  8:  3.  14-18. 

In  proof  of  his  mis.sion  h©  performed  manf  miraculous 


66  SCRIPTURE  CLAIMS  TO   BE  DIVINE. 

works  and  showed  supernatural  acquaintance  with  the  human 
heart  and  with  future  events. 

Matt.  II.  2-6:  John  5.  36:  15.24:  6.64:  16.30:  Matt.  20.17-19: 
Luke  19.  42-44. 

Those  who  knew  him  best  and  were  least  favourably  dis- 
posed towards  him  were  unable  to  account  from  natural 
causes  for  his  power  and  wisdom. 

Mark  6.  1-3:  Luke  4.  22:  John  7.  15. 

His  x^ubhc  life  was  self-denying  and  disinterested  :  his  private 
life  blameless  and  beneficent. 

I  Pet.  2.  22,  23:  Matt.  27.  3,  4:  Acts  10.  38:  John  4.  34:  6.  i^; : 
7.  18. 

He  was  put  to  death  (as  he  foretold)  for  making  himself  "  equal 
with  God," — a  charge  he  did  not  deny  ;  and  after  his  death  he 
arose  from  the  grave. 

Luke  22.  70:  John  20.  17:  Acts  i.  3. 

On  these  grounds  we  conclude  that  his  words  are  to  be 
received  as  Divine. 

John  14.  10,  11:  12.  44-50:  Matt.  17.  5. 

137.  (2.)  They  represent  the  commission  of  the  apostles 

as  Divine.     Of  the  eight  writers  of  th«  New  Testa- 

sion  of  five      ment,  five,  Matthew,  John,  Peter,  James,  and  Jude, 

writw-s^oniie  Were  among  the  number  of  the  apostles  to  whom 

New  Testa-     Christ   gave  power  to  perform   miracles   and   to 

publish  his  gospel  to  the  world. 

Matt.  10.  1-4,  7,  8:  Luke  9.  6. 

He  promised  to  them  in  this  character,  on  four  different 
occasions,  the  presence  of  a  Divine  instructor,  who  should 
recal  to  their  remembrance  what  he  himself  had  taught,  and 
impart  a  more  complete  and  permanent  knowledge  of  his 
truth."  The  apostles  proved  their  commission  by  miracles 
which  they  performed  in  the  name  and  by  the  power  of 
Christ,  and  they  imparted  supernatural  gifts  to  others.^ 

*  Matt.  10.  19,  20:  Luke  12.  11,  12:  Mark  13.  11:  (Luke  21.  14:) 
John  14-16:  see  also  Matt.  28.  18-20:  Mark  16.  20:  Acts  r.  4: 
21.  4:  I  Pet.  I.  12. 

^  Acts  3. 16:  Heb.  2.  4:  Acts  5. 12,  15:  Mark  16.  17,  18:  Acts  8. 
17-19. 


SCRIPTURE   CLAIMS   TO   BE  DIVINE.  67 

Their  mission  was  attested  by  holy  self-denial  and  integrity 
of  purpose,  and  by  the  rapid  and  (humanly  speaking)  the 
unaccountable  success  of  their  ministrations. 

Acts  4.  i6:  5.  29:  2.  41:  12.  24. 

We,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  words  of  Matthew,  John, 
Peter,  James,  and  Jude,  are  Divine. 

John  14.  12-14:  20.  21:  Matt.  10.  20:  i  John  4.  6. 

138.  The  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke  were  written  by  corn- 
Mark  and  panions  of  the  apostles:  Mark  the  convert  of 
Luke.  Peter  (1  Pet.  5.  13)  and  Luke,  the  intimate  friend 
of  Paul.  Papias  (flourished  no),  Justin  (died  164),  Irenseus 
(flourished  180),  and  Origen,  all  speak  of  Mark's  Gospel  as 
commonly  received,  and  as  having  been  dictated  or  sanctioned 
by  Peter. 

Luke  and  Paul  resided  in  Palestine  for  two  years,  travelled 
together  during  a  large  part  of  the  apostle's  journies,  and 
were  together  during  Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

Acts  21.  17:  24.  24:  28.  16:  Col.  4.  14:  2  Tim.  4.  ir. 

Luke  10,  7  is  quoted  as  Scripture  in  1  Tim.  5.  18.  Irenaeus, 
TertuUian,  and  Origen,  speak  of  his  Gospel  as  universally 
received  and  as  sanctioned  by  Paul. 

139.  (3.)  They  represent  the  commission  of  Paul  as  Divine. 
.   .        He  was  called  to  the  apostolic  ofiice,  claimed  apos- 

of  Paul  tohc  authority,  vindicated  his  claims  by  miracles, 

Di\-ine.  imparted  supernatural  gifts,  manifested  the  utmost 

disinterestedness,  submitted  to  the  severest  sufferings,  was 
acknowledged  by  the  rest  of  the  apostles,  and  was  eminently 
successful.  He  therefore  claims  to  speak  in  Christ's  name, 
and  his  words  are  Divine. 

I  Cor.  15.8:  Acts  26.  12-17:  9. 13-17:  2Cor.  11.5:  Gal.  1. 1-12; 
2.  6:  I  Cor.  2.  10-13:  i  Cor.  7.  40:  Rom.  15.  18,  19:  2  Cor.  12,  12: 
Acts  19.  6:  2  Tim.  i.  13,  14:  2  Cor.  11.  7:  2  Cor.  i.  5:  Gal.  2. 
7-9:  2  Cor.  II.  14-16:  2  Cor.  5.  18-20:  i  Thess.  2.  13. 

140.  (4.)  They  represent  the  apostolic  writings  generally  as 

Divine.  The  apostohc  writings  were  composed  by 
w-Stmgs  Divine  command,  and  in  fulfilment  of  the  commis- 
Divme.  gj^jj  ^j^eir  writers  had  received. 

iThess.  4.  15:  iTim.  4.  i:  Rev.  i.  19:  John  20.31:  i  John  5.  13: 
I  Cor.  14-  37- 


bo  SCRIPTURE   CLAIMS  TO   BE  DIVINE. 

The  apostles  had  the  same  object  iu  view  in  their  writings 
as  in  their  preaching. 

Jude  3:  Heb.  13.  22:  i  John  2.  1,  26. 

The  wi'itings  of  the  apostles  set  forth  their  verbal  instructions 
in  a  permanent  and  condensed  form,  and  they  claim  for  both 
the  same  authority. 

Eph.  3.  3-5 :  I  John  i.  1-5 :  2,  12-14:  John  20.  3  r :  2  Pet.  r.  15 : 
2  Pet.  3.  r,  2 :  2  Thess.  2.  15:  3.  14:  i  Cor.  15.  r.  (2.  13). 

The  writings  of  the  apostles  were  received  by  the  first  Chris- 
tians as  of  equal  authority  with  their  preaching,  and  produced 
similar  effects. 

Acts  15.  19-31:  16.  4:  2  Cor.  7.  8-10:  2  Thess.  2.  i. 

There  is  evidence  that  from  the  first  the  apostohc  writings 
were  held  equally  sacred  with  the  Old  Testament,  and  that 
they  were  quoted  as  the  words  of  God. 

2  Pet.  3.  15,  16:  James  4.  5  (comp.  Gal.  5.  17-21):  James  2.  8 
(comp.  Matt.  22.  39). 

141.  (5.)  The  Jewish  religion  and  the  Jewish  Scripture 
Jewish  are  represented  in  the  New  Testament  as  Divine. 

reUgion  and     Christ  and  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  uni- 

Jewisn  Scnp- 

ture  Divine,  formly  assume  that  the  religion  of  the  Jews  was 
from  God. 

Chi-ist,  in  John,  4.  22:  Peter,  in  Acts  3.  13:  Paul,  in  Rom.  9.  4. 

They  acknowledge  the  Divine  origin  of  the  revelation  given  to 
Abraham  and  to  Moses. 

Christ,  in  John  8.  56:  Peter,  in  Acts  3.  25:  Paul,  in  Gal,  3.  18. 
Christ,  in  Mark  12.  26:  John,  in  John  i.  17:  Paul,  in  2  Cor.  3.  7. 

They  acknowledge  the  Divine  authority  of  the  moral  law  and 
the  Divine  origin  of  the  Jewish  ritual  and  of  the  civil  enact- 
ments of  the  Mosaic  law. 

Christ,  in  Matt.  15.  4:  Peter,  in  i  Pet.  i.  15,  16:  Paul,  in  Rom.  7. 
22  (see  ver.  7.  12).  Christ,  in  Luke  22.  15,  16:  John,  in  John  19. 
36:  Paul,  in  I  Cor.  9.  8,  9. 

They  represent  Christianity  as  the  completion  of  Judaism, 
and  as  foretold  by  the  j^rophets.  The  Old  Testament  writers 
at  the  same  time  acknowledge  that  what  they  spoke  or  wrote 
was  given  to  them  from  God,  and  published  by  his  command. 


SCRIPTURE  THE   OXLY   DIVINE  AUTHORITY.  69 

Christ,  in  Matt.  5.  17:  26.  54-56:  Peter,  in  Acts  10.  43:  Paul,  m 
Eph.  2.  20.  Rom.  3.  21:  2  Cor.  3.  6-14.  Ex.  4.  12.  15,  ib- 
Deut.  18.  18:  Jer.  i.  6:  Amos  3.  7,  etc. 

They  maintain  the  Divine  authority  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
Scriptures  under  the  three-fold  division  of  the  Law,  the 
Prophets,  and  the  Psahns,  and  under  other  equally  familiar 
titles,  ascribing  all  to  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Matt.  22.  31:  Heb  13.  5:  Acts  28.  25:  Matt.  22.  43:  Rom.  3.  12: 
John  10.  35:  Gal.  3.  8:  Hcb.  3.  7  (comp.  4.  7):  i  Pet.  i.  11. 

142.  Here  then  we  have  the  first  pecuharity  of  the  Bible. 

It  professes  to  be  a  book  from  God,  speaks  every- 
where with  Divine  authority  and  demands  our 
submission.  It  is  the  one  book,  which  claims  "  God  for  its 
author,  unmixed  truth  for  its  contents,  and  salvation  for  its 
end."  If  we  admit  the  authority  of  our  Lord  as  a  Divine 
teacher,  the  authority  of  the  Bible  is  established.  If  we  deny 
the  authority  of  the  Bible,  v/e  deny  the  truth  of  some  of  his 
most  frequent  teachings,  and  with  it  the  Divinity  of  His 
mission. 

143.  As  Holy  Scripture  claims  to  be  regarded  as  the  book 
Scripture  the  of  God,  a  Divine  authority,  so  it  claims  to  be  the 
amhority?*"     ^^y  authority.     It  is  not  a  rule,  it  is  the  rule  both 

of  iiractice  and  faith.     To  ascertain  its  meaning, 

Result  of  an  ,  ,    . ,  .    .  ^  j 

opposite  we  employ  reason  and  the  opinions  01  good  men, 
"^'^®^'-  and  the  experience  of  a  devout  heart ;  but  no  one 

of  these  helps,  nor  aU  combined,  can  be  regarded  as  of  co- 
ordinate authority.  They  are  not  parts  of  the  law,  they  only 
help  to  expound  it.  To  foUow  reason  or  opinions,  or  inward 
experience  in  matters  of  faith,  when  their  decisions  contradict 
the  Bible,  is  to  deny  it :  to  follow  them  when  they  add  to  it, 
is  to  admit  another  revelation  ;  and  to  make  thtnt  our  rule 
when  they  agree  with  it,  is  to  rest  our  obedience 'on  the 
A'isdom  of  man,  and  not  on  the  tiTith  of  God.  Faith  ceases 
to  be,  even  in  the  last  case,  submission  to  Divine  authority. 

144.  From  the  following  passages  it  will  be  seen  that  these 

conclusions   are    drawn  from  the   lessons  of  the 
^"""^  Bible  itself. 

The  inspired  writers  address  themselves  to  men  of  every 
country  and  condition. 


70  SCRIPTURE  THE  ONLY  DIVINE   AUTHORITY. 

Prov.  8.  1-4:  Psa.  49.  1-3:  Rom.  10.  12,  13.  See  Deut.  29.  '^9. 
Psa.  78.  5-7. 

The  most  impoi'tant  parts  of  the  inspired  books  were 
addressed,  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Jews,  in 
their  assembhes  ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  New,  to  the  people 
generally,  and  to  the  churches. 

Deut.  5.  22:  31.  24,  26:  Ezek.  33.  30,  31:  Josh.  23.  6:  Jer,  36. 
2-6:  Hab.  2.  2:  Matt.  7.  28:  Acts  5.  20:  Rom.  i.  7  (2  Cor.  i.  i: 
Gal.  I.  2:  Col.  I.  2:  Philip,  i,  i):  Rev.  2.  29. 

The  pubhc  reading  of  these  books  in  a  language  intelligible 
to  the  people,  was  appointed  by  God  both  among  the  Jews 
and  in  the  Christian  Church. 

Deut.  31.  11-13:  Josh.  8.  33-35:  Ezra  7.  6-10:  Neh.  8.  1-8: 
1  Thess.  5.27:  Col.  4.  16. 

The  private  reading  of  Scripture,  which  was  strongly  incul- 
cated in  the  Old  Testament,  is  commended  in  the  New. 

Deut.  II.  18-20:  Psa.  19:  Psa.  i.  2:  Josh.  i.  8:  Acts  8.  30-35; 
17.  11:  Rom.  15.  4:  2  Tim.  3.  15 :  2  Pet.  i.  19. 

Men  are  ultimately  accountable  for  their  rehgious  opinions 
and  practices  to  God. 

Eccl.  II.  9:  Rom.  14.  4-12:  James  4.  12. 

The  Bible,  on  the  principle  of  man's  responsibihty,  ex- 
pressly appeals  to  his  reason. 

I  Sam.  12.  7:  Jer.  2.  9-11:  Mark  7.  14,  16:  i  Cor.  10.  15. 

In  the  New  Testament  especially  the  exercise  of  private 
judgment— in  a  teachable  spirit,  of  course — is  represented  as 
essential  to  the  existence  and  progress  of  true  rehgion. 

Matt.  6.  22,  23:  I  Cor.  14.  20:  Col.  i.  9:  Phil.  i.  9,  10:  Acts  17. 
23.     See  I  Pet.  3.  15:  Rom.  12.  12. 

Men  are  exhorted  in  Scripture  to  bring  all  doctrines  pro- 
posed to  them  and  their  own  character,  to  the  test  of  scrip- 
tural or  apostolic  truth. 

Isa.  8.  20:  I  John  4.  1:  i  Thess.  5.  20,  21:  Eph.  5.  6,  8-10,  17: 
Col.  2.  18:  Gal.  6.  4,  5:  2  Cor.  13.  5:  i  Cor.  ii.  28-31. 

Our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  in  addressing  those  who  had 
the  Old  Testament  in  their  possession,  always  appealed  to  its 
authority.    See  §  141.    Our  Lord  and  his  apostles  condemn 


SCRIPTURE  THE  ONLY   DIYi:SE   AUTHORITY.  /I 

all  spiritual  usurpation,  and  point  to  their  teaching  as  the 
ultimate  standard. 

Matt.  33.  I,  8-10:  2  Cor.  i.  24. 

The  utter  insufficiency  of  unenhghtened  reason  to  discover 
or  rightly  to  appreciate  Divine  truth,  makes  it  incompetent 
to  do  more  than  interpret  the  revelation ;  it  cannot  sit  in 
judgment  upon  it. 

Psa.  19:  I  Cor.  2.  9,  14:  i.  18-25:  Gal.  i.  11,  12. 

From  the  earliest  times  God  commanded  that  whatever 
was  to  become  a  rule  of  faith  or  practice,  should  be  com- 
mitted to  writing. 
,    Exod.  17.  14:  Deut.  31.  19:  Hos.  8.  12:  Isa.  8.  19,  20. 

The  inspired  writers  were  guided  to  use  such  language  as 
the  Spirit  of  God  approved. 

Dan.  12.  7-9:  Matt.  10.  19,  20:  i  Pet.  i.  10-12:  2  Pet.  i.  21: 
2  Tim.  3.  16:  Heb.  i.  i:  i  Cor.  2.  12,  13. 

Hence  conclusions  are  drawn  from  particular  words. 
I  Cor.  15.  45  :  Heb.  3.  7-10. 

Any  attempt  to  add  to  or  to  take  away  from  the  words  of 
God  is  denounced. 

Deut.  4.  2:  12,  32  (Heb.  13.  i):  Prov.  30.  5,  6:  Eev.  22.  18,  19 
(Gal.  3.  15). 

The  oral  traditions  of  the  Jews,  which  were  censured  both 
by  the  law  and  the  prophets,  were  condemned  by  our  Lord. 

Isa.  29.  13,  14:  Matt.  15.  2-9. 

If  the  comparatively  imperfect  revelations  of  the  Old 
Testament  were  sufficient  for  man's  instruction  and  salva- 
tion, much  more  are  the  fuller  discoveries  of  the  New. 

Psa.  19.  7-11:  119.  130:  9.  104:  Prov.  22.  19-21:  John  20.  3c, 
31:1  John  I.  34:  I  Cor.  15.  1-4. 

An  examination  of  these  passages  will  prove  that  the 
Scriptures  are  our  only  rule,  that  we  are  bound  to  study 
them,  and  that  according  to  oui'  use  of  this  blessing  they  will 
become  the  "  savour  of  hfe  unto  life  or  of  death  imto  death."* 

*  See  for  these  passages  in  detail  Morren's  BibHcal  Theology, 
part  I,  On  the  Rule  of  Faith. 


72  INSPIRATION. 

145.  These  are  among  the  first  principles  of  Protestantism. 
Not  the  It  claims  for  us  the  right,  and  it  enforces  the  duty, 
^f'th  ^"^'"^rin-  ^^  examining  the  Bible  for  ourselves.  But  be  it 
cipiesbui  remembered,  that  our  safety  hes  not  in  the  ac- 
tiSi'of'tiit^m  knowledgment  of  these  principles,  but  in  the 
can  save.  application  of  them  ;  and  in  the  consequent  behef 
of  the  doctrines  and  precepts  which  the  Bible  reveals. 

Sec.  2.  Inspiration. 

146.  The  general  truth  that  the  books  of  Scripture  are  of 

Divine  origin  and  authority  is  sometimes  expressed 
in  another  form,  and  they  are  said  to  be  inspired. 

Holy  men  spoke  or  wrote  them  as  they  were  moved  by  thjg^ 

Holy  Ghost. 

147.  Whatever  refers  to  the  explanation  of  this  truth — 

as,  how  men  were  inspired,  and  whether  the  same 
kind  of  inspiration  was  needed  in  each  case — is 
theory,  and  is  concerned  with  questions  rather  curious  than 
useful.     The  truth  itself  is  all  that  is  fully  revealed. 

Among  the  heathen  and  uninspired  Jews  it  was  generally 
Ancient  lield  that  while  inspired  men  were  under  the 
views.  Divine  impulse,  all    voluntary    action    was    sus- 

pended. Among  the  early  Christians  the  doctrine  of  inspi- 
ration was  held  rather  practically  than  speculatively,  though 
they  generall}'-  maintarined  that  the  writers  of  the  Bible,  when 
inspired,  exercised  their  ordinary  mental  powers.  On  the 
mode  or  kinds  of  inspiration  they  said  little.  When  the 
authority  of  the  Papacy,  however,  began  in  modern  times  to 
be  questioned,  the  whole  doctrine  of  inspiration  was  more 
closely  examined.  The  facts  were  generally  admitted,  but 
the  theory  or  comprehensive  statement  which  best  embodied 
and  accounted  for  them,  was  a  topic  regarded  as  open  to 
discussion.  See  the  passages  from  the  Fathers,  in  Westcott's 
Gospel  PTarmony. 

►Some  held  that  the  Holy  Spirit  dictated  the  sacred  books 
Modern  word  for  word,*  as  we  have  them  in  the  original 

views.  languages  :    others,    however,    holding   that    this 

theory  went  beyond  the  facts,  and  was  inconsistent  with  the 
diversities  of  style,  the  varying  quotations,  and  the  very 
])rofessions  of  the  writers  themselves. 

*  Advocates  of  verbal  dictation,  are  Calamy,  Haldaue,  and  otbert;. 


INSPIRATIOX.  73 

A  few  taught  that  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  Bible 
were  given  by  inspiration,  while  the  arguments  and  illustra- 
tions were  of  human  origin  f  to  which  it  is  a  sufficient  reply, 
that  unless  we  are  told  what  truths  are  fundamental,  this 
theory  throws  the  whole  of  Scripture  into  disrepute,  and  is 
inconsistent  with  those  texts  which  represent  it  as  an  autho- 
rity in  religious  matters. 

Others,  again,  held  that  those  parts  of  the  Bible  whose 
moral  tendency  is  obviously  good  are  Divine,  but  not  the 
rest ;  a  theory  which  strips  the  Bible  of  all  authority,  and 
supposes  man  to  have  right  notions  of  what  is  morally  good 
before  he  can  use  the  Bible.^ 

Another  and  much  more  rational  theory  is  one  which  Dr. 
Vaiious  Doddridge  and  many  modern  theologians'"  have 
kinds  of.  sanctioned.  In  this  theory  there  are  supposed  to 
be  different  kinds  of  inspiration ;  the  first  and  highest  pro- 
viding for  the  revelation  of  things  not  previously  known  to 
the  sacred  writers  ;  the  second,  providing  for  the  security  of 
the  writers  against  error  in  exhibiting  doctrines  and  facts 
with  which  they  were  aheady  acquainted  ;  and  the  third, 
conferring  Divine  authority  by  the  approbation  of  inspired 
men,  on  parts  of  writings  originally  composed  without  inspi- 
ration. 

This  theory  does  not  materially  differ  in  its  results  from 
another  which  many  have  preferred.  They  main- 
•vvithout  tain  that  holy  men  wrote  in  obedience  to  Divine 
theory.  command,  and  that   in  writing  they  were  kept 

free,  we  know  not  how,  from  all  error,  whether  they  taught 
truths  previously  unknown  to  them,  or  publiohed  truths  and 
facts  already  familiar.  In  this  theory,  which  is  indeed  rather 
a  statement  of  the  fact  than  a  +.heory  in  relation  to  it,  itispi- 
raiion  is  ascribed  to  the  whole  of  Scripture,  while  revelation 
is  confined  to  those  acts  of  the  Spirit  by  which  truths  pre- 
viously unknown  were  communicated  to  men.  All  Scripture 
is  inspired^  and  the  new  truths  of  Scripture  are  revealed  ;  or, 
as  Thomas  Scott  expressed  it,  inspiration  discovers  new  truth 
(this  we  call  revelation),  and  superintends  the  communication 
of  the  old.     This  distinction  it  is  convenient  to  retain. 

"  Priestley,  and  even  Burnet:  see  on  the  Articles,  Art.  6. 
^  Kant.  '  Bishop  D.  Wilson,  etc. 


7-1  INSriRATIOX. 

148.  These  (except  the  last)  are  theories  of  inspira.tion. 
Scripture  The  fact  which  they  have  to  embody  and  explain 
claims,  jg  iiy^f^  Scripture  is  everywhere  the  utterance — the 
word — of  Divine  wisdom,  and  that  it  expresses  the  very  ideas 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  intended.  It  is  this  gift  which  the 
inspired  writers  profess  to  have  received.  Their  writings 
are  God-inspired,  or,  to  use  the  words  of  one  not  prejudiced 
in  favour  of  sound  views  on  this  question,  "  animated  through 
and  through  by  the  Spirit." — Be  Wette. 

149.  Old  Testament  writers,  for  example,  claim  it  for  them- 
„   .  ,  selves. 

bcnpture 

proofofthe         Exod.  4.   15,    16:   19.   9:    Lev.  passim:    Dent.   4.   2: 
liict.  ISTum.  23.  12:  2  Sam.  23.  2:  Jer.  i.  7-9:    Ezek.  3.  4-T0: 

Mic.  3.  8,  etc. 

New  Testament  writers  claim  it  for  the  old,  and  also  for 
themselves. 

2  Pet.  I.  20,  21:  Luke  i.  20:  i  Pet.  i.  11 :  Acts  i.  16:  28.  25: 
Heb.  3.  7. 

John  14.  26:  16.  13,  14:  I  Cor,  2.  13:  14.37:  i  Thes.  2.  13: 
4.  8:  2  Pet.  3.  i,  2,  etc. 

150.  The  gift,  however,  admitted,  in  the  sacred  writers,  of 
Vfhatinspi-  diligent  and  faithful  research,**  of  the  expression 
ration  aiiuws.  ^f  the  same  thought  in  different  words  -^  of  such 
differences  (not  discrepancies)  between  the  accounts  of  in- 
spired men  as  would  be  likely  to  arise  from  the  different 
stand-points  of  each  ;"  of  quotations  from  other  inspired 
authorities  f  of  the  employment  of  uninspired  documents  ;' 

'^  Luke  I.  1-4. 

^  Compare  Matt.  26,  26,  27:  Luke  22.  19,  20,  aud  i  Cor.  11.  24, 
25:  and  Matt.  3.  17:  Mark  i.  11,  and  Luke  3.  22.  To  this  class 
belong  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament.  These  are  taken  either 
from  the  LXX,  without  giving  the  exact  words,  and  even  Avhen 
that  vei-sion  is  not  verbally  accurate,  or  sometimes  (when  the  original 
differs  from  the  Greek)  from  the  Hebrew  direct.  The  quotations 
ai-e  rather  substantially  than  literally  accurate,  see  chap.  6. 

^  See  Introduction  to  the  Gospels,  Part  ii. 

**  Psa.  108,  and  Psa.  57.  7-1 1:  60.  5-12:  Gen.,  chaps.  10.  ir.  and 
I  Chron.  i.  17,  etc.:  2  Kings  18.  13-37,  ^^^  I^^-  3^-  1-22:  Mic.  4: 
Isa.  2:  also  Chron.,  with  Kings  and  Sam.  Eichhorn  has  given  a 
list  of  such  quotations. 

^  Josh.  10.  13:  Numb.  21.  14:  Jude  9,  14,  15. 


SCRIPTURE   CANON.  75 

and  of  peculiarities  of  style  and  manner  arising  from  diver- 
sities of  intellectual  structure  and  from  educational  or  other 
influences,  such  as  may  be  observed  on  a  comparison  of 
Ezekiel  and  Isaiah,  of  John  and  Paul.  Add  to  these  facts 
that  the  inspired  writers  were  sometimes  uncertain  of  the 
precise  meaning  or  application  of  their  message,''  and  that 
this  message  was  delivered  in  language  which  the  Spirit  of 
Uod  approved,^  and  we  have  the  Scripture  facts  on  this  doc- 
trine. These  facts  it  is  the  business  of  theory,  if  a  theory- 
must  be  framed,  to  embody  and  explain. 

Sec.  3.  Tlie  Canon. 

151.  The  question  of  the  authority  of  the  books  of  Scrip- 
Canonicit  of  ^^^^^  ^^  sometimes  put  in  another  form,  and  it  is 
Scripture  asked  whether  the  whole  belong  to  the  Canon  ;  a 
bow  proved,  question  settled,  if  it  is  once  proved  that  they  are 
the  production  of  inspired  men.  It  is  sometimes  said,  indeed, 
that  we  prove  the  inspiration  of  the  books  by  first  proving 
their  canonicity  ;  the  church  has  received  them,  and  there- 
fore they  are  Divine.  The  reverse,  however,  is  the  accurate 
order.  They  are  Divine,  and  therefore  the  church  has  re- 
ceived them.  The  books  are  now  received  as  canonical 
because  we  have  satisfactory  evidence  of  their  inspiration  ; 
and  if  there  had  been  other  books  not  recognised  in  the 
present  canon,  but  demonstrably  of  Divine  origin,  we  should 
be  bound  to  give  them  a  place  among  the  rest. 

152.  The  question,  therefore,  of  the  canonicity  of  the  books 
A  three-fold  of  Scripture  is  three-fold.  Is  each' book  the  pro- 
question,  duction  of  its  professed  author  ?  is  it  authentic  1 
and  was  the  writer  in  composing  it  under  the  special  guidance 
of  the  Spirit  1  Genuineness  and  authenticity  are  both  in- 
volved ;  and  though  the  present  section  is  placed  between 
the  sections  on  those  subjects,  the  argument  needs  the  facts 
of  both. 

*  I  Pet.  I.  10,  II :  Dan.  I2.  8:  so  also  the  facts  mentioned  in  the 
following  passages  are  not  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  Scripture, 
Acts  7.  22:  2  Tim.  3,  8:  Heb.  9.  4,  that  the  pot  was  golden:  Heb. 
/2.  21,  the  words  of  Moses:  facts  in  11.  37,  etc.;  so  the  burial  of  the 
patriarchs  in  Sychem,  Acts  7.  15. 

b  I  Pet.  I.  10,  11 :  Dan.  12.  8:  2  Tim.  3.  15:  Heb.  1.1:1  Cor.  2. 
12,  13.     See  §  144. 

e2 


76  CANON  :   NEW  TESTAMENT. 

153.  We  begin  with  the  New  Testament. 

In  the  early  church  many  writings  were  extant  professing 
to  give  an  account  of  the  hfe  and  character  of  our 
Lord ;  but  four  only  were  received  as  authori- 
tative. It  was  admitted  on  all  hands  that  these  were  the 
productions  of  the  Evangelists  whose  names  they  bear :  the 
Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke  being  respectively  penned  under 
the  care  of  Peter  and  Paul,  The  apostle  John  moreover  is 
recorded  to  have  acknowledged  publicly  the  authority  of  the 
first  three  Gospels  and  added  his  own  to  complete  them. 
These  books,  therefore,  were  written  by  apostles  to  whom 
our  Saviour  specially  promised  his  Spirit  that  He  might  guide 
them  into  all  truth,  bring  to  their  remembrance  whatever  He 
himself  had  told  them,  and  qualify  them  to  give  his  gospel  to 
the  world. 

In  the  same  way,  though  less  directly,  John  is  supposed  to 
The  Acts        have  attested  the  book  of  Acts.^ 
The  Epistles       So  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul.     There  are  thirteen 
°  ofthem  which  bear  his  name.    Other  disciples  were 

witnesses  of  his  having  written  them.^  Generally  he  wrote 
by  an  amanuensis,  who  also  became  a  witness  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  his  writings  :""  in  these  instances  he  added  his  sub- 
scription and  salutation.*^  His  Epistles  were  sent  by  jDrivate 
messengers."  Nine  of  them  moreover  were  addressed  to 
j)ublic  bodies.  The  earliest  of  them  he  commanded  to  be  read 
in  the  public  assembly,  the  second,  and  indeed  all  the  rest, 
were  read  in  pubhc  too  ;^  and  we  know  from  Ignatius,  Poly- 
carp,  and  Clement,  and  especially  from  Peter,  that  his  Epis- 
tles were  regarded  as  inspired  Scripture,  and  read  with  the 
Law  and  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Gosj)els  of 
the  New.^  To  complete  this  evidence  it  should  be  added  that 
the  language  of  Peter  was  used  by  him  after  aU  the  Epistles 

*  See  the  evidence  in  Wordsworth  on  the  Canon,  pp.  156-160. 

^  I  Thess.  1.1:2  Thess.  i,  i. 

*=  Rom.  16.  22.  d  Col.  4.  18  :  i  Cor.  16.  21. 

'^  Rom.  16.  i:  Appendix:  Col.  4.  7,  8:  Appendix:  Eph.  6.  21: 
Philip.  2.  25. 

f  I  Thess.  5.  27:  2  Thess.  2.  15:  3.  6,  14:  2  Cor.  i.  13:  Col. 
4.  16, 

«  Ign.  to  Eph.  chap.  12:  Poly  c.  to  Phil.  3.  ir,  12:  Clem. to  Cor.  1. 
c.  47:  2  Pet.  3.  15,  16. 


canon:  new  testament.  77 

of  Paul  to  the  cliurches  had  been  ■written,''  and  that  he 
apphes  to  them  a  name  ("  Scripture  ")  which,  though  occur- 
ring fifty  times  in  the  New  Testament,  is  never  apphed  to  any- 
other  than  the  present  canonical  books.  The  conclusion, 
therefore,  is,  that  these  Epistles  are  Paul's,  and  that  they 
have  what  Paul  claimed  for  them  (§  139),  and  what  the  early 
church  and  a  chief  apostle  ascribed  to  them,  inspired  and 
therefore  canonical  authority.  They  are  not  the  words  which 
man  teaches  :  they  are  the  words  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

All  the  parts  of  the  New  Testament  mentioned  thus  far 
Antiiego-  wcre  deemed,  as  soon  as  pubhshed,  to  be  Divine,  as 
rSro-  ^^^^  ^  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^  John.  The  remaining  books 
Canouicai.  of  the  New  Testament  were  called,  as  we  have 
seen  (§  20),  Antilegomena,  or,  from  their  forming  a  part  of 
the  Canon,  only  after  a  second  revision,  the  Deutero-Cano- 
nical.  That  position  in  the  Canon  they  gained  gradually  ;  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  they  were  received  by 
most  of  the  churches,  and  at  the  end  of  that  century  they 
were  received  by  all. 

The  special  evidence  of  each  book  it  is  not  necessary  to 
give  now.  The  point  to  be  noticed  is  that  the  doubts 
icity  why  which  existed  had  reference  not  to  the  canonicity 
questioned.  ^^  ^^^  Writings  of  James,  Cephas,  John,  and  Jude, 
but  to  the  question  whether  the  writings  bearing  their  names 
were  really  written  by  them.  Nor  can  these  doubts  excite 
surprise.  The  subject  was  one  of  deep  interest.  Many  spu- 
rious compositions  were  abroad  under  the  names  of  these 
very  apostles.**  Apostolic  teaching  might  be  quoted  in 
defence  of  caution.*^  The  internal  evidence  of  the  authorship 
of  these  Epistles  is  peculiar  ;  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  for 
example,  is  without  the  author's  name,  and  differs  in  style 
from  most  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul:  the  style  of  2  Peter 
differs  in  the  same  way  from  the  style  of  the  first  Epistle. 
In  James  and  Jude  the  authors  are  described  not  as  apostles 
but  as  "servants"  of  Christ,  while  in  2  and  3  John  the 
writer  describes  himself  as  a  presbyter  or  elder,  not  as  an 
apostle.    Jude  also  refers  to  stories  which  were  supposed  to 

^  Shortly  before  the  death  of  Peter,  who  suffered  martyrdom  the 
same  year  as  Paul,  2  Pet.  i.  14. 

^  Jones  on  the  Canon,  i.  37-45.     "  2  Thess.  2.  i,  2:  i  John  4.  i. 


78  CAXOX  :  NEW  testament. 

be  contained  in  apocryphal  writings.  All  these  Epistles  more- 
over were  addressed  either  to  Christians  generally  or  to 
private  persons,  not  to  particular  churches.  No  body  of 
inen,  therefore,  were  interested  in  preserving  them,  and 
external  evidence  in  their  favour  was  necessarily  scanty.  All 
these  causes  of  doubt  did  operate  as  we  know.  In  the  end 
there  was  universal  conviction  ;  and  the  very  doubts  which 
deferred  the  reception  of  a  small  portion  of  Scripture  in 
certain  parts  of  the  early  church  now  serve  to  confirm  our 
faith  in  the  rest. 

154.  These  facts  sufficiently  indicate  the  course  of  argu- 
Nature  of  ment  by  which  the  canonicity  of  the  New  Testa- 
proof,  ment  is  proved.  Let  it  be  shown  that  they  were 
written  by  the  men  whose  names  they  bear,  and  that  there  is 
reason  for  believing  that  their  authors  wrote  under  the 
guidance  of  the  Spirit,  and  the  evidence  of  the  canonicity  of 
the  books  is  complete. 

As  part  of  the  evidence, — in  some  sense  a  subordinate 
Evidence  of  P^^'^'  ^^^  *^®  claims  and  character  of  the  books 
churches  or  themselves  supply  the  chief  evidence — it  may  be 
hoTim-'  added,  that  the  books  which  now  form  the  Canon 
portaiit.  were  read  from  the  first  in  Christian  assemblies 
as  of  Divine  authority,""  that  ecclesiastical  authors  quote 
largely  from  them,^  and  that  they  constituted  the  canonical 
books  of  the  early  church. 

155.  Between  the  years  200  a.  d.  and  4C0  a.  d.  fifteen  cata- 
Ancient  logues  of  such  books  were  pubhshed.  Of  these, 
lists.  six — those  of  Athanasius,  Epiphanius,  Ruffin,  Aus- 
tin, the  third  Council  of  Carthage,  and  of  the  anonymous 
author   of  the   works  of  Dionysius   the   Areopagite — agi-ee 

,  with  the  present  Canon  :  three,  those  of  Cyril,  the  Council  of 
Laodicea,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  omit  the  book  of  Revelation 
only  ;  one — that  of  Caius,  probably  196 — omits  James,  2  Peter, 
3  John,  and  Hebrews  ;  another,  that  of  Origen,  omits  James 
and  Jude,  though  he  elsewhere  owns  them.  The  catalogue  of 
Eusebius  marks  James  and  Jude,  2  Peter,  2  and  3  John,  and 
Revelation,  as  doubted  by  some.  Philastrius  omits  Hebrews 
and  Revelation ;  Amphilochius  inserts  all,  but  marks  the 
Antilegomena,  he  himself  deeming  the  Hebrews  genuine,  and 

"  Lardner,  ii.  132.  526.  ^  Lardner,  ii.  52,  72,  93,  loq. 


CAXOX  :   OLD   TESTAMENT.  79 

Jerome  speaks  of  the  Hebrews  only  as  doubtful,  and  that 
Epistle  he  elsewhere  receives.'' 

Add  to  this  evidence  the  authority  of  the  Peshito  and  of 
the  early  Latin  versions.  The  former  contains  all  our  present 
books,  except  2  Peter,  2  and  3  John,  Jude,  and  Revelation ; 
and  the  latter  included  probably  all  the  books  afterwards 
inserted  in  Jerome's  version. 

156.  Though  the  opinion  of  the  early  church  is  called  sub- 
Proves  ordinate  or  indirect  evidence,  that  opinion  has 
canonidty  often  been  regarded  as  sufficient  to  decide  the 
noutseif '  canonicity  of  the  books  of  Scripture.  The  recep- 
decisive.  i^f^y^  ^f  these  books  by  the  churches  was  taken  as 
proof  of  their  inspiration ;  just  as  the  decision  of  a  competent 
legal  tribunal  Avould  be  deemed  conclusive  evidence  of  any 
fact  proved  before  it,  or  as  the  opinion  of  an  eminent  mathe- 
matician might  be  taken  as  proof  of  the  soundness  of  some 
demonstration.  This  practice,  however,  must  not  turn  our 
attention  from  the  real  nature  of  the  proof.  The  question  is 
not  one  of  authority,  but  of  evidence.  To  reckon  a  book 
canonical,  because  a  council  or  a  church  has  pronounced  it 
so,  is  neither  logical  nor  scriptural  Our  wisdom  is  to  use 
such  a  decision  (according  to  its  intrinsic  worth)  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  claims  of  the  book  itself.  The 
canonicity  of  each  book — its  right,  that  is,  to  a  place  in  the 
Canon — is  a  question  as  large  as  the  question  of  its  Divine 
authority,  and  involves  a  consideration  of  the  same  evidence. 
Of  that  evidence  early  opinion  is  only  part ;  an  important  x^art, 
doubtless,  for  the  utmost  care  was  taken  from  the  first  in 
discriminating  the  genuine  from  the  spurious  ;  but  it  is  only 
part.     It  may  aid,  it  must  not  control  our  decisions. 

157.  The  canonicity  of  the  Old  Testament  is  best  esta- 
Canonicity  of  bhshed  by  the  New.  Our  Lord  received  as  Scrip- 
melit  prifved  ^^^^*^  what  the  Jews  delivered  to  Him  as  Scripture, 
from  New.  and  the  apostle  speaks  of  the  advantage  of  the 
Jew  as  consisting  chiefly  in  his  possession  of  the  "  oracles  of 
(rod."  As  an  evidence  of  the  close  connexion  of  the  two  dis- 
pensations, and  of  the  sanction  given  in  the  New  Testament 

*  These  aiitliorities  may  be  seen  in  the  original  in  Wordsworth  on 
the  Canon,  Appendix  A.  Thirteen  out  of  the  fifteen  are  referred  to 
in  Jones  on  fhe  Canon,  1.  73-76. 


80  canon:  old  testament, 

to  the  Old,  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  former  has  not  less 
than  263  direct  quotations  from  the  latter,  and  that  these 
quotations  are  taken  from  almost  every  book.  The  obvious 
allusions  to  the  Old  Testament  are  even  more  numerous, 
amounting  to  upwards  of  350.     See  chap,  vi.,  §  i. 

158.  That  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Canon  was  fixed  as 
Phiioand  ^t  present  is  established  by  decisive  evidence. 
Josephus.  Ij^  addition  to  quotations  in  the  New  Testament 
fvoia  particular  books,  Josephus  and  Philo  both  testify  to  the 
books  themselves,  and  to  the  reverence  with  which  the  Jews 
regarded  them  ;  the  former  expressly  stating  that  the  Canon 
he  was  setting  down  was  received  by  all  Jews,  that  they  all 
would  contend  for  it  to  the  death,  and  that  none  had  ever 
dared  to  increase  or  diminish  or  change  them.  (Cont.  Ap.  i.  8.) 

159.  Testimonies  no  less  decisive  will  be  found  in  the  next 
•    f  r  f     P'li^agraph.     In   examining   this    list   it  nmst  be 

remembered  that  when  certain  books  are  omitted 
from  professed  catalogues  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures, 
there  is  the  greatest  probability  that  each  of  those  books  was 
included  in  the  preceding  book ;  Esther,  for  example,  in 
Nehemiah,  Ruth  in  Judges,  and  Lamentations  in  Jeremiah. 
The  fact  that  some  books  are  not  quoted  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  accounted  for  on  the  simple  principle  that  the  writers 
had  no  occasion  to  quote  them.  That  all  our  present  books 
were  included  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  in  the  Old  Testament 
Canon  is  undoubted,  and  as  such  they  are  quoted  under  the 
usual  Jewish  division. 

160.  The  authorities  referred  to  in  tiie  preceding  paragraph, 
may  be  classed  as  follows  : — 

The  New  Testament,  which  is  really  authoritative,  refers  to  all  Scrip- 
Ancient  Old  ^^^^  under  the  threefold  division  of  Law,  Prophets,  and 
Testament  Writings.  It  also  appeals  to  each  of  the  books,  except 
^^^^'  Ruth,    Ezra,    Nehemiah,    Canticles,    Ecclesiastes,    aud 

perhaps  Lamentations.  The  version  of  the  LXX,  which  is  ecidencc, 
includes  them  all.  The  son  of  Sirach,  B.C.  130,  mentions  the 
threefold  division  :  as  does  Fhilo,  a.c.  41,  quoting  from  all  except 
lluth,  Chronicles,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  Canticles,  Ecclesiastes,  La- 
mentations, Ezekiel,  and  Daniel.  Josephvs,  b.  a.d.  3  7,  enumerates 
them  according  to  their  classes,  including  all  the  present  books. 
Melito,  177,  mentions  all  except  Esther  and  Lamentations,  Origen, 
230,  mentions  all  without  exception.         Athanasius,   326,  mentions 


CANONICAL  books:  HOW  iukserved.  81 

all  except  Esther.  Cyril  (Jerusalem),  348,  mentions  all,  as  also 
the  Council  of  Laodicea,  363;  Epiphanius,  368;  and //«7rt/-?/ of  Poictiers, 
370.  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  370,  mentions  all  except  Esther;  aa 
does  Amphilochius,  3  70.  The  Apostolic  Canons,  of  uncertain  date, 
but  not  later  than  the  end  of  this  century,  mentions  all;  as  also 
the  Apostolic  Constitutions.     These  are  Greek  authorities. 

Of  Latin  authorities,  the  chief  are  Jerome,  392:  Eofin,  397:  3rd 
Council  of  Carthage,  397:  and  Augustine,  395:  and  all  agree  in  enu- 
merating the  whole. 

i6t.  How  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  preserved, 
is  a  question  of  some  difiSculty,  and  we  can  but  give  the  most 
iJrobable  solution. 

The  books  of  the  law  were  placed  in  the  Tabernacle  with 
the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  were  kept  there 
I'estament  during  the  joumeyings  in  the  wilderness,  and 
preserved.  afterwards  in  Jerusalem.**  To  the  same  sanctuary 
were  successively  consigned  the  various  historical  and  pro- 
phetic books,  from  the  time  of  Joshua  to  that  of  David.  On 
the  erection  of  the  temple,  Solomon  deposited  in  it  the 
earliest  books,^  and  enriched  the  collection  with  the  inspired 
Xjroductions  of  his  own  pen.  After  his  days,  a  succession  of 
prophets  arose,  Jonah,  Amos,  Isaiah,  Hosea,  Joel,  Micah, 
Xahum,  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  Obadiah,  and  Habbakuk.  They 
all  flourished  before  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  and  en- 
larged the  volume  of  inspiration  by  valuable  additions.  About 
420  years  after  the  temple  was  built,  it  was  burnt  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. What  became  of  the  MSS.  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures is  not  known.  In  Babylon,  however,  Daniel  speaks  of  the 
book  of  the  law  as  familiar  to  him,  and  also  of  Jeremiah,  and 
of  other  prophets.*^  Shortly  after  the  conquest  of  Babylon 
by  Cyrus,  the  Jews  were  released  from  captivity,  rebuilt  the 
temple,  and  restored  Divine  worship,  being  encouraged  to  per- 
severe by  the  exhortations  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 

About  50  years  after  the  temple  was  rebuilt,  Ezra  is  re- 
corded by  tradition  to  have  made  a  collection  of  the  sacred 
writings,  as  he  certainly  took  great  pains  to  expound  and  en- 
force the  ancient  law  (see  Neb.  8.  i,  3,  9).    To  this  collection 

*  Deut.  31.  9,  26:  Josh.  24.  26:  I  Sam.  10.  25. 
^  2  Kings  22.  8:  Isa.  34.  16. 

•^  Dan.  9.  2,  II.  In  these  passages  the  word  book  or  a  book  is 
more  properly  "the  book." 

E  Z 


82  CAXOX  :   THE   APOCRYPHA. 

were  added  (probably  by  Simon  the  Just,)  the  writings  of 
Ezra  himself,  with  those  of  Nehemiah  and  Malachi,  and  thus 
was  completed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament :  for,  from  the 
days  of  Malachi,  no  prophet  arose  till  John  the  Baptist,  who 
connected  the  two  covenants,  and  of  whom  it  was  foretold, 
that  he  should  precede  the  great  day  of  the  Lord,  Mai.  3.  i. 

The  collection  of  the  canonical  books,  is  generally  said  to  have 
been  the  work  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  a  body  which  included 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi,  and  afterwards, 
Simon  the  Just.  The  existence  and  labours  of  this  body  are 
distinctly  referred  to  in  the  most  ancient  Jewish  writings. 

After  the  captivity,  synagogues  were  established  in  Judea, 
and  throughout  the  world,  and  copies  of  the  inspired  Scrip- 
tures were  so  greatly  multiplied,  as  to  make  the  preservation  of 
particular  MSS.  rather  a  question  of  curiosity,  than  of  his- 
torical importance.''  The  early  existence  and  history  of  the 
LXX,  have  been  noticed  in  a  previousi  chapter. 

162,  If  we  examine  by  these  tests  the  books  called  Apo- 
TheApocrj'-  cryphal,  we  shall  be  constrained  to  reject  their 
P^^-  authority  as  Divine. 

163.  Externally  the  evidence  is  conclusive. 

External  They  are  not  found  in  any  catalogue  of  canonical 

evidence.  writings,  made  during  the  first  four  centuries  after 
Christ ;  nor  were  they  regarded  as  part  of  the  rule  of  faith, 
till  the  decision  of  the  council  of  Trent,  1545.  Philo  never 
quotes  them  as  he  does  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and  Josephus 
expressly  excludes  them.**  The  Jewish  church  never  received 
them  as  part  of  the  Canon,  and  they  are  never  quoted  either 
by  our  Lord,  or  by  his  ajDostles,  a  fact  the  more  striking,  as 
Paul  thrice  quotes  heathen  poets.  It  is  remarkable,  too,  that 
the  last  inspired  prophet  closes  his  predictions,  by  recom- 
mending to  his  countrymen  the  books  of  Moses,  and  intimates, 
that  no  other  messenger  is  to  be  expected  by  them  till  the 
coming  of  the  second  Elijah.*^ 

Against  this  decisive  external  evidence,  must  be  placed  the 
fact,  that  particular  books  have  been  quoted  as  canonical  by 
one  or  more  of  the  Fathers. 

Baruch  alone  is  quoted  as  canonical  by  Origen,  Athanasius, 

"■  See  Stuart  on  the  Canon,  and  Havernick's  Introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament,  Edin.  p.  18-22. 

^  Cont.  Apion.  1.8.  *=  Mai.  4.  4-G 


APOCRYrHA:   EVIDENCE   AGAINST.  83 

Cyril,  and  Epiphanius.  Of  the  Latin  cburch,  Augustine 
alone  quotes  as  canonical,  Tobit,  Judith,  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
Ecclesiasticus,  and  i  and  2  Maccabees.  By  other  writers  of 
the  3rd  and  4th  centuries,  the  books  are  not  cited,  or  their 
canonicity  is  denied. 

164.  Internal  evidence,  moreover,  is  against  their  inspira- 
Jiiternai  tion.  Divine  authority  is  claimed  by  none  of  the 
evidence.  writers  :  and  by  some  it  is  \'irtually  disowned.'' 
The  books  contain  statements  at  variance  with  history,^  self- 
contradictory,'^  and  opposed  to  the  doctrines'^  and  precepts  of 
Scripture.^ 

165.  For  historical  purposes,  and  for  "  instruction  of  man- 
iTowfar  ners,"  so  far  as  they  exemphfy  the  spirit  and  pre- 
usefui.  cepts  of  the  Gospel,  the  books  are  of  value.  But 
they  are  without  authority ^  and  form  no  part  of  the  rule  of 
faith. 

166.  The  utility  and  relative  importance  of  these  books 
Relative  iiiay  be  further  explained.  The  whole  illustrate 
(rf  tiiese"*^^  the  progress  of  knowledge  among  the  Jews,  their 
books.  taste,  their  religious  character,  and  their  govern- 
ment :  while  some  of  the  books  explain  ancient  prophecies, 
and  prove  the  fulfilment  of  them,  and  others  exhibit  the  most 
exalted  sentiments  and  principles  of  uninspired  men. 

Of  least  value  are  ist  and  2nd  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith,  Esther, 
Susanna,  and  the  Idol  Bel  and  the  Dragon.     These  books 
contain  indications  of  childish  creduhty,  or  of  wilful  disregard 
■  of  truth. 

^  2  Mac.  2.  23:  15.38:  Prol.  of  Eccles. 

b  Baruch  i.  2,  compared  with  Jer.  43.  6,  7.  The  story  of  Bel 
and  the  Di'agon  contradicts  the  account  of  Daniel's  being  cast  into 
the  hons'  den. 

"  Comp.  I  Mac.  6.  4-16:  2  Mac.  i,  13-16:  2  Mac,  9.  28,  as  to  the 
place  where  Antiochus  Epiphanes  died.  The  writer  of  the  Book 
of  Wisdom  pretends  that  it  was  composed  by  Solomon,  and  quotes 
Isa.  13.  11-18. 

^  Prayers  for  the  dead  sanctioned,  2  Mac.  12.  43-45.  Justifi- 
cation by  works  involved,  Tob.  12.  8,  9:  2  Esd.  8.  33. 

^  Lying  sanctioned,  Tob.  5.  12:  12.  15.  Suicide  is  spoken  of  as  a 
manful  act,  2  Mac.  14.  42 :  assassination  is  commended,  Judith  9. 
2-9,  comp.  Gen.  49.  7 :  and  magical  incantations  sanctioned,  Tob. 
6.  16,  17. 


:84  EVIDENCES. 

An  intermediate  place  is  due  to  the  book  of  Baruch,  tlia 
Song  of  the  Three  Children,  and  the  Prayer  of  Manasseh. 
The  authorship  of  these  books  is  uncertain,  and  they  contain 
several  mistakes  ;  but  they  were  probably  written  with  sin- 
cere intentions,  and  they  show  the  views  which,  in  that  age, 
were  entertained  of  personal  religion. 

The  remaining  books  claim  a  higher  place.  The  Wisdom 
of  Solomon,  though  not  written  by  the  Preacher,  was  probably 
intended  as  an  imitation  of  his  writings,  and  contains  many 
striking  counsels.  Ecclesiasticus,  avowedly  uninspired,  is 
often  excellent.  To  the  student  it  is  also  useful,  as  shew- 
ing how  the  Jews  expounded  their  law,  what  hopes  had 
originated  in  the  Divine  promises,  and  by  what  motives  the 
practice  of  godliness  was  enforced.  The  ist  book  of  the 
Maccabees  gives  the  history  of  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews, 
under  the  illustrious  family  from  whom  its  name  is  taken.  It 
contains  many  examples  of  heroic  faith,  and  may  be  perused 
mth  the  same  design  as  any  other  portion  of  authentic  his- 
tory. The  2nd  Book  is  less  accurate  than  the  ist,  historically 
and  morally  ;  but  it  illustrates  the  firm  confidence  of  the  Jews 
in  a  future  life,  and  records  several  instances  of  devotedness 
to  the  religion  and  institutes  of  the  law. 

For  an  account  of  other  Apocryphal  books  see  Fabricii  Codex 
Pseudigr.  V.  T.  1713-41,  and  Codex  Ps.  IsT.  T.  1713-22,  with  Birch's 
Auctarium,  1 804,  or  Jones  on  the  Canon. 

Sec.  4.  Scripture  Evidences, 

167.  All  that  has  been  advanced  thus  far  on  the  authority 
of  Scripture,  is  taken  from  Scripture  itself.  We  have  only 
arranged  and  given  expression  to  its  claims.  The  evidence  by 
which  those  claims  are  sustained,  is  among  the  most  interesting 
subjects  of  inquiry.  We  can  but  touch  upon  it  here,  and 
must  be  content  to  refer  to  various  authors  for  ampler  in- 
formation. 

168.  We  have  already  seen  that  Scripture  is  genuine,  and 
"What  evi-  "^^^^  from  the  earliest  times,  its  various  books  were 
dence  of  received  as  written  by  the  men  whose  names  they 
is\ivoived  in  bear.  Ordinarily,  nothing  more  would  have  been 
genmneness.  proved  by  this  process  ;  but  in  this  case  the  evi- 
dence of  genuineness  is  also  evidence  of  authenticity.     The 


EVIDENCES  :    HISTORICAL.  85 

truth  of  the  general  narrative,  its  authenticity,  is  involved  in 
the  very  proofs  of  the  genuineness  of  the  record.  The  books 
are  quoted  and  copied  as  history,  and  were  received  as  such, 
while  witnesses  of  most  of  the  transactions  they  describe  were 
living.  That  Palestine  was  under  the  Roman  yoke,  that 
during  the  reign  of  Herod,  Christ  was  born,  that  he  professed 
to  be  a  teacher  sent  from  God.  that  he  claimed  the  power  of 
working  miracles,  that  these  miracles  were  always  beneficent, 
that  they  sustained  a  morahty  altogether  unknown  to  the 
Gentiles,  and  novel  even  to  the  Jews,  that  he  had  several  fol- 
lowers, that  he  was  put  to  death  under  Pontius  Pilate,  that 
many  hundreds,  beheving  him  to  have  risen  from  the  dead, 
became  his  disciples,  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  his 
disciples  were  scattered  over  the  whole  Roman  world,  that 
(in  shoi-t)  all  the  main  statements  of  the  Gospel  history  are 
facts,  is  involved  (whatever  be  thought  of  their  spiritual 
significancy)  in  the  very  genuineness  of  the  record.  The 
whole  was  deemed  historically  true :  so  that,  while  many 
rejected  the  gospel,  the  facts,  on  which  in  one  sense  it  was 
founded,  were  acknowledged  by  all. 

169.  An  explanation  of  previous  evidence  (§  i6,)  will  make 
this  statement  clear.  In  the  first  four  centuries 
evidonrcsof  WO  liavc  upwards  of  fifty  authors  who  testify 
geiiiuiieaess.  ^q  facts  told  or  implied  in  the  Gospel  nar- 
rative. The  whole  or  fragments  of  the  writings  of  these 
authors  remain.  The  writings  of  about  fifty  others  referred 
to  by  Jerome  (392)  have  perished.  These  authors  belong  to 
all  parts  of  the  world,  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Pyrenees, 
from  Northern  Germany  to  the  African  Sahara.  They  speak 
the  Syrian,  the  Greek,  and  the  Latin  tongues.  They  repre- 
sent the  behef  of  large  bodies  of  professed  Christians,  and  no 
less  the  admissions  of  multitudes  who  were  not  Christians, 
They  agree  in  quoting  Scripture  as  genuine  and  true.  They 
refer  to  it  as  a  distinct  volume,  universally  received.  They 
comment  upon  it  and  expound  it.  They  refer  to  it  as  Divine. 
Heretics  who  separated  from  the  great  body  of  the  faithful 
received  the  narrative  of  the  facts,  and  difiered  only  on  tlie 
doctrines  which  they  supposed  those  facts  to  embody ;  and 
even  infidels  who  denied  the  faith  founded  their  denial  upon 
the  very  facts  which  our  present  record  contains.  So  general 
had  a  belief  of  the  facts  of  the  Gospel  become,  that  we  find 


86 


EVIDENCES  :    HISTORICAL. 


J.  Martyr  (165)  observing,  that  in  every  nation  prayers  and 
thanksgivings  were  offered  to  the  Father  by  tlie  name  of 
Jesus  ;  while  only  fifty  years  later  Tertullian  states  that  in 
almost  every  city  Christians  formed  the  majority. 

Heathen  and  Jewish  writers,  without  speaking  of  the  New 
Heathen  Testament,  and  without  giving  any  evidence  there- 
testimonies.  fQj.Q  Qf  j^s  genuineness,  confirm  in  a  general  way 
the  narratives  of  the  hfe  of  our  Lord  and  of  his  disciples, 
or  incidentally  illustrate  them.  Josephus  in  his  Annals  (a.d. 
37-93),  Tacitus  in  his  History  (a.d.  100),  Suetonius  in  his 
Biographical  Sketches  (a.d.  117),  Juvenal  in  his  Satires  (a.d. 
128),  and  Pliny  in  his  Letters  (a.d.  103),  all  confirm  the  his- 
torical statements  of  the  sacred  story.  Indeed  there  is  no 
transaction  of  ancient  history  that  can  exhibit  more  than  a  frac- 
tion of  the  evidence  by  v/hich  the  narrative  of  the  Gospels  is 
sustained. 

See  the  passages  quoted  in  Paley,  p.  i,  eh.  2. 

Ecclesiastical  170-  The  following  are  the  princij)al  ecclesiastical 
AVTiters  of  \\'riters  who  prove  at  once  the  genuineness  and 
centuries.       general  truthfulness  of  the  New  Testament : — 


FIRST  CENTURY. 


Scriptures  quoted  as  genu- 
ine and  authentic,  and  as 
a  distinct  volume. 


Quoted  as  of  peculiar 
authority,  or  as  divine  : 
expounded  and  com- 
mented upon. 


Appealed  to  by  various 
sects  and  by  adver- 
saries. 


Barnabas.  Epistle  belongs  to 

the  2nd  cent. 
Hernias.  Shepherd,  do. 
Clement.  Rome,  died  100. 
Ignatius,  flour.  70,  died  ii6. 
Poly  carp,  died  166. 


Barnabas. 

Ilermas. 

Clement. 
Ignatius. 
Polycarp. 


SECOND  CENTURY. 


Quadratus,  122. 
Papias,  flour.  119,  died  163. 
J.  Martyr,  flour.  i48,died  165. 
Dionysius  (Cor.),  i6j. 
Ch.  at  Lyons,  1-70. 
Melito,  flour.  170. 
Hegesippus,  flour.  175. 
Irenaius,  flour.  176,  died  202. 
Athenagoras,  176. 

Theophilus  (Aut.),  178. 


Basilides,  Alex.  122. 

Valentinians,  Rome, 

140 

J.  Martyr. 

Sethites,  Egypt,  140. 

Ttttian,  flou. 

n8 

died 

176. 

Carpocratians,  Alex. 

145 

Dionysius. 

Marcion,  150. 
Montanists,  157. 
Encratites,  165. 

Irenaeus. 

Celsus. 

S  J'hecHiotu?,  ■( 

iArtemon,    3   ^'' 

Theophilus. 

EVIDENCES :   HISTORICAL. 
THIED  CEXTURY. 


87 


Scriptures  quoted  as  genu-  |  tuSorlty,  or'as^S : 
expoimded    and    com- 
I    mented  upon. 


ine  and  authentic,  and  as 
a  distinct  volume. 


Origen,  flour.  185-21?. 
Tertulliau,  flour.  198,  d.  220. 
Minucius  Felix,  died  220. 

Clement,  Alex,  died  217. 
Dionysius,  Alex,  flour.  2J2. 
Cyprian,  Carthage,  200-258. 
Commodian,  flour.  270. 
Victorin  (Germany). 
ArnoMus,  flour,  307. 
Lactantius,  died  325. 
Eusebius,  270-J40. 


Origen. 

Tercullian. 

Ammonius,  Alex.  200-2  J5 

Hippolytus,  220,  died  250. 

Clement. 

iJionysius. 

Cyprian. 

Novatian,  Rome,  250. 

Victorin. 

Lucian,  died  312. 


Appealed  to  by  various 
sects    and  Lv  adver- 


Ilermogenes, 
20J. 


Carthage. 


Novatians,  Rome,  251. 
fcjal)eUians,  Egypt,  258. 
I'urph^Tj',  Rome,  262. 
Paul  of  Samosata,  An- 

tiodi,  265. 
Jlanicha^ans,  Persia,  274. 


FOURTH  CENTURY. 

Hilary,  Poictiers,  died  368. 

Gregory  Nazien.  328-359 

Apollinaris,  Eaodic.  flou.  362. 

Athanasius,  died  373. 

Allans,  318. 

Damasus,  Rome,  366. 

Ephraem,Svrus,died  378. 

Doiiatists,  328. 

Gregory,  Xyssa,  331-396. 

Basil  (Caesarea),  died  378. 

Julian,  Emp,  died  365. 

Theodore,  Tarsus,  flour.  376. 

Cyi-il(Jerus.),  315-386. 

I'l-is-  illiaiiists,  378. 

Eusebius,  Nico.  flour.  335. 

ApuUinarians,  378. 

Ambrose,  Milan,  374-397. 

Ambrose. 

DidjTnus,  Alex.  375-396. 

Amphilochius,  Iconimu,  flou. 

Epiphanius,  Cyprus,  368, 

380. 

d.  403. 
Palladius,  flour.  407. 

Jerome,  329-420. 

Jerome. 

Chrysostom,  344-407. 

Pelagians,  410. 

This  evidence  is  sometimes   called  the  historical,  and  it 
„.      .   ,        forms  the  subiect  of  the  first  part  of  Paley's  volume. 

Historical         rr  -x      i.      xi,    i,      •     i  i     i      i    -x      i  • 

evidence,  ii  its  truth  be  acknowledged,  it  places  an  inquirer 
effect  of.  ^j^  ^Yie  position  of  a  contemporary  of  our  Lord, 
leaving  the  claims  of  his  rehgion  to  be  established  by  othei 
evidence. 

171.  Admitting  the  existence  of  a  Being  of  infinite  power 
and  goodness,  there  are  strong  probabilities  that 
how  cias-       He   would  not   leave  his   creatures  in  ignorance 
Bified.  .^^^  misery  ;  and  probabihties  no  less  strong  that 

any  communication  from  him  would  contain  a  distinct  refer- 
ence to  their  condition,  and  would  present  analogies  to  other 
works  of  the  Creator.  These  probabilities  form  the  presump- 
tive evidence  of  revelation,  and  are  discussed  by  such  writers 
as  Ellis,  Leland,  and  Butler.  Evidence  founded  on  revelation 
itself  is  called,  positive. 


88  EVIDENCES   CLxVSSIFIED. 

In  God  are  attributes  of  power  and  of  knowledge,  of  holi- 
ness and  love.  Sometimes  the  evidences  of  Scripture  are 
ranged  under  corresponding  divisions,  and  we  speak  of  the 
miraculous,  the  prophetic,  and  the  moral. 

A  message  from  another,  again,  is  susceptible  of  a  two-fold 
evidence  of  truth  ;  viz.,  credentials  supplied  by  the  messenger, 
and  peculiarities  or  marks  in  the  message  itself.  The  cre- 
dentials are  external,  and  the  marks  are  internal.  In  this 
arrangement  prophecy  often  belongs  to  both :  the  prediction 
is  in  the  message,  and  the  fulfilment  either  in  the  Bible  or 
in  profane  history. 

The  internal  evidence,  again,  is  twofold  ;  according  as  it  is 
founded  (i),  on  the  precepts  of  the  Bible,  the  character  of 
inspired  men,  or  on  the  influence  of  truth  in  promoting 
holiness,  which  is  the  moral  evidence  as  it  may  be  called ; 
and  (2),  on  its  internal  harmony — literary,  doctrinal,  and  ana- 
logical, on  the  adaptation  of  the  message  to  human  wants,  or 
on  its  consistency  with  all  our  holiest  conceptions  of  the 
Divine  character  and  purpose,  which  may  be  caUed  the 
spiritual  evidence  ;  and  this  is  the  division  to  which  it  is 
intended  to  adhere. 

172.  It  is  instructive  to  notice  that  each  kind  of  evidence 
The  very  abounds  in  directly  spiritual  instruction.  Miracles 
Scriptrre*^^  prove  at  least  that  physical  nature  is  not  fate,  nor 
instructive,  a  merely  material  constitution  of  things.  Pro- 
phecy proves  that  things  material  and  moral  (both  nature 
and  man)  are  governed  by  a  free  and  Almighty  hand.  What 
were  once  grave  questions  of  natural  religion,  are  thus  settled 
in  the  very  evidences  of  the  revealed.  The  spiritual  truth 
wrapped  up  both  in  prophecy  and  miracles,  and  the  obviously 
holy  tendency  of  the  moral  evidence  of  the  Bible,  wiU  be 
noticed  elsewhere.  Contrary  to  what  is  sometimes  affirmed, 
the  devout  study  of  Christian  evidence  may  become  the 
means  of  spiritual  improvement. 

Evidence  173-  The  different  evidences  then  of  the  truth  of 

arranged.       Scripture  may  be  arranged  as  follows  : — 


EXTERNAL  EVIDENCE  :   MIRACLES.  89 

i,  EXTERNAL  Evidence  :  appealing  to  our  senses. 
f  I.  Direct:  as  in  the  miracles  of  our  Lord,  John  3,  2:  5.   36: 
10,  37:   14.  II. 
Works  by  Bishop  Douglas;  Campbell j  "West;  Sherlock; 
Le  Bas. 
.  Eetrospective:  as  in  the  connection  of  Christ  with  the 
miracles  and  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,  Luke  24. 
26,  27:  John  5.  47. 
Leslie;  Stillingfleet;  Faber;  Kidder;  Brown;  Simpson; 
.  Prospective:  as  in  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  since  the 
days  of  our  Lord,  John  14.  29, 
[  Davison;  Xewton;  Keith, 

ii.  INTERXAL:  which  is  either 
I"     a.  Moral;  appealing  to  our  conscience;  consisting  of  the 
(  I.  Moral  precepts  of  the  Bible. 
I  Jenyns;  Gregory. 

^  I   2.  Character  OF  OUR  Lord  and  cf  the  inspired  writers. 
I  <,  Newcome;  Lyttelton, 

^13.  Character  and  lives  of  the  early  Christians, 
and  the  general  influence  of  truth. 
[  Chalmers;  Warburton;  Ryan;  Pliny,  etc. 

h.  or  Spiritual;  appealing  to  our  intellectual  perceptions 
and  to  our  new  nature  generally.     It  includes 
C  I.  The  Scriptural  or   Literary,   or  the  wisdom  and 
harmony  of  revealed  truth, 

In  its  different  dispensations. — Alexander. 
I  In  the  various  parts  of  the  record. — Graves  on  the 

1  Pentateuch;    Paley's     Horje    Paulinae;    Blunt, 

-—'  Bii-ks,  etc. 

^  I  With  nature.— Butler's  Analogy;  Chalmers. 

•S  ^   2.  The  Experimental.     The  gospel  felt  to  be  adapted 
^  to  our  wants. 

Pascal;  Fuller;  Erskine;  Sumner;  J.  J.Gurney. 
j   3.  The  Spiritual  properly  so  called.     The  Bible  consis- 

Itent  with  the  character  and  purpose  of  God. 
Gilb.  Wardlaw;  Aldis;  Philosophy  of  Salvation, 
^  Rel.  Tr.  Soc. 

174.  The  success  of  the  gospel  is  connected  in  Scripture, 
External  and  by  all  ancient  Christian  writers,  with  the 
evideuce.  possession  (on  the  part  of  our  Lord)  of  miraculous 
Miraculous  power.  Men  beheved,  in  the  first  age  at  least, 
power.  because  Divine  works  or  miracles  (facts,  that  is, 

"which   cculd   not  have  taken  place  from  natural  causes  or 


90  EXTERNAL  EVIDENCE  :    MIRACLES. 

without  superhuman  aid)  attested  the  truth  of  the  message.  T<"i 
these  works  our  Lord  repeatedly  appealed,  as  works  which  none 
other  man  did,  and  as  an  evidence  of  his  mission.  He  healed 
the  sick,  he  raised  the  dead,  not  once  only,  but  in  many  hun- 
dreds of  cases  ;  for  it  is  said  frequently  that  they  brought  sick 
people  unto  him,  and  that  he  healed  them  all. 

Matt.  4.  24:  12.15:  14.14:  15.30:  19.  2,  etc:  Mark  1.34:  3.10: 
Luke  6.  17:  9.  II. 

He  gave  the  same  power  to  his  disciples,  first  to  the  twelve, 
Similar  and  then  to  the  seventy.     After  his  departure  his 

tohfs^^^^"^  apostles  received  the  power  of  bestowing  this 
disciples.  miraculous  gift  on  all  ui:)on  whom  they  laid  their 
hands  ;  so  that  many  hundreds  and  perhaps  thousands  were 
thus  endowed.  It  is  certain  that  the  apostles  speak  of  it  as 
a  thing  familiarly  known,  and  reckon  it  among  the  signs  of  a 
Divinely  appointed  teacher.  Indeed  (when  there  was  no 
New  Testament)  miraculous  power  seems  the  necessary 
evidence  of  a  mission  from  God. 

175.  The  sufficiency  of  the  evidence  which  our  Lord  exhi- 
Effect  of  tbis  bited  in  this  form  was  admitted  by  all,  John  7. 
evidence.  ^i  :  3.  2.  The  effect  on  those  who  witnessed  the 
miracles,  in  a  teachable  spirit,  was  a  deep  conviction  of  his 
Messiahship,  John  6.  14  :  2.  11,  etc.,  as  the  effect  of  the  record 
of  those  miracles  and  of  the  doctrines  they  confirmed,  ought 
to  be  saving  faith,  John  20.  30,  31. 

176.  But  did  he  not  deceive  the  peo^^le  ?  How?  He 
Did  he  introduced  his  religion  among  enemies.  He  wrought 
deceive  ?  i^ig  miracles  openly.  The  senses  of  men  were  able 
to  judge  of  them.  His  adversaries  narrowly  watched  his 
proceedings,  John  9.  And  why  ?  He  foresaw  and  foretold 
his  death.  He  promised  his  disciples  persecution  and  sufier- 
ing,  and  he  enforced  and  practised  universal  holiness. 

But  was  he  not  himself  deceived  1  Whence,  then,  the 
Bobriety  and  holiness  of  his  precepts,  the  disheartening  faith- 
fulness of  his  warnings,  the  dissimilarity  between  his  teach- 
ings and  the  expectations  of  his  countrymen  1  No  one  mark 
of  enthusiasm  is  to  be  found  in  Him. 

The  predictions  of  our  Lord  in  this  respect  were  soon  ful- 
fiUed. 

Most  of  the  ai)ostles  seem  to  have  se;Ued  their  testimony 


EXTERNAL   EVIDE^•CE  :   illRACLES.  91 

■with  their  blood,  and  each  noblv  endured  the  trial.  The 
following  facts  are  gathered  chiefly  from  ecclesiastical  historv. 
They  are  not  all,  however,  equally  cei-tain  : — 

Matthew  suffered  martyrdom  (by  the  sword)  in  Ethiopia.  Mark 
died  at  Alexandria  after  being  dragged  through  the  streets  of  that 
city.  Luke  was  hanged  on  an  olive-tree  in  Greece.  John  was 
put  into  a  cauldi'on  of  boiling  oil  but  escaped  death,  and  was  banished 
to  Patmos.  Peter  was  crucified  at  Eome  with  his  head  down- 
wards. James  was  beheaded  at  Jerusalem.  James  the  Less 
was  thrown  from  a  pinnacle  of  the  temple,  and  beaten  to  death 
below.  Philip  was  hanged  against  a  pillar  in  Phrygia.  Bartho- 
lomew was  flayed  alive.  Andrew  was  bound  to  a  cross,  whence 
he  preached  to  his  persecutors  till  he  died.  Thomas  was  inm 
through  the  body  at  Coromandel  in  India.  Jude  was  shot  to  death 
Avitli   arrows.  Matthias  was   first   stoned  and   then  beheaded. 

Barnabas  was  stoned  to  death  by  Jews  at  Salonica.  Paul  "in 
deaths  oft,"  was  beheaded  at  Rome  by  Nero. 

Does  the  world  furnish  any  such  examples  of  sincerity  and 
faithfulness  ? 

177.  In  truth  this  evidence  can  be  set  aside  only  by  sup- 
if  miracles  posing  a  miracle  greater  than  all.  If  Christ  were 
denied,  a  jjq^  from  God,  we  have  a  Jewish  peasant,  changing 
miracle  must  the  religion  of  the  world,  weaving  into  the  story 
i)e  admitted,  ^j  j^-^  j^£^  ^-^^  fulfilment  of  ancient  predictions,  and 
a  morahty  of  the  purest  order,  as  unhke  the  traditional 
teaching  of  his  countrymen  as  it  was  superior  to  the  precepts 
of  Gentile  philosophy  ;  enduring  with  most  pecuhar  com- 
j)0SLire  intense  suffering,  and  inducing  his  followers  to  submit 
to  similar  privations,  and  many  of  them  to  a  cruel  death : 
in  support  not  of  opinions  but  of  the  alleged  fact  of  his 
miraculous  resurrection.  We  have  then  these  followers, 
*  unlearned  men,'  going  forth  and  discoursing  on  the  sub- 
limest  themes,  persuading  the  occupiers  of  Roman  and 
Grecian  cities  to  cast  away  their  idols,  to  renounce  the 
religion  of  their  fathers,  to  reject  the  instructions  of  their 
philosophy,  and  to  receive  instead,  as  a  teacher  sent  from 
heaven,  a  Jew  of  humble  station  who  had  been  put  to  a 
shameful  death.  And  all  impostors!  To  receive  this  ex- 
planation of  the  acknowledged  facts,  is  to  admit  a  greater 
miracle  than  any  which  the  Bible  contains. 

178,  These  remarks  apply  in  a  similar  way  to  the  miracles 


92  EXTERNAL   EVIDENCE:   PROPHECY. 

Leslie's  tests  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  Testament ;  and  the  whole  may  bo 
of  miraculous  examined  by  the  tests  laid  down  (in  Leslie's  tract) 
appearances.  ^^  infallible  marks  of  the  reality  of  miraculous 
appearances,  i.  AVere  they  such  as  men's  senses  could  judge  of  ? 
2.  Were  they  public  ?  3.  Were  pubHc  monuments  kept  up, 
and  some  outward  actions  performed  in  memory  of  the  events 
thus  publicly  wrought  1  and  4.  Were  such  monuments  and 
observances  set  up  at  the  very  time  when  the  events  took 
place,  and  were  they  afterwards  continued  without  inter- 
mission ?  The  first  two  tests  render  it  imjoossible  for  men  to 
be  deceived  at  the  time,  and  the  last  two  as  impossible  for 
deception  to  be  practised  in  any  subsequent  age.  If  the 
reader  will  apply  these  tests  to  the  miracles  of  the  Bible,  and 
then  to  the  alleged  miracles  of  other  teachers,  he  will  see  at 
once  the  distinction  between  the  false  and  the  true. 

179.  Prophecies  are  miracles  of  knowledge,  as  miraculous 
Prophecy  a  ^*^^^  ^^®  miracles  of  power.  These  last  generally 
miracle  of       bring  their   own  evidence  with  them,  while  the 

ow  e  ge.  eyi(ieQce  of  the  former  is  gradual  and  accumu- 
lative. 

The  study  of  pro^Dhecy  and  of  its  fulfilment  is  highly  in- 
structive, both  for  the  confirmation  of  our  faith  and  for  the 
enlightenment  of  the  church.  The  want  of  books,  which 
Lord  Bacon  noted  in  this  department,  has  been  largely  sup- 
plied in  later  times,  especially  by  such  works  as  those  of 
Newton  and  Keith. 

180.  In  order  that  predictions  may  form  part  of  the  evi- 
„      .  .,      ,  dence  of  Scripture,  it  is  necessary,  first,  tjiat  the 

Requisites  of  ^  •,  ,   1       -,  ■,    ,  -,      1'  j  •  i 

prophetic  event  foretold  be  beyond  human  calculation  and 
evidence.  foresight ;  secondly,  that  the  prediction  be  known 
before  the  event  takes  i)lace  ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  prediction 
be  fulfilled  without  an  intentional  regard  to  the  Divine  pur- 
pose on  the  part  of  the  agent.  If  prudence  could  hsiYe  foreseen 
the  result,  the  prediction  may  be  but  an  instance  of  human 
sagacity.  If  the  result  was  not  foretold,  there  is  no  prophetic 
evidence.  And  if  the  prediction  led  men  to  seek  its  fulfilment, 
tlie  fulfilment  is  the  result  of  human  contrivance.  There  are 
indeed  predictions,  to  which  all  these  marks  do  not  apply  ; 
but  such  predictions,  though  useful  for  other  purposes,  cannot 
be  regarded  as  decisive  evidence  of  Scripture  truth. 


EXTERNAL  EVIDENCE  :   PROPHECY.  93 

i8i.  Prophetic  evidence,  it  may  be  noticed,  inins  tlirough 
Pervades  the  ^^^  Bible,  and  each  dispensation  has  its  appropriate 
Bible  to  the    predictions. 

Immediately  after  the  fall,  we  have  the  promise 
of  a  Sa^^our :  in  the  days  of  Enoch,  predictions  of  a  coming 
judgment :  in  the  days  of  Xoah,  of  the  flood.  After  the  flood, 
prophecy  gave  a  new  charter  of  temporal  blessing,  and  pro- 
mised a  continuance  of  the  seasons  to  the  end  of  time.  In 
Abraham,  it  founded  the  double  covenant  of  Canaan  and  the 
gospel,  promising  to  his  seed  a  country,  of  which  he  possessed 
only  his  burying-place,  and  to  all  nations,  that  in  his  great 
descendant  they  should  be  blessed.""  It  foretold  the  bondage 
of  Egypt,  and  promised  dehverance.^  By  Jacob,  it  foretold 
the  future  history  of  the  patriarchs  and  of  their  descendants.*" 

During  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  the  gift  was  withheld,  but 
To  the  giving  ^as  renewed  at  the  giving  of  the  law.  It  then 
of  the  Law.  foretold  the  coming  of  a  second  and  mightier  pro- 
phet,^ the  future  dignity  of  Judah,"  and  the  destinies  of  the 
Hebrew  people  to  the  end  of  time  -J  while  the  whole  of  the 
dispensation  foreshadowed  in  types  the  great  doctrines  of  the 
gospel. 

A  pause  of  four  hundred  years  follows  the  giving  of  the 
law  :  and  a  pause  of  like  duration  precedes  the  coming  of  our 
Lord. 

In  the  days  of  Samuel,  whose  prophetic  office  is  distinctly 
To  the  days  noticed,"  it  foretold  the  consequences  of  the  eleo- 
of  Solomon,  tion  of  a  temporal  king,*'  the  death  of  Saul,'  the 
appointment  and  character  of  David,J  the  estabhshment  of  his 
kingdom,''  the  birth  and  character  of  Solomon  ;'  and  after- 
wards, the  division  of  the  kingdom,""  the  overthrow  of  the 
idol-altar  at  Bethel,"  and  the  dispersion  of  Israel.  Contem- 
poraneously we  find  brief  sketches  of  the  nature  and  future 
progress  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

The  prophecies  and  miracles  of  Elijah  and  Ehsha,  occupy 
Great  pro-  ^n  important  place  in  the  narrative  of  the  two 
phetic  period,  kingdoms,"  and  reach  in  their  evidence,  nearly  to 

"  Gen.  12.  2,  3:  15.  13.    ^  Gen.  15.  14.  •=  Gen.  49. 

•*  Deut.  18.  15.  "  Numb.  23.  f  Dent.  4.:  28.:  33. 

^  I  Sam.  3.  20.  ^  I  Sam.  8.  11-18.  '  i  Sam.  28.  19. 

J  I  Sam.  16.:  13.  14.         ^  2  Sam.  7.  12-17. 

»  I  Chron.  22.  9;  see  i  Kings  4.  25.  «"  i  Kings  ir.  34,  40. 

°  I  Ivings  13.  °  2  Kings  1-12. 


94  EXTERNAL  EVIDENCE  :    PROPHECY. 

tlie  days  of  Jonah,  with  whom  the  series  of  Hebrew  prophets 
may  be  said  to  begin.  Amos  foretold  the  destruction  of 
Samaria,  and  the  final  dispersion  of  the  Ten  Tribes,'""  as  does 
Isaiah,*'  who  also  foretells  the  temporary  captivity  of  Judah 
by  Babylon,*"  a  small  and  friendly  state,  and  the  deliverance 
of  Hezekiah  from  Assyria,  whose  forces  then  surrounded 
Jerusalem."^  The  most  prominent  circumstances  of  the  cap- 
tivity were  all  foretold, — the  time  of  its  continuance,  seventy 
years,*"  the  moral  reasons  for  it,'  the  issues  of  it,  the  course  of 
means  by  which  it  was  to  terminate."  The  names  of  nations 
scarcely  then  known,  and  of  a  conqueror  not  yet  born,  are 
introduced,  and  the  whole  prediction  has  given  to  it  the  dis- 
tinctness of  history. 

During  the  whole  period,  the  prophets  pre-signify  an  ap- 
proaching change  of  the  Mosaic  covenant,  give  the  futuro 
history  of  the  chief  pagan  nations,  and  complete  the  announce- 
ment of  the  Messiah  and  his  work  of  redemption. 

In  the  captivity,  we  have  the  predictions  of  Obadiah,  of 
Daniel,  and  (in  part,)  of  Ezekiel.  After  the  captivity,  the 
prophecies  of  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  cheered  the 
builders  of  the  temple,  and  point  yet  more  earnestly  to  the 
advent  of  the  gospel. 

Thus  it  is  that  prophecy  makes  its  earhest  and  latest  work, 
preparation  for  Christianity.  The  office  and  work  of  our 
Lord  are  set  forth  as  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  earher 
revelation  of  God. 

AUsubordi-        ^^^'  '^^^'^^   Subordination    of    prophecy  to    one 
nate  lo  one     great  object  deserves  closer  investigation. 
^"  ■  AVe  know  that  in  fact  the  rehgion  of  the  Bible  is 

generally  acknowledged  among  two  hundred  millions  of  the 
human  race  ;  and  that  while  other  systems  indicate  speedy 
dissolution,  it  continues  to  extend  on  all  sides,  and  seems 
destined  to  fill  the  earth.  Little  more  than  eighteen  hun- 
dred years  ago  it  had  not  one  thousand  followers.  This  fact 
is  itself  significant,  but  becomes  doubly  so  when  connected 
with  the  Scri|)ture  predictions  which  have  been  handed  down 
to  us. 

"  Amos  9.  9,  etc.  ^  Isa.  7.  6-8.  *"  Isa.  39.  2-6. 

^  Isa.  37.  "^  Jer.  29.  10,  etc. 


-  isa.  37.  oer.  29.  lu,  etc. 

Ezek.  24.:  Jer.  ^o.  1-20:  Isa.  27,  etc. 
*  Isa.  13.  19:  14.  3:  44.:  45.:  Jer.  25.  i:  Ezek.  2.:   12,:  23. 


etc 


EXTERNAL  EVIDE^•CE  :    PROPHECY.  95 

It  was  distinctly  foretold  that  tliis  mighty  change  should 
The  work  of  "1^'^^^  place  ;  that  it  should  be  effected  by  the  seed 
the  Messiah,  of  the  woman^  (itself  an  apparently  contradictory 
expression)  ;  that  it  should  be  in  connection  with  the  people 
who  were  to  spring  from  Abraham  ;^  that  though  in  con- 
nection with  them,  it  would  be  by  means  of  a  neiu  co- 
venant f  that  not  the  whole  nation,  but  one  out  of  the 
nation,  was  to  be  author  of  this  change  ;  that  he  was  to  be 
despised  and  condemned  by  his  countrymen,  and  though  put 
to  death  was  to  estabhsh  a  lasting  and  extensive  kingdom.** 

The  ancient  books  speak  with  equal  clearness  of  his  human 
and  Divine  nature  ;''  of  his  descent  from  Isaac,  not  Ishmael ; 
from  Jacob,  not  Esau  ;  from  Judah,  not  from  Eeuben,^  the 
eldest  son,  or  Levi,  the  father  of  the  priestly  tribe  ;  and  from 
David  the  youngest  of  the  sons  of  Jesse.°  They  mention  the 
time  of  his  coming  ;''  the  place  and  circumstances  of  his 
birth  ;'  his  offices  as  prophet,  priest,  and  king  ;■>  the  scene  of 
his  earliest  ministry;"*^  his  miracles, Hiis  sufferings,  and  his 
death  ;"'  his  resurrection  and  ascension  ;°  his  bestowment  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  f  and  the  final  and  general  extension  of  his 
truth  .P  These  are  but  specimens  of  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred predictions  generally  delivered  in  clear  and  exphcit  lan- 
guage ;  aU  referring  to  the  work  or  person  of  our  Lord, 
and  exclusive  of  the  typical  and  allusive  predictions  which 
in  their  ultimate  application  terminate  in  him. 

183.  These  predictions  were  most  of  them  dehvered  at  least 
Complete-  six  hundred  years  before  he  appeared,  were  many  of 
"rediclions^^  them  highly  improbable,  and  even  apparently  con- 
as  evidence,  tradictory,  and  are  aU  so  remarkable  as  to  imply 
the  exercise  of  miraculous  wisdom  and  power.  A  loose 
general  prediction  (of  some  great  conqueror,  for  example) 
might  have  been  made  by  guess,  but  a  series  of  predictions 
containing  many  minute  and  seemingly  ojpposite  particulars, 

*  Gen.  3.  15.  ^  Gen.  22.  18. 

'^  Jer.  31.  31:  32.  40:  Ezek.  37.  26:  Mic,  4.  i. 

«*  Isa.  9.  6:  ir.  i:  Ezek.  34.  23.       *  Isa.  9.  6.       '  Gen.  49.  10. 

5  I  Sam.  16.  11:  Jer.  23.  5. 

h  Gen.  49.  10:  Dan.  9.  24:  7.:  Hag.  2.  6-9. 

•  Mic.  5.2:  Isa.  7. 14.  J  Psa.  no.:  Zeeh.  6.  13:  Isa.  61.  r. 

^  Isa.  9.  i:  Matt.  4.  14.      ^  Isa.  35.  5,  6.     ™  Psa.  22.  16:  Isa.  53. 
"  Psa.  68.  18.         °  Joel  2.  28.        p  Isa.  53.:  9.  7:  Psa.  2.  G:  22. 


96  EXTERNAL   EVIDENCE  :    PROPHECY. 

All  fulfilled  in  the  person  of  our  Lord,  could  have  been  given 
only  by  Him  who  worketh  all  things  after  the  counsel  of  hiii 
own  will. 

How  instructive  to  notice  that  while  no  man  is  the  them© 
The  testi-  ^^  '"^^^  series  of  prophetic  revelations — not  even 
monyof  Moses — the  Messiah  is  the  theme  of  all.  When 
spfrit  0^1110-  He  came  he  had  his  signs  before  him  as  well  as 
phecy,  -^Yith  him.     It  was  in  the  form  and  for  the  pur- 

pose which  God  himself  had  foretold  "by  the  mouth  of  his  holy 
jx'ophets,  who  have  been  since  the  world  began,"  Luke  2.  70. 

184.  Nor  are  the  destinies  of  other  nations  overlooked. 
Pagan  God  revealed  to  Noah  the  history  of  his  descend- 

noticed  in  ^^"^^  5  Canaan  a  servant  of  servants,  as  his  descend- 
conneciion  ants  have  long  been  ;  Japheth  enlarged  and  dwell- 
ing in  the  tents  of  Shem,  or  Europe  master  of 


Asia.  To  Abraham  he  revealed  the  remote  judgment  that 
awaited  Egypt  and  the  Amorites,  and  the  nearer  judgment  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah.  Balaam  spoke  of  the  Hebrews,  of  the 
rise  of  Christianity,  and  of  the  visitations  which  were  to  fall 
upon  the  Amalekites,  the  Kenites,  and  the  Assyrians.  Moses 
foretold  the  rise  of  the  Roman  power  eight  hundred  years 
before  its  existence. 

Of  Ishmael  it  was  foretold  three  thousand  years  ago  that  his 
family  should  dwell  in  the  presence  of  their  enemies ;  that  their 
hands  should  be  against  every  man,  and  every  man's  hand 
against  them.  And  to  this  day  they  are  unsubdued,  though 
Sesostris,  and  Cyrus,  and  the  Romans,  and  the  Turks  have 
all  attempted  to  conquer  them. 

In  the  prophets  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  power  by 
Alexander,''  of  Babylon,  of  Tyre,^  and  of  Egypt,"  is  sketched 
either  before  those  states  had  risen  into  greatness  or  at  the 
time  when  they  were  among  the  mightiest  nations.  The 
conquests  of  the  Saracens  and  of  the  Turks,'!  the  names  of 
the  kingdoms  which  were  to  escape  their  power  or  to  fall 
under  it,  the  history  of  Edom,e  of  Moab,*"  of  Ammon,^  and 
Philistia,''  are  all  foretold  with  such  minuteness  and  pecu- 
liarity as  proves  that  each  must  have  been  present  to  the 
vision  of  the  prophet. 

"  Dan.  II.  2,  4.  ^  Ezek.  28.  1-20.  "  Ezek.  29.  14,  15. 

*^  Dan.  I  r.  40,  41.       ^  Jer.  49,  etc.  '  Jer.  48. 

8  Ezek.  25.  2-10:  Zeph.  2.  9,  etc.  ^  Ezek.  25. 


EVIDENCES  :   PROPHECY  :  THE  JEWS.  97 

These  predictions  were  given  amidst  tlie  decays  of  the 
Object  of  Jewish  covenant,  and  were  intended  to  rebuke  the 
these  pro-  pride  of  the  nations,  to  administer  consolation  and 
i>  ccie..,.  instruction,  and  above  all,  to  lead  the  thoughts  of 
men  to  that  kingdom  which  could  not  be  moved.  In  the 
midst  of  the  captivity  Daniel  numbered  and  weighed  the 
kingdoms  of  the  earth,  and  pointed  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Ancient  of  days.     See  Davison,  p.  303. 

185.  To  these  facts  it  may  be  added  that  every  promise 
FiiiflUod  reahzed  in  this  life,  every  answered  prayer,  every 
klnTo/^^  act  of  honoured  faith,  every  spiritual  blessing 
propbccy.  obtained  as  the  result  of  spiritual  obedience,  is 
a  fulfilled  prediction  ;  while  the  typical  persons  and  events 
of  the  previous  economy  still  further  swell  the  prophetic 
evidence  of  the  faith,  till  we  have  at  length  a  series  of  pro- 
phecies so  full  and  so  clear,  as  to  defy  all  explanation  short 
of  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty.  See  on  this  subject 
Fleming's  Fulfilling  of  Scripture. 

186.  To  form  a  more  definite  idea  of  these  predictions,  and 
Instances  of  of  the  completeness  with  which  they  fulfil  the 
fulfilment,  requisites  of  prophecy  as  an  evidence  of  a  Divine 
revelation  (see  §  180),  the  reader  may  compare  Psa.  22.  and 
Isa.  53.  -with  the  Gospels  ;  or  he  may  take  the  predictions  of 
the  Pentateuch"  on  the  history  of  the  Jewish  people,  which 
are  referred  to  by  Nehemiah''  and  in  part  repeated  in  the 
books  of  Amos,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel.  The  Pentateuch  has 
been  in  hostile  keeping  for  more  than  2500  years,  and  all 
the  predictions  were  known  and  quoted  by  other  writers 
2000  years  ago.  The  priority  of  the  prophecy,  therefore,  to 
the  fulfilment,  is  in  this  case  undoubted. 

187.  When  the  promise  was  first  given  to  Abraham  he  was 

childless  f  and  nearly  200  years  afterwards,  during 

which  time  the  promise  was  often  renewed,  the 

family  had  increased  to  only  seventy  souls.*^   Their  preservation 

and  greatness  was  foretold  by  Balaam^  and  Moses,  when  such 

a  result  was  highly  improbable,  when  the  whole  nation  were 

under  the  Divine   disj^leasure,   and   nations   mightier  than 

themselves,  and  whom  they  were  commanded  to  exterminate, 

had  combined  to  destroy  them.    Isaiah  foretold  the  captivity  in 

^  Deut.  28.  64,  65;  Lev.  26.  32,  33.  ^  ]s^eli.  i.  8. 

'  Gen.  15.2.  d  Gen.  46.  27.  ^  Numb.  23.9. 

F 


98  evidences:  prophecy, 

the  days  of  a  pious  king  and  a  prosperous  government. 
Jeremiah's  predictions  of  dehverance  were  given  when  utter 
destruction  threatened  them  in  Babylon,  and  when  ten  of  the 
tribes  had  ah-eady  disappeared.*" 

After  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem,  their  land  became 
"  trodden  down  of  the  Gentiles  ;"^  and  they  were  driven 
from  their  country.  For  nearly  2000  years  they  have  been 
without  distinction  of  tribes,  without  a  prince,  without  go- 
vernment, or  temple,  or  priesthood,  or  sacrifice,  dispersed 
and  yet  preserved,  scattered  and  yet  kept  from  mixture  ;  and 
they  are  a  proverb  and  a  bye-word  still.  These  are  events 
without  a  parallel,  and  opposed  to  all  our  experience.  Man 
could  not  have  foreseen  them,  as  certainly  man  has  not  of 
his  own  purpose  accomplished  them.  To  make  the  lesson 
morally  complete,  the  law  remains,  and  the  Jews  guard  the 
very  prophecies  which  then-  history  fulfils  ;  so  that  they  have 
become  not  only  "  a  reproach  and  a  taunt,"  but  an  "  instruc- 
tion "  unto  the  nations  that  are  round  about  them  (Ezek.  5. 

15.) 

188.  Their  history  becomes  the  more  impressive  when 
TheEdom-  compared  with  that  of  the  Edomites.  Both  were 
ites.  descended  from  Isaac.     The  latter  rose  earher  into 

power ;  were  never  scattered  by  captivities,  and  when  Jeru- 
salem was  destroyed,  they  formed  a  flourishing  community. 
Thirty  ruined  towns,  within  three  days  journey  of  the  Eed 
Sea,  attest  their  former  greatness. 

Utter  desolation,  both  of  the  country,  and  of  the  family  of 
Esau,  was  foretold,  Jer.  49.  17,  10:  Obad.  8,  and  utter  de- 
solation is  now  their  condition. 

They  were  distinguished  for  wisdom :  now,  the  wanderers 
in  Edom  are  sunk  in  the  grossest  foUy,  and  regard  the  ruins 
around  them  as  the  work  of  spirits,  Obad.  8. 

Edom  lies  in  the  directest  route  to  India :  but  none  "  shall 
pass  through  it  for  ever  and  ever,"  and  "  even  the  Arabs," 
says  Keith,  "  are  afraid  to  enter  it,  or  conduct  any  within  its 
borders,"  Isa.  34.  10.  The  people  who  visit  it  are  described 
as  a  most  savage  and  treacherous  race,  and  so  the  prophet 
foretold,  Mai.  i.  4. 

Its  desolation  is  said  to  be  perpetual,  Jer.  49.  7-22,  and 

"  Jer.  30.  10,  11:   53.  23,  ;6:  46.  27,  28  ^  Luke  21.  24. 


EVIDENCES  :   PROPHECY  :   BABYLON.  99 

travellers  state,  that  the  whole  country  is  a  vast  expanse  of 
sand,  drifted  up  from  the  Ked  Sea. 

What  human  foresight  could  have  foretold  destinies  so 
distinct  ? 

We  may  add  one  or  two  examples  more  : — 

189.  One  hundred  and  sixty  years  before  Babylon  was  over- 
Babylon;  thrown,  Isaiah  dehvered  his  prophecy.  Judea 
prophecies,  ^^g  then  a  powerful  kingdom.  Persia,  the  native 
country  of  Cyi-us,  was  yet  in  barbarism,  and  Babylon  itself 
was  only  rising  into  notice,  its  existence  being  scarcely  known 
to  the  Hebrews. 

One  hundred  years  later  than  Isaiah,  Jeremiah  prophesied  : 
and  at  that  time  Babylon  was  "  the  glory  of  kingdoms,"  "  the 
praise  of  the  whole  earth."  Nebuchadnezzar  had  enlarged  and 
beautified  the  city,  and  through  aU  that  region  his  authority 
was  supreme. 

Isaiah  begins  these  predictions,  foretells  the  overthrow  of 
the  city,  calls  its  conqueror  Cyrus  by  name,^  intimating  that 
this  was  his  surname,  and  not  given  him  at  his  birth^.  He 
summons  people  from  Elam  (Persia,)  and  Media,*"  tells  how  the 
city  win  be  entered,  the  river  dried  up,  the  two-leaved  gates 
left  open,  and  the  place  taken  by  surprise  during  a  night  of 
revelry  and  drunkenness.'^  Both  prophets  add,  that  the  place 
is  to  be  for  ever  uninhabited,  a  lair  of  wild  beasts,  and  a  place 
of  stagnant  waters.^ 

A  century  after  the  first  of  these  prophecies  was  dehvered, 
they  began  to  be  fulfilled.  Nebuchadnezzar  conquered  Judea, 
and  in  two  independent  historians,  Herodotus  and  Xenophon, 
(the  former  of  whom  hved  250  years  after  Isaiah,  and  the 
latter  350,)  we  have  historical  proof  of  the  minute  accuracy 
of  all  the  predictions.  Herodotus  states,  that  Cyrus  assumed 
that  name  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  Bk.  i.  114.  Xeno- 
phon notes  the  miscellaneous  character  of  his  army,  but 
specially  mentions  the  Persians  and  Medes,  Cyrop.  v.  ciii.  38. 
Both  writers  have  left  a  careful  account  of  the  siege,  of  the 
diversion  of  the  river,  of  the  capture  of  the  city,  and  of  the 
death  of  the  king. 

*  Isa.  44.  28:  45.  I.  ^  Isa.  45.  4. 
*"  Isa.  21.  2:  13.  4,  5:  Jer.  51.  27,  28. 

<!  Isa.  44.  27:  45.  i:  Jer.  51.  39,  57:  50.  38. 

*  Isa.  13.  20-22:  14.  23:  Jer.  51.  37,  38. 

P  2 


100  EVIDENCES  :   PROPHECY  :   NINEVEH. 

Strabo  says,  that  in  his  time  the  city  was  a  vast  soHtiide. 
Luciau  affirms,  that  "  Babylon  will  soon  be  sought  for  and  not 
found,  as  is  already  the  case  with  Nineveh,"  c.  i6.  Pausanias 
states,  that  nothing  was  left  but  the  walls,  c.  viii.  §  33  ;  Jerome, 
that  in  his  time  it  was  a  receptacle  for  beasts ;  and  modem 
travellers  (including  Sir  E.  K.  Porter,)  testify  to  the  universal 
desolation.  "  It  is  little  better  than  a  swamp,  and  I  could 
not  help  reflecting  (says  one,)  how  faithfully  the  various  pro- 
phecies have  been  fulfilled." 

190.  A  still  larger  city,  and  no  less  signal  as  a  monument  of 

Divine  power  was  Nineveh,  a  place  as  ancient  as 
js,  me  veil. 

Asshur,  the  son  of  Shem,  and  at  one  time  nearly 

sixty  miles  round.  This  city  abounded  in  wealth  and  j^ride. 
"I  am,"  said  she,  "  and  there  is  none  beside  me,"  Zeph.  2.  15. 
J  onah  was  therefore  sent  to  foretell  her  ruin,  and  though  she 
repented,  yet  within  a  few  years,  Nahum  was  commissioned 
to  repeat  the  message ;  a  hundred  years  later  still,  but  fifty 
years  before  the  city  fell,  Zephaniah  again  foretold  its  over- 
throw, with  the  utmost  literalness,  the  account  of  the  prophet, 
when  comjDared  with  the  narrative  of  the  historian  (Diodorus 
Siculus),  reading  more  like  history  than  prediction.  Lucian, 
who  flourished  in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  and  was 
himself  a  native  of  that  region,  affirms  that  it  had  utterly 
perished,  and  that  there  was  no  footstej)  of  it  remaining. 
Such  is  "  the  utter  end  "  of  all  its  greatness. 

191.  It  is  to  such  facts  God  appeals.  "  Who  hath  declared 
To  prophecy  this  from  ancient  times  1  Have  not  I  the  Lord  ? . . . 
tam?ntap-^"  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^6,  and  be  ye  saved,  all  the  ends  of  the 
peals.  earth  :  for  I  am  God,  and  there  is  none  else,"  Isa. 
45.  20,  21,  22. 

192.  The  evidences  of  Christianity  thus  far  considered,  are 
Internal  external  and  direct,  and  may  be  divided  into  the 
moraUnd  miraculous  and  prophetic.  A  larger  branch  of 
spii-ituai.  evidence  remains — the  moral,  the  literary,  and  the 
spiritual,  or  (to  apply  one  title  to  all),  the  internal. 

193.  If  the  Bible  is  not  of  God,  it  must  be  a  cunningly  de- 
lamit  of  vised  fable  ;  and  the  question  which  internal  evi- 
man's  ability  dence  has  to  consider  is, — which  is  the  more  likely 
internal  °^  Supposition.  Though,  therefore,  it  seems  at  first 
evidence.  sight,  that  we  are  hardly  competent  to  decide  what 
a  revelation  from  God  should  be,  yet  we  are  competent  to 


EVIDENCES  :   MORALITY.  101 

(ie>cide  on  this  alternative,  and  to  say,  whether  what  is  taught  in 
Scripture,  is  what  might  be  looked  for  from  enthusiasts  or 
impostors.  This  is  a  question  on  which  all  can  judge,  though 
it  requires  some  experience  and  knowledge  of  the  world,  as 
well  as  an  acquaintance  with  Scripture,  rightly  to  appreciate  it. 

194.  The  first  peculiarity  of  Scripture  morahty  is  the  im- 

portance, which  is  everywhere  attached  to  holiness. 

1.  Import-         ^  ^  1  n 

ance  of  hoU-  Judging  from  what  we  know  of  systems  of  human 
"^^^"  origin,   a  rehgion   from   man  would   either  have 

spent  its  force  on  ritual  observance,  or  have  allowed  active 
service  on  its  behalf  to  make  amends  for  the  neglect  of  other 
duties.  Mohammedanism  gives  the  highest  place  to  those 
who  fight  and  fall  in  conflict.  Hindooism  rewards  most  the 
observance  of  ritual  worship.  Jewish  tradition  taught  that 
all  Jews  were  certainly  saved.  The  Scriptures,  on  the  con- 
trary, bring  all  men  into  the  presence  of  a  Being  of  infinite 
hohness,  before  whom  the  most  exalted  human  characters 
fall  condemned  ;^  and  they  declare  plainly,  that  nothing  we 
can  say  or  do  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  can  make  up  for  the 
want  of  practical  virtue.  Those  who  have  preached  in  the 
name  of  Christ  are  to  be  disowned  if  they  be  workers  of 
iniquity,^  and  the  reception  of  the  true  faith  makes  Chiistian 
hohness  only  the  more  incumbent.*' 

195.  The  kind  of  moral  duty  which  the  Scriptures  teach,  is 

2.  Pecu-  not  such  as  man  was  hkely  to  discover  or  to 
morarpre-  approve.  When  our  Lord  appeared,  the  Romans 
ccpts.  were  proud  of  their  mihtary  glory,  and  the  Greeks 
of  their  superior  wisdom.  Among  the  Jews  a  pharisaic 
spirit  prevailed,  and  the  whole  nation  was  divided  between 
opposing  sects,  all  hating  their  conquerors,  however,  and  the 
Gentile  world  at  large.  An  enthusiast  would  certainly  have 
become  a  partisan,  and  an  impostor  would  have  flattered 
each  sect  by  exposing  the  faults  of  the  rest,  or  the  nation  by 
condemning  their  conquerors.  Our  Lord  came,  on  the  con- 
trary, as  an  independent  teacher,  rebuked  all  error,  condemned 
all  the  sects,  and  yet  did  nothing  to  court  the  favour  of  the 
people.  His  precepts,  bidding  men  to  return  good  for  evil, 
to  love  their  enemies,  to  be  humble  and  forgiving,  to  consider 
every  race  and  every  station  as  on  a  level  before  God,  were 

^  Job  40.4:  Isa.  6.  5:  Dan.  9.4:  r  Tim.  r.  15. 

^  Matt.  7.  22,  23:  Luke  6.  46.  *"  i  Cor.  5.  11,  12 


102  EVIDENCES  :   MORALITY. 

acceptable  to  none,  and  were  yet  repeated  and  enforced  with 
the  utmost  earnestness  and  consistency. 

196.  It  may  indeed  be  said  that  men  are  always  ready  to 
Not  oni  commend  a  greater  degree  of  purity  than  they  are 
above  hmnan  prepared  to  practise,  and  that  ancient  philosophers 
contxSyto*  wrote  treatises  describing  a  much  nobler  virtue 
it.  than  was  found  among  their  countrymen.  This  is 
true,  and  if  the  Jewish  fishermen  had  studied  philosophy,  it 
would  not  have  been  wonderful  if  they  had  taught  a  higher 
morality  than  men  generally  j)ractised.  But  they  were 
"  ignorant  men,"  and  their  precepts  go  not  only  beyond  what 
men  practised,  but  beyond  what  they  approved.  The  gospel 
is  not  only  better  than  human  conduct,  it  is  often  contrary 
to  it.  The  endurance  of  suffering,  the  forgiveness  of  injury, 
and  the  exercise  of  a  submissive  spirit  were  not  only  not 
practised,  they  were  not  admired ;  and  while  the  gospel 
teaches  these  duties,  it  exhibits  them  in  combination  with 
a  spiritual  heroism  of  which  the  world  knows  nothing,  and 
which  has  ever  been  supposed  inconsistent  with  the  patient 
virtues  which  the  Scriptures  enjoin. 

197.  Add  to  these  facts  another,  (on  which  Paley  has  en- 
j.  Eeguiation  larged,)  namely,  that  Scripture  seeks  to  regulate  the 
of  motives,  thoughts  and  motives  of  men,  and  is  content  with 
nothing  less  than  a  state  of  heart  which  refers  all  our  actions 
to  God's  will ;  and  it  must  be  felt  that  the  morality  of  the 
gospel  is  not  of  man.  Bad  men  could  not  have  taught  such 
truths,  and  good  men  would  not  have  deceived  the  people. 

198.  But  there  is  yet  another  peculiarity  in  the  morahty  of 
4.  Peculiarity  Scripture,  equally  trae  in  itself  and  striking.  Sin 
t^G^d*^^"d  -"^^  everywhere  spoken  of  as  an  evil  against  God, 
sin.  and  everywhere  it  is  not  the  instrument  or  human 
agent  who  is  exalted,  but  God  alone.  The  first  notion  is 
inconsistent  with  all  heathen  philosophy,  and  the  second  with 
the  natural  tendency  of  the  human  heart.  "  This,"  says 
Cicero,  "  is  the  common  principle  of  all  philosophers,  that 
the  Deity  is  never  displeased,  nor  does  he  inflict  injury  on 
man,"     De  Ofi".  iii.  28. 

In  Scripture,  on  the  contrary,  sin  is  represented  as  an  evil 
and  bitter  thing,  because  it  is  dishonouring  to  God.     Hence 
the   destruction   of  the  Amalekites,^   of  Sennacherib'',  and 
"  Exod.  17.  16,  marg.  ^  2  Kings  19.  22-37. 


EVIDENCES:   MORALITY.  103 

Belsliazzar*.  Hence  the  abandonment  of  the  Gentile  world 
to  a  reprobate  niind>  Hence  God's  controversy  with  the 
Jews*^  and  with  Moses.*^  Hence  Eli's^  punishment  and  David's/ 
Hence  the  death  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,"  of  Uzzah,''  and  Herod.' 
Hence  also  the  calamities  of  Solomon,  the  division  of  his 
kingdom  into  Israel  and  Judah,  and  the  captivity  and  destruc- 
tion of  both.^ 

God  alone  is  honoured.  The  great  object' of  all  the  writers 
seems  to  be,  to  lead  men's  thoughts  to  Him.  The  false  teacher 
gives  out  that  he  himself  is  some  great  one  (Acts  8.  9), 
but  in  the  Bible  it  is  God  only  who  is  exalted.  This  rule  is 
illustrated  in 

Moses,  Deut.  r.  31:  2.33:  3.3:  4.32-38:  Exod.  18.8.  Joshua. 
Josh.  23.  3.  David,  i  Chron.  29.  ir,  14.  Daniel,  Dan.  2.  iu, 
23,  30.  Ezra,  Ezra  7.  28.  Xehemiah,  Neh.  2.  12.  Peter  and 
John,  Acts  3.  12-16.     Paul,  Acts  21.  19:  i  Cor.  3.  5:  2  Cor.  4.  7. 

Creation  is  represented  in  the  same  way  as  God  in  nature  :'' 
the  revolutions  and  progress  of  kingdoms  as  God  in  history.^ 

199.  It   is   in   -paxi  with  the   view   of  strengthening  the 

feelings  which  these  jDeciiliarities  produce,  that 
faith  is  made  the  principle  of  obedience  and  suc- 
cess. In  relation  to  God,  faith  is  the  confession  of  our 
weakness,  and  excludes  all  boasting ;  and  yet  in  relation  to 
success,  it  is  omnipotent ;  a  truth  as  profoimdly  philosophical 
as  it  is  spiritually  important.  And  yet  it  is  a  truth  revealed 
only  in  the  Bible. 

Rom.  3.  27:  Eph.  2.  8,  9:  i  Cor,  i.  29-31:  John  11.40:  Isa.  7.  9, 

200.  The  candour  and  sincerity  of  the  inspired  writers  are 

not  less  remarkable  than  their  moral  precepts,  and 
sincerity  of  are  quite  incompatible  with  either  enthusiasm  or 
Scripture.       imposture. 

^  Dan.  5.  23.  ^  Rom.  i.  21,  28.         *"  Heb.  3.  19. 

^  Ntmib.  20.  12.       ^  I  Sam.  2.  29,  30.      f  2Sam.  12.9  (Ps.  51,4.) 
^  Lev.  10.  1-3,  10.  b  2  Sam.  6.  7.  »  Acts  12.  23. 

i  I  Kings  II.  3-14:  2  Kings  17.  14-20:  2  Chron.  36. 16,  17;  Luke 
19.  42-44:  Rom.  II.  20. 
^  Ps.  104.  10:  Jer.  5.  24:  Joel  2.  23,  24:  Matt.  10.  29. 
'  Jer.  17.  7-10:  Dan.  4.  35:  Jer.  25.  9:  Isa  44.  28. 


104  evidences:  morality. 

They  denounce  the  sins  of  the  people.  "  Ye  have  been  rebelliovw 
against  the  Lord  from  the  day  that  I  knew  you,"  says  Moses  (Deut. 
9.  24),  and  all  later  -wiiters  give  the  same  view.  Judges  2.19:  i  Sam. 
12.  12;  Neh.  9. 

They  speak  of  themselves  and  of  those  whose  characters  were  likely 
to  reflect  credit  upon  their  cause  with  equal  plainness.  Moses  fore- 
told that  the  Jews  would  break  his  law,  and  that  ho  would  be  super- 
seded by  a  greater  prophet. 

Gen.  49.  10:  Deut.  18.  15,  18:  Acts  7.  38. 

He  records  with  all  fulness  the  sins  of  the  Patriarchs,  Gen.  12. 
TI-13  :  20.  etc. :  of  his  grandfather  Levi,  Gen.  49.  5-7 :  of  his  brother 
Aaron  and  of  his  elder  sons,  Exod.  32.:  Lev.  ic. :  nor  less  plainly  his 
own  sms,  Xumb.  20.  12:  27.  12-14:  Deut.  32.  51. 

In  the  same  spirit  the  evangelists  notice  their  own  faults  and  the 
faults  of  the  apostles.  Matt.  26.  31-56:  John  10.  6:  16.  32:  Matt. 
8.  10,  26:  15.  16:  16.  7-11:  18.  3:  20.  20.  Mark  and  Luke  speak 
no  less  plainly,  Mark  6.  52:  8.  18:  9.  32,  34:  10.  14:  14.  50,  32, 
35-45:  16.  14:  Luke  8.  24,  23:  9.  40-45:  18.  34:  -2.  24:  24.  ir. 
With  eqvial  truthfulness  the  Scriptures  record  the  humiliation  of 
our  Lord,  his  sufferings,  and  dejection.     Matt.  27.  46:  Ileb.  5.7. 

The  apostles  record  without  reserve  the  disorders  of  the  churches 
which  they  themselves  had  planted,  and  even  add  that  their  own 
ajjostolic  authority  had  been  questioned  among  them,  i  Cor.  i.  11 : 
5.1:2  Cor.  2.  4:  II.  5-23  :  12.  20. 

It  is  thus  that  simplicity  distinguishes  the  Bible,  and  forces 
on  the  mind  the  conviction  that  its  authors  had  no  other 
"  object  in  view  than  by  manifestation  of  the  truth  to  com- 
mend themselves  to  every  man's  conscience  as  in  the  sight 
of  God."     Lowth,  on  the  Study  of  Scripture. 

201.  But  no  analysis  can  give  a  just  idea  of  the  morality  of 
No  anal  'sis  ^^^  Bible.  It  must  be  compared  in  the  bulk  with 
of  it  can  give  other  teaching.  Men  have  praised  maxims  of 
fts excel-*  *^^  virtue,  or  appealed  to  the  moral  sentiments  of  our 
lencies.  nature,  or  sought  to  promote  holiness  by  systems 

of  morals.  But  all  these  are  defective.  The  common  maxims 
of  virtue  are  mere  dictates  of  prudence,  without  authority 
or  influence.  Our  moral  sentiments  are  retiring  and  evan- 
escent, easily  corrupted  by  the  strong  passions  in  whoso 
neighbourhood  they  dwell,  and  are  feeblest  when  most 
wanted  ;  and  systems  of  morals,  hke  all  processes  of  reasoning, 
depend  on  the  perfection  of  our  faculties,  and  are  too  much  the 


evidences:  character.  105 

subject  of  disputation  to  become  powerful  motives  of  lioij 
action.  All  these  plans  moreover  are  defective,  in  not  taking 
into  account  our  fall,  and  the  necessity  of  providing  for  our 
recovery.  Scripture,  on  the  other  hand,  teaches  the  Christian 
to  use  these  helps,  only  subordinating  all  to  its  own  lessons. 
It  begins  its  work  with  a  recognition  of  our  ruin,  and  an 
intelligent  foresight  of  its  own  end  ;  brings  the  soul  into 
narmony  with  God  and  with  itself,  enlightens  and  educates 
the  conscience,  quickens  and  purifies  the  feehngs,  subjects 
instincts  to  reason,  reason  to  love,  and  all  to  God  ;  and  pro- 
vides an  instrumentality  as  effective  and  practical  as  the 
tmths  it  reveals  and  on  which  it  rests  are  unearthly  and 
subhme. 

202.  Among  the  most  decisive  moral  proofs  of  the  Divine 
The  charac-  origin  of  Scripture,  is  the  character  of  Christ.  It 
ter  of  Christ,  jg  ^  proof  however  rather  to  be  felt  than  to  be 
described,  and  its  force  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  tone  of 
moral  sentiment  in  the  reader.  Holy  and  purer  minds  wiU 
feel  it  more  than  others,  and  such  as  are  like  Nathanael  the 
"  Israelite  indeed,  in  wliom  is  no  guile,"  will  exclaim  with  him, 
''  Rabbi,  thou  art  the  Son  of  God ;  thou  art  the  King  of 
Israel." 

Three  things  are  obvious  in  the  history  of  our  Lord,  (i.) 
The  whole  narrative  is  free  from  panegyric.  (2.)  The  charac- 
ter is  wholly  unstudied  :  the  story  being  written  by  unpractised 
authors,  without  learning  or  eloquence  ;  and  moreover,  (3.)  the 
moral  character  of  Christ  is  unimpeached  even  by  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  gospel.  His  apostles  appeal  to  all  men's  tes- 
timony to  his  morality,  as  a  fact  admitted  and  notorious. 
His  own  moral  teaching  was  an  appeal  of  the  same  kind,  for 
had  he  been  guilty  of  the  practices  he  condemns,  his  hearers 
would  have  been  sure  to  detect  and  reproach  his  incon- 
sistency. 

That  Ills  holiness  was  admitted  generally  will  appear  from  the 
following  passages:  John  7.  46-51:  8.  46:  10.  32:  Matt.  26.  59: 
27.  23,  24:  Luke  23.  13-15:  Acts  3.  13,  14:  i  Pet.  2.  21-23.  His 
benevolence  and  compassion  are  shown  in  John  4.:  Luke  9.  55: 
10.30-37:  Mai'k  7.  26,  etc. :  10.  13-21:  45-52:  Luke  13.  16:  14.12: 
22.  50,  51 :  Matt.  9.  36,  etc.:  18.  11,  etc.  His  kindness  and  affec- 
tion in  Matt.  14,  27-31:  Luke  19.  5:  22.  61:  John  ir.:  19.  25-27. 

F  3 


106  EVIDEXCES  :   CHARACTER. 

His  meekness  and  humility  in  Matt.  9.  28:  18.  22,  etc.:  5.  1-12 • 
Tiuke  22.  24:  John  13.  4.  His  moral  courage,  firmness,  and  re- 
signation in  Matt.  26.  39-46:  Mark  10,  32:  Liike  4.  23,  etc.:  13.  31, 
etc.:  18.  29,  etc.:  John  11.  7:  18.  4,  etc.  His  sincerity  and 
abhorrence  of  hypocrisy  and  corn-ting  popularity  in  Matt.  6.  1-18: 
10.  16-39:  22.  18;  etc.:  Mark  12.  38-40:  Luke  11.  44,  etc.:  John 
t6.  1-6.  His  moderation  and  the  absence  of  enthusiastic  austerity. 
Matt.  8.  19:  23.  23:  Luke  5.  29-35:  John  2.  i,  etc.:  Mark  12.  17. 

"  The  character  of  Clirist  (says  an  eminent  writer),  is  a 
OriginaUty  wonderful  proof  of  the  Divinity  of  the  Bible.  The 
and  beauty     Hindoo  cannot  think  of  his  Brahmin  saint,  other 

of  his  cna-  .  '        . 

racter.  than  as  possessmg  the  abstemiousness  and  austerity 

which  he  admires  in  his  living  models.  The  Socrates  of  Plato 
is  composed  of  elements  practically  Greek,  being  a  compound 
of  the  virtues  deemed  necessary  to  adorn  the  sage.  A  model 
of  the  Jewish  teacher  might  easily  be  drawn  from  the  writings 
of  the  Rabbis,  and  he  would  prove  to  be  the  very  reflection 
of  those  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  who  are  reproved  in  the  Gospel. 
But  in  the  life  of  our  Redeemer,  a  character  is  represented  which 
departs  in  every  way  from  the  national  type  of  the  writers,  and 
from  the  character  of  all  ancient  nations,  and  is  at  variance 
with  all  the  features  which  custom,  education,  rehgion,  and 
patriotism,  seem  to  have  consecrated  as  most  beautiful.  Four 
different  authors  have  recorded  different  facts,  but  they  ex- 
hibit the  same  conception,  a  conception  differing  from  all  they 
had  ever  witnessed  or  heard,  and  necessarily  copied  from  the 
same  original.  And  more,  this  glorious  character,  while  bor- 
rowing nothing  from  the  Greek,  or  Indian,  or  Jew,  having 
nothing  in  common  with  established  laws  of  perfection,  is  yet 
to  every  believer  a  type  of  excellence.  He  is  followed  by  the 
Greek,  though  a  founder  of  none  of  his  sects,  revered  by  the 
Brahmin,  though  preached  by  one  of  the  fishermen  caste,  and 
worshipped  by  the  red  man  of  Canada,  though  belonging  to 
the  hated  pale-race." 

203.  One  point  more  remains  on  the  morahty  of  Scripture  . 
The  influence  ^^®  effect  of  its  religion  on  the  character  of  men. 
of  Scripture         Apart  from  particular  facts  in  support  of  this 
vSiiSfs'and     truth,  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the  doctrines 
society.  ^f  ^^io  Bible  agree  with  its  precepts,  and  that  they 

contain  in  their  very  substance,  urgent  motives  to  holiness. 
It  is  on  this  principle  that  Fuller  proceeds  in  his  Gospel  its 


EVIDENCES:  EFFECTS   OF  GOSPEL.  107 

own  Witness,  and  Erskine  in  his  Treatise   on  the  Internal 
Evidences.     See  also  i  Peter  2.  12. 

We  confine  ourselves,  however,  to  a  few  facts  in  illustra- 
tion of  the  general  truth.  The  effects  of  the  gosj^el  in  the 
first  age  are  well  known,  and  are  incidentally  told  us  in  the 
Epistles.  Paul  has  pointed  out  what  occurred  at  Corinth  and 
Ephesus,*  and  Peter,  the  effects  which  were  produced  in 
Pontus  and  Galatia.*'  In  a  dissolute  age,  and  under  the  worst 
governments.  Christians  (who  had  been  no  better  than  their 
neighbours)  reached  an  eminence  in  virtue  which  has  never 
perhaps  been  surpassed. 

Similar  appeals  may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  the  early- 
apologists.  Clement  of  Rome  (a.  D.  100),  in  his  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  commends  their  virtues.  "  Who,"  says  he, 
"  did  ever  hve  among  you,  that  did  not  admire  your  sober  and 
moderate  piety,  and  declare  the  greatness  of  your  hospitahty. 
You  are  humble  and  not  proud,  content  with  the  daily  bread 
which  God  supphes,  hearing  diligently  his  word,  and  enlarged 
in  charity."  Justin  Martyr  (a,  d.  165),  who  had  been  a  pla- 
tonic  philosopher,  says  in  his  Apology,  "  We  who  formerly 
dehghted  in  adultery,  now  observe  the  strictest  chastity : 
we  who  used  the  charms  of  magic,  have  devoted  ourselves  to 
the  true  God,  and  we  who  valued  money  and  gain  above  all 
things,  now  cast  what  we  have  in  common,  and  distribute  to 
every  man  according  to  his  necessities."  "  You  (says  Minu- 
cius  Fehx  to  a  heathen  opponent)  punish  wickedness  when 
it  is  committed,  we  think  it  sinful  to  indulge  a  sinful  thought. 
It  is  with  your  party  that  the  prisons  are  crowded,  but  not 
a  single  Christian  is  there,  except  it  be  as  a  confessor  or 
apostate."  TertuUian,  the  first  Latin  ecclesiastical  writer 
whose  works  have  come  down  to  us  (a.  d.  220),  makes  a 
similar  appeal,  and  speaks  of  great  multitudes  of  the  Roman 
empire  as  the  subjects  of  this  change.  Origenin  his  reply  to 
Celsus  (a.  d.  246),  Lactantius,  the  preceptor  of  Constantino 
(a.d.  325),  repeat  these  appeals:  and  even  the  emperor 
JuUan  holds  up  Christians  to  the  imitation  of  Pagans,  on 
account  of  their  love  to  strangers  and  to  enemies,  and  on 
account  of  the  sanctity  of  their  hves. 

This  influence  of  the  gospel  was  early  seen  among  ancient 

'  I  Cor.  6.  II:  Eph.  4.  19:  2.  i.  ^  1  Pet,  4.  3. 


108  EVIDENCES  :   EFFECTS   OF  GOSPEL. 

In  society  nations.  In  Greece,  the  grossest  impurities  had 
generally.  i^^en  encouraged  by  Lycurgus  and  Solon.  At 
Rome  they  were  openly  practised  and  approved.  Among 
nearly  all  ancient  nations  self-murder  was  commended.  Se- 
neca and  Plutarch,  the  elder  Phny  and  Quinctilian,  applaud 
it,  and  Gibbon  admits  that  heathenism  presented  no  reason 
against  it.  Human  sacrifice,  and  the  exposure  of  children 
were  allowed,  and  even  enforced.  But  wherever  the  gospel 
came,  it  condemned  these  practices,  discouraged  and  finally 
destroyed  them.  That  it  was  not  civihzation  that  suppressed 
them  is  certain,  for  they  were  kept  up  by  nations  far  superior 
to  the  Christians  in  refinement,  and  the  suppression  of  them 
was  always  found  to  keej)  pace,  not  with  the  progress  of  hu- 
man enhghtenment  but  of  Divine  truth. 

The  relief  of  distress  and  the  care  of  the  poor  are  almost 
peculiar  to  Christian  nations.  In  Constantinople,  there  was 
not,  before  Christianity  was  introduced,  a  single  charitable 
building  :  nor  was  there  ever  such  a  building  in  ancient  Rome. 
After  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  however,  the  former  cit}' 
had  more  than  thirty  buildings  for  the  reception  of  orphans,  of 
the  sick,  of  strangers,  of  the  aged,  and  of  the  poor.  In  Eoine, 
there  were  twenty-five  large  houses  set  apart  for  the  same 
purpose.  With  equal  certainty,  it  can  be  established,  that  the 
gospel  has  abolished  polygamy,  mitigated  the  horrors  of  war, 
redeemed  captives,  freed  slaves,  checked  the  spirit  of  feudal 
oppression,  and  improved  the  laws  of  barbarous  nations. 
'•  Truth  and  candour,"  says  Gibbon,  "  must  acknowledge  that 
the  conversion  of  these  nations,  imparted  many  temj^oral 
benefits  both  to  the  Old  and  New  World,  prevented  the  total 
extinction  of  letters,  mitigated  the  fierceness  of  the  times, 
sheltered  the  poor  and  defenceless,  and  jDreserved  or  revived 
the  peace  and  order  of  civil  society."" 

As  therefore  the  providence  of  God  is  seen  in  the  preser- 
vation of  the  Bible,  so  also  is  his  grace  in  its  efiects :  and 
those  eff'ects  bear  strong  testimony  to  its  Divine  origin, 
I  Thess.  I.  4-10  :  Gal.  5.  22. 

204.  No  work  gives  a  better  view  of  man's  need  of  the 
gospel  than  Leland's,  On  the  Advantage  and  Necessity 
of  a  Christian  lievelation,  shown  from  the  state  of 

"  Gibbon's  History,  chap.  55.  For  a  large  collection  of  similar 
fects  see  Kyan'fi  KfFects  of  Religion,  i.  6  3,  and  App. 


EVIDENCES  :  INTERNAL   AND  LITEHAIIY.  109 

religion  iu  the  ancient  heathen  world,  with  respect  to  the 
knowledge  and  worship  of  the  one  true  God,  a  rule  of  moral 
duty,  and  the  state  of  future  rewards  and  punishments.  He 
shows  clearly  that  the  representations  of  Scripture  on  the 
state  of  the  Gentiles  are  hterally  true,  and  that  idolatry 
gathered  strength  among  the  nations  as  they  grew  in  refine- 
ment, that  the  ancient  philosophers  were  profoundly  wrong 
in  the  first  principles  of  morahty,  that  the  best  systems  were 
lamentably  defective,  and  that  all  rules  wanted  clearness  and 
authority  ;  that  as  to  a  future  hfe,  most  denied  it,  and  that 
of  those  who  professed  to  beheve,  none  x:)laced  it  on  grounds 
satisfactory  or  rational. 

205.  On  that  part  of  the  Scriptural  evidence  which  is  called 
the  harmony  of  revealed  truth,  it  is  not  possible  to 
evidence,        enlarge  :  and  the  subject  has  been  fully  discussed 
Harmonies.     ^^  yarious  writers. 

On  the  agreement  between  the  two  Economies,  the  works  of 
Dr.  Kidder,  and  of  Dr.  W.  L.  Alexander,  will  be  found  highly 
interesting. 

On  the  agreement  between  the  doctrines  and  peculiarities 
of  Scripture,  and  the  facts  of  Nature,  the  Analogy  of  Biahop 
Butler  is  unrivalled. 

On  the  coincidences  between  sacred  and  general  history,  the 
works  of  Bryant,  Lardner,  Gray,  Prideaux,  Shuckford,  and 
Russell,  may  be  consulted  with  satisfaction. 

On  coincidences  of  a  minute  and  statistical  character,  with 
the  geography  and  natural  history  of  Palestine,  ample  materials 
may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Harmer,  Clarke,  and  Keith. 

On  coincidences  between  various  parts  of  the  record  itself, 
much  information  may  be  obtained  in  the  works  of  Graven 
Blunt,  Paley,  and  Birks.* 

These  coincidences  are  hterally  innumerable,  and  are  inter- 
woven with  the  whole  texture  of  Scripture.  Some  are  ap- 
parently trifling,  as  when  it  is  said  that  our  Lord  went  doivu 
from  Nazareth  to  Capernaum,  and  Dr.  Clarke  points  out  the 
graphic  consistency  of  the  phrase  with  the  geography  of  that 
region.     Others  are  deeply  affecting,  as  when  it  is  said  that 

*  See  edition  of  Paley's  Evidences,  with  Xotes,  by  Birks,  also 
Paley' s  Horse  Paulinae,  with  Horse  Apostolicoe,  by  Birks,  published 
by  Religious  Tract  Society. 


110  EVIDENCES  :   INTERNAL  AND  LITERARY. 

blood  and  water  issued  from  the  side  of  Jesus,  and  medical 
authorities  affirm,  that  if  the  heart  is  pierced  or  broken,  blood 
and  water  flow  from  the  wound.  Some  are  critical,  as  when 
it  is  remarked,  that  at  no  time  after  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, could  any  known  writers  have  written  in  the  style  of 
the  books  of  the  Bible  :  and  that  at  no  one  time  could  these 
various  books  have  been  written.  They  are  demonstrably 
the  work  of  different  authors,  and  of  different  ages.  Some 
are  historical,  as  when  it  is  noticed,  that  after  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  all  writers  applied  the  name  Christian  to  designate 
the  followers  of  Christ,  a  name  never  apphed  in  the  New 
Testament  ly  Christians  to  designate  one  another  :  the  very 
terms  which  the  apostles  employ,  indicating  that  the  new 
rehgionwas  the  comiDletionof  the  old — "chosen"  and  "faithful." 
Some  are  religious,  founded,  that  is,  on  the  peculiarities  of  the 
rehgious  system  revealed,  as  when  it  is  stated,  that  the  rehgion 
of  the  New  Testament  is  the  only  one  in  which  is  omitted  the 
one  ordinance,  which  would  have  been  natural  and  acceptable 
to  both  Jews  and  Pagans,  namely,  the  offering  of  animals  in 
sacrifice  ;  an  instructive  omission. 

The  effect  of  the  whole  is  highly  impressive,  and  is  of  itself 
a  sufficient  proof  of  the  substantial  credibility  of  the  narrative, 
and  of  the  honesty  of  the  authors. 

Some  idea  of  Paley's  Horce  Pauhnse,  may  be  gathered  from 
Of  Scripture  ^u  examination  of  the  following  passages,  it  being 
•vxith  itself,  premised  that  the  books  quoted  were  Avritten  either 
by  different  authors,  or  at  different  times,  and  with  altogether 
different  purposes. 


Rom.  15.  25.  26. 

Rom.  16.  21-24. 

Rom.  I.  13:  15.  23,  24. 

I  Cor.  4.  17-19. 

I  Cor.  16.  10,  II. 

I  Cor.  I.  12:   3.  6. 

I  Cor.  9.  20. 

I  Cor.  I.  14-17. 


Acts  20.   2,   3:    21.    17:    24.   17-19: 
I  Cor.  16.  1-4:  2  Cor.  8.  1-4:  9.  2. 
Acts  20,  4. 
Acts  19.  21. 
Acts  19.  21,  22. 
Acts  19.  21;  I  Tim.  4.  12. 
Acts  18.  27,  28:  19.  I. 
Acts  16.  3:  21.  23,  26. 
Acts  18.  8 :  Rom.  16.  23 :  i  Cor.  16. 15. 


A  single  instance  may  be  yet  more  impressive.     Bamafcas 

(we  are  told)  was  a  native  of  Cyprus,  who  sold  his 

Barnabas.       property  and  laid  the  money  at  the  apostles'  feet, 

(Acts  4.  36,  37).    We  are  told  also,  quite  incidentallj^,  that 


EVIDKN'CES  :   SPIRITUAL.  Ill 

Mark  was  his  nephew,  (Col.  4.  10).  Compare  these  facts 
with  the  following  passages  (where  it  is  stated,  that  John 
Mark  went  as  far  as  Cyprus  his  native  country,  and  soon  re- 
joined his  mother  at  Jerusalem,  greatly  to  the  dissatisfaction 
of  Paul),  and  how  remarkable  the  consistency  of  the  whole  : 
I  Cor.  9.  6,  7  :  Acts  11.  20,  22  :  13.  4  :  15.  37,  39  :  and  13.  13. 
The  harmony  pervading  everything  connected  with  Barnabas 
(says  Mr.  Blunt)  is  of  itself  enough  to  stamp  the  book  of  Acts 
as  a  history  of  perfect  fidehty. 

See  Birks'  Horse  ApostohcEe,  published  by  the  EeHgious  Tract 
Society. 

Compare  in  the  same  way  the  abrupt  termination  of  the 
history  in  Acts  8.  40,  with  Acts  21.  8,  9. 

206.  But  in  addition  to  the  moral  evidence  of  Scripture, 

evidence  suggested  by  the  morahty  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  character  of  our  Lord,  the  candour 
and  sincerity,  and  self-denial  of  the  first  Christians,  and  the 
moral  beauty  of  Christian  principles,  as  illustrated  in  the  hves 
of  consistent  behevers,  there  is  evidence  directly  spiritual. 
This  evidence  is  partly  appreciated  by  the  intellect,  but  stiU 
more  by  the  heart  and  conscience.  So  far  as  it  treats  of  man 
as  the  gospel  finds  him,  it  appeals  equally  to  all ;  so  far  as  it 
treats  of  man  as  the  gospel /o/7?-ts  him,  it  appeals  only  to  the  he- 
liever.  To  the  first  part  of  this  evidence  the  apostle  refers  in 
I  Cor.  14.  23-25  ;  and  to  the  second,  in  Eom.  8.  16  :  i  John  5.  20. 

207.  This  evidence  consists,  in  part,  in  the  agreement 
Harmony  of  between  what  the  awakened  sinner  feels  himself, 
Scripture  and  and  what  the  Bible  declares  him  to  be.  The 
rienceofthe  gospel  proclaims  the  universal  corruption  of 
sinner.  human  nature.  It  speaks  not  only  of  acts  of 
transgression,  but  of  a  deep  and  inveterate  habit  of  imgod- 
liness  in  the  soul,  and  of  the  necessity  of  a  complete  renewal. 
If  this  description  were  felt  to  be  untrue,  if  man  were  con- 
scious of  dehght  in  submitting  his  wiU  to  God's  wiU,  and  in 
obeying  commands  which  rebuke  his  selfishness  and  pride,  he 
might  at  once  discredit  the  truth  of  the  gospel.  But  when 
he  finds  that  the  description  answers  to  his  own  state,  and 
that  every  attempt  at  closer  examination  only  discovers  to 
him  the  completeness  of  this  agreement,  he  has  in  himself  an 
evidence  that  this  message  is  true. 


112  EVIDENCES  :   SPIRITUAL. 

2c8.  The  second  stage  of  the  evidence  is  reached  when  a 
.  man  finds  that  the  provisions  of  the  gospel  are 

adapted  to  adapted  to  his  state.  He  is  guilty,  and  needs 
our  wants,  p^j-don.  He  is  corrupt,  and  needs  holiness.  He 
is  surrounded  by  temptation,  and  needs  strength.  He  is 
living  in  a  world  of  vexation  and  change,  and  he  needs  some 
more  satisfying  portion  than  it  can  supply.  He  is  dying, 
and  he  shrinks  from  death,  and  longs  for  a  clear  revelation  of 
another  life.  And  the  gospel  meets  all  these  wants.  It  is  a 
message  of  pardon  to  the  guilty,  of  holiness  to  the  aspirin^sj, 
of  peace  to  the  tried,  and  of  life  to  them  that  sit  in  the 
shadow  of  death. 

209.  And  whilst  there  is  perfect  adaptation  to  human  want, 
Harmony  of  ^^  "^^^^  striking  is  the  agreement  between  the  de- 
Scriptme  scription  given  in  the  gospel  of  its  results,  and  the 
perienceof  Christian's  experience.  The  effects  of  the  behef 
the  Christian,  ^f  ^j^g  tiiith  are  repeatedly  portrayed  in  Scrip- 
ture. Each  promise  is  a  prediction,  receiving  daily  fulfil- 
ment. Penitence  and  its  fruits,  the  obedience  of  faith  and 
the  increasing  light  and  j)eace  which  it  supplies,  the  power  of 
prayer,  the  influence  of  Christian  truth  on  the  intellect,  and 
the  heart  and  the  character,  the  struggles,  and  victories,  and 
defeats  even  of  the  new  hfe,  all  are  described  and  constitute 
an  evidence  in  the  highest  degree  experimental ;  an  evidence 
which  grows  vvdth  our  growth,  and  multiplies  with  ever}'-  step 
of  our  progress  in  the  knowledge  and  love  of  the  truth.  Such 
insight  into  our  moral  being,  and  such  knowledge  of  the 
changes  which  religious  truth  is  adapted  to  produce,  could 
never  emanate  from  human  wisdom,  and  they  prove  that 
God  himself  is  the  author  of  the  book  in  which  sucli  quahties 
are  disclosed. 

210.  We  repeat  the  caution,  however,  that  this  evidence  is 
-,  f  ,  „         chiefly  of  value  for  the  confirmation  of  the  faith  of 

Useful  for  ^,  ,  i  -n 

continnation  a  Christian,  because  none  else  wiU  appreciate  or 
^  ^^^^  '  understand  it.  To  such,  however,  this  evidence  is 
so  strong  as  often  to  supersede  every  other.  To  the  Christian, 
the  old  controversy  between  Christianity  and  infidelity  haf? 
but  little  interest ;  he  already  feels  the  truth  which  evidences 
seek  only  to  prove  ;  it  seems  needless  to  discuss  the  reality 
of  what  he  already  enjoys  ;  he  has  the  "  witness  in  himself." 

211.  It  may  be  added,  too,  that  the  evidence  depends  not 


EVIDENCES  :   EXPERIMENTAL.  113 

Christianity  SO  much  on  Christianity  as  adapted  to  our  wants, 
m!)\e  wT*  ^  ^^  Christianity  adapted  to  promote  our  holi- 
hoiiiiess.  ness.  When  Christ  appeared,  the  Jews  felt  their 
want  of  an  earthly  deliverer.  A  Messiah  who  should  make 
the  Gentiles  fellow  heirs,  they  did  not  want  at  all.  The 
system  of  Mohammed,  again,  is  adapted  with  great  skill  to 
the  desires  of  a  sensual,  gross-minded,  and  ambitious  people. 
The  Hindoos  adhere  to  a  religion  that  is  without  evidence, 
because  they  find  it  suited  to  their  tastes.  All  these  cases, 
however,  are  very  different  from  the  case  of  Christianity  ;  it 
came  to  us  not  conformed  to  our  natural  inchnations,  but 
seeking  to  conform  them  to  itself;  and  when  this  process 
is  begun,  then  only  is  its  adaptation  revealed.  Heathen  na- 
tions sought  a  rehgion  conformed  to  their  own  corrupt  pro- 
pensities :  and  on  finding  such  a  religion  they  embraced 
and  beheved  it.  Pagan  systems  are  adapted  to  man  as  he  is, 
and  as  he  desires  to  be,  while  yet  in  love  with  sin  ;  the 
gospel  is  adapted  to  man  as  he  is  and  ought  to  be.  Paganism 
is  the  adaptation  of  a  corrupt  system  to  a  corrupt  nature ; 
the  gospel  is  the  adaptation  of  a  hfe-giving  system  to  a  nature 
that  needs  to  be  renewed.  The  first  seeks  to  conform  its 
teaching  to  our  tastes  ;  the  second  to  conform  our  tastes  to 
its  teaching.  And  it  is  while  this  latter  conformation  is 
proceeding,  that  the  believer  has  the  evidence  of  the  truth. 
When  he  believes,  he  has  the  hope  of  faith,  then  comes  the 
hope  of  experience — experience  founded  on  the  sanctifying 
influence  of  the  love  of  God,  Eom.  5.  2-5. 

To  the  physician  w^ho  is  intrusted  with  the  cure  of  some 
Analogous  mortal  disease,  two  courses  are  open.  He  may 
case.  treat  the  symptoms,  or  he  may  treat  the  disease 

itself.  If  in  fever  he  is  anxious  only  to  quench  the  thirst  of 
his  patient,  or  in  apoplexy  to  excite  the  system,  his  treat- 
ment may  be  said  to  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  sufierer  ; 
but  it  is  not  Hkely  to  restore  him.  A  sounder  system  treats 
the  disease,  and  that  medipinc  is  the  true  specific  which  is 
adapted  ultimately  to  remove  it.  The  evidence  of  the  virtue 
of  such  a  specific  is,  not  its  palatableness  nor  its  power  of 
exhilaration,  but  the  steady  continued  improvement  of  the 
health  of  the  patient ;  an  evidence  founded  on  experience, 
and  strongly  confirming  the  i^roofs  which  had  originally 
induced  him  to  make  the  trial. 


114  evidences:  sujimari. 

And  so  of  tlis  gospel.  It  may  eshilarate,  and  it  may  please 
the  taste  ;  but  the  evidence  of  its  truth  and  of  its  being  truly 
received  is  its  tendency  to  promote  our  hoHnesa. 

212.  What  then  is  the  reason  of  our  hojDe  ?  is  a  question 
Summary.—  which  every  inquirer  may  ask  and  answer.  All 
Slemgibie  *^®  answers  of  which  the  question  admits,  no  one 
to  aU.  can  be  expected  to  give,  for  a  full  investigation  of 

Christian  evidences  would  occupy  a  hfe-time  ;  but  it  is  easy 
to  give  such  an  answer  as  shall  justify  our  faith.  Christianity 
and  the  Christian  books  exist,  and  have  3xisted  for  the  last 
eighteen  hundred  years.  Christian  and  profane  writers  agree 
in  this  admission.  The  great  Founder  of  our  faith  pro- 
fessedly wrought  miracles  in  confirmation  of  his  message, 
and  gave  the  same  power  to  his  apostles.  They  all  under- 
went severe  suffering,  and  most  of  them  died  in  testimony  of 
their  behef  of  the  truths  and  facts  they  delivered.  These 
facts  and  the  truths  founded  on  them,  the  apostles  and  first 
Christians  embraced  in  spite  of  the  opposing  influences  of 
the  religious  systems  in  which  they  had  been  trained.  The 
character  and  history  of  the  Founder  of  the  faith  were  fore- 
told many  hundreds  of  years  before  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures. 
He  taught  the  purest  morality.  He  himself  gave  many  pre- 
dictions, and  these  predictions  were  fulfilled.  His  doctrines 
changed  the  character  of  those  w^ho  received  them,  softened 
and  civilized  ancient  nations,  and  have  been  everywhere 
among  the  mightiest  influences  in  the  history  of  the  human 
race.  They  claim  to  be  from  God,  support  their  claim  by  in- 
numerable evidences,  and  we  must  either  admit  them  to  be 
from  God,  or  ascribe  them  to  a  spirit  of  most  miraculous  and 
benevolent  imposition.  Add  to  all  this,  that  he  who  receives 
them,  has  in  himself  additional  evidence  of  their  origin  and 
holiness,  and  can  say  from  experience,  **  I  know  that  the  Son 
of  God  is  come,  and  hath  given  us  an  understanding,  that  we 
may  know  Him  that  is  true.  We  are  in  him,  even  in  his  Son 
Jesus  Christ.  This  is  the  true  God  and  eternal  hfe,"  i  John  5.  20. 

These  facts  are  not  abstruse,  but  accessible  to  all,  and  in- 
telligible to  the  feeblest.  For  the  candid  inquirer,  any  one 
department  of  this  evidence  will  often  prove  sufficient :  no 
other  religious  system  being  founded  on  miracles  and  pro- 
phecy, or  exhibiting  such  hohness  and  love.  The  ivhole  evi- 
dence combined^  is  overwhelmingly  conclusive. 


EVIDENCES.  115 

213.  And  yet  there  is,  in  relation  to  these  evidences,  much 
Evidence  unbehef  both  among  inquirers  and  professed 
ctasiVin*^  Christians.  Among  inquirei's  there  is  unbehef, 
doubt.  for  want  of  candour  and  teachableness  :    a  fact, 

The  rmcandid  which  is  itself  an  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture, 
inquirer.  ^^d  in  harmony  with  the  general  dealings  of  God. 
In  common  hfe,  levity,  or  prejudice,  or  carelessness  will  often 
lead  men  astray,  and  even  make  them  incapable  of  ascertain- 
ing what  is  really  \ds>e  and  time.  And  Scripture  has  expressly 
declared,  that  those  who  will  not  love  truth,  shall  not  under- 
stand it.  So  deeply  did  Grotius  feel  this  consideration,  that 
he  regarded  the  evidence  of  Christianity  as  itself  an  evidence 
of  the  Divine  origin  of  the  gospel,  being  divinely  adapted  to 
test  men's  character  and  hearts. 

De  Vent,  ii.  §  19.  See  also  Dan.  12.  10:  Isa,  29.  13,  14:  Matt. 
6.  23:  II.  25:  13.  II,  12:  John  3.  19:  I  Cor.  2,  14:  2  Cor.  4.  4: 
2  Tim.  3.  13. 

Among  professed  Christians,  too,  there  is  want  of  confidence 
.    ,  ^,  in  the  fulness  of  the  Christian  evidence,  and  conse- 

And  the  „  .         . 

careless         quent  want  of  inquiry.     Baxter  has  acknowledged, 
nstian.       ^^^^^  while  in  his  younger  days  he  was  exercised 
chiefly  about  his  own  sincerity,  in  later  life  he  was  tried  with 
doubts  about  the  truth  of  Scripture.     Further  inquiry,  how- 
ever, removed  them.     The  evidence  which  he  found  most 
conclusive,  was  the  internal :  such  as  sprang  from  the  witness 
of  the  Spirit  of  God  with  his  own.     "  The  spirit  of  prophecy," 
says  he,   "  was  the  first  witness :   the  spirit  of  miraculous 
power,  the  second  ;  and  now,"  he  adds,  "  we  have 
the  spirit  of  renovation  and  holiness."    "  Let  Chris- 
tians therefore,"  he  concludes,  "  tell  their  doubts,  and  inves- 
tigate the  evidence  of  Divine  truth,  for  there  is  ample  provision 
for  the  removal  of  them  all." 

Most  of  the  doubts  which  good  men  feel  may  be  thus  dis- 
pelled. Others,  chiefly  specidative,  may  in  some  cases  re- 
main, and  are  not  to  be  dispelled  by  the  best  proofs.  Even 
for  these,  however,  there  is  a  cure.  Philosophy  cannot  solve 
them  ;  but  prayer  and  healthy  exercise  in  departments  of 
Christian  hfe  to  which  doubting  does  not  extend  can ;  or, 
failing  to  solve  them,  these  remedies  will  teach  us  to  think 
less  of  their  importance,  and  to  wait  patiently  for  stronger 
light.    Ours  is  a  complex  nature,  and  the  morbid  excitabihty 


116  THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  GOD. 

of  one  part  of  our  frame  may  often  be  cured  by  the  increased 
activity  of  another.  An  irritable  faith  is  a  symptom  of  defi- 
cient action  elsewhere,  and  is  best  cured  by  a  more  constant 
attention  to  practical  duty.  Difficulties  which  no  inquiry 
can  remove  will  often  melt  away  amidst  the  warmth  and  vigour 
produced  by  active  love. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Bible  as  a  Revelation  fro^i  God 

"  a  man's  love  of  Scripture  at  the  beginning  of  a  religious  course,  is  such  as 
>iiakes  the  praise,  which  older  Christians  give  to  the  Bible,  seem  exaggerated  :  but 
after  twenty  or  thirty  years  of  a  religious  life,  such  praise  always  sounds  inadequate. 
Its  glories  seem  so  mucli  more  full  than  they  seemed  at  first."— Dr.  Akxold. 

"  To  seek  Divinity  in  I'hilosophy,  is  to  seek  the  living  among  the  dead :  so  to  seek 
Philosophy  in  Divinity,  is  to  seek  the  dead  among  the  living."— Bacox,  Advance-' 
ment  of  Learning. 

"  Tlie  Old  and  New  Testaments  contain  but  one  scheme  of  religion.    Neither 

part  can  be  understood  without  the  other They  are  like  the  rolls  on  which 

they  were  anciently  written It  is  but  one  subject  from  beginning  to  end  • 

but  the  view  which  we  obtain  of  it  grows  clearer  and  clearer  as  we  unw  hid  the  roll 
that  contains  it." — Cecil. 

Sec.  I.  A  Bevelation  of  God,  and  of  Human  Nature. 

214.  There  are  various  aspects  in  which  Scripture  may  be 
regarded.  The  most  important,  is  that  which  represents  it  as 
a  revelation  of  God  and  man  :  of  God  in  relation  to  man,  of 
man  in  relation  to  God  :  and  of  both  in  relation  to  the  work 
and  office  of  our  Lord. 

315.  Scripture  is  a  revelation  of  God,  of  his  character  and 
Scripture,  a  will.  That  will  is  indeed  written  on  the  works  of 
revelation  of  j^^g  hands,  and  more  clearly  on  the  constitution  of 

God,  and  of  '  "' 

man.  man  :  but  in  the  Bible  alone  is  the  transcript  com- 

plete, and  there  alone  is  it  preserved  from  decay. 

216.  Or  with  equal  accuracy,  the  whole  may  be  described 
as  the  exhibition  of  human  nature,  in  individuals  and  in  na- 
tions under  every  form  of  development ;  holy,  tempted,  fallen, 
degenerate,  redeemed,  believing,  rejecting  the  faith,  strugghng, 
victorious,  and  complete.  The  Bible  begins  with  man  in  the 
garden  of  Eden,  his  Maker  as  his  friend  ;  and  after  a  wondrous 
history,  it  exhibits  him  again  in  the  same  fellowship,  though 
no  longer  on  earth  or  in  paradise,  but  in  heaven  :  the  whole 
of  his  forfeited  blessedness  won  back  by  the  incarnation  and 
suffering  of  the  Son  of  God. 

217.  More  generally  still,  the  Bible  may  be  described  as  the 


•THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH.  117 

^    ^     ,         great  storehouse  of  facts  and  duties,  and  of  all 

A  storehouse        .   . ,       t  ,       ,,         t*      • 

of  spiritual  spiritual  truth,  it  gives  authentic  information  on 
truth.  ^YiG  history  of  the  world,  from  the  remotest  times 

on  which  all  human  writings  are  silent,  or  filled  with  fable'r  ; 
the  occasion  and  immediate  consequences  of  the  first  sin  ;  the 
origin  of  nations,  and  of  diversity  of  language.  We  thus  trace 
the  progress,  and  mark  the  uniformity  of  those  principles  on 
which  men  have  been  governed  from  the  beginning,  all  bearing 
their  testimony  to  the  wisdom  and  holiness  of  God,  and  the 
mercy  of  the  Divine  administration.  We  trace  the  i^rogress 
and  development  of  human  nature,  and  of  the  plan  of  redemp- 
tion :  the  first,  shown  in  every  possible  diversity  of  position, 
and  the  second,  influencing  all  the  Divine  procedure,  perfected 
in  Christ,  and  exhibited  in  the  gospel.  In  a  word,  we  find 
all  the  great  questions  (whether  of  fact  or  duty),  which  have 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  wisest  men,  settled  by  authority, 
and  on  principles  which  neither  need  nor  admit  of  appeal. 
We  have  given  to  us  the  decisions  of  the  infinitely  wise  God 
as  the  ground  of  our  opinions  and  practices,  and  his  promise 
as  the  foundation  of  our  hope. 

2x8.  In  no  part  of  the  Bible,  therefore,  are  these  questions 
inappropriate  : — 

Appropnatc         JiJ:     ,-,.,,,  .  „ 

questions  in  What  docs  it  teach  concerning  man  ?  or  concern- 
reading  It.  cerning  God  1  or  concerning  the  grand  scheme 
of  redemption  1  or  concerning  the  restoration  of  human  na- 
ture to  its  primeval  dignity  and  blessedness  1 


Sec.  2,  The  Bible,  a  BevelaUon  of  Spiritual  Relifjious  Truth. 
219.  If  this  view  of  the  subject  of  the  Bible,  be  kept  in 
Scripture,  a    mind, — God  in  relation  to  man,  and  man  in  relation 

spirftmr  ""^  *°  ^^^'  ^^^   ^^^  ^'^^  ^^^  i^  relation  to  the  work 
truth,  on        and  office  of  our  Lord, — one  pecuharity  of  Scripture 
Kud'saiva-       (j^  ^0  i^s  fulness  and  brevity),  will  be  explained. 
tion.  \i  gives  the  history  of  the   world,  as   "  God's 

world,"  and  as  destined  to  become  the  kingdom  of  his  Son. 
It  tells  us  of  its  origin,  that  we  may  know  by  what  God  has 
done,  the  reverence  due  to  him  :  what  is  his  power  whose  law 
this  book  has  revealed  :  whose  creatures  we  are,  that  we  may 
distinguish  him  from  the  idols  of  the  heathen,  who  are  either 
imaginary  beings,  or  parts  of  his  creation. 

All  the  subsequent  narrative  of  the  Bible,  seems  written  on 


118  THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OP  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH. 

the  same  principle.  It  is  an  inspired  history  of  religion  (of 
man  in  relation  to  God,)  and  of  other  things,  as  it  is  affected 
by  them.  Idolatrous  nations  are  introduced,  not  as  indepen- 
dently important,  but  as  influencing  the  church,  or  as  in- 
fluenced by  it :  and  thus  narrative  and  prophecy  continue 
from  the  first  transgression,  through  the  whole  interval  of 
man's  misery  and  guilt,  to  a  period,  spoken  of  in  a  great  di- 
versity of  expressions  and  under  both  economies,  when  the 
"  God  of  heaven  shall  set  up  a  kingdom  that  shall  never  be 
destroyed." 

That  these  historical  disclosures  supply  ample  materials  for 
inquiry,  and  (had  the  narrative  been  false),  for  refutation,  and 
that  as  they  have  never  been  refuted,  their  antiquity  and 
extent  are  strong  presumptive  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scrip- 
ture, is  obvious  :^  but  it  is  the  principle  of  selection,  and  the 
clear  scope  of  the  whole  which  are  now  noticed.  To  convey 
religious  truth  is  clearly  the  author's  design.  Whatever  is 
revealed  must  be  studied  with  this  fact  in  view,  and  whatever 
is  withheld,  may  be  regarded  as  not  essential  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  purpose. 

220.  Let  it  be  remembered,  too,  that  it  is  God  as  holy  in 

relation  to  a  man  as  a  r,inner,  and  God  and  man  in 

of  God,  as       relation  to  Christ  as  the  Eedeemer,  who  form  the 

holy.  great  theme  of  Scripture  :  and  that  what  is  told  us, 

has  reference  to  the  relation  of  such  Beings. 

Take  for  example,  the  history  of  the  first  sin.  The  object  of  tiyi 
narrative  of  the  fall  is  cleai-ly  moral.  It  shows  the  progress  of 
temptation^  and  directs  our  thoughts  to  the  Saviour.  We  mark  the 
conviction  of  duty,  the  contemplation  of  the  pleasure  which  sin  may 
produce,  the  consequent  obtuseness  of  conscience,  and  the  hope  that 
desire  may  be  indulged  and  yet  punishment  be  averted,  desire  be- 
coming intenser,  passion  stronger,  conscience  feebler,  till  at  length 
the  will  consents  and  the  act  is  done.  Such  is  all  transgression. 
The  moral  lesson  of  the  fall  is  thus  complete,  though  much  is  con- 
cealed. 

Subsequent  portions  of  Scripture  are  written  on  this  same  prin- 
ciple. In  the  history  of  Cain,  and  in  the  rapid  progress  of  wicked- 
ness, we  notice  the  consequences  of  sin,  and  from  the  Deluge  learn 
how  deeply  man  had  fallen.  And  yet  each  expression  of  God's  dis- 
pleasure is  so  tempered  with  mercy,  as  to  prepare  us  for  the  double 
truth,  that  God  had  provided  a  Redeemer  to  restore  us  to  Divine 

*  See  these  remarks  illustrated  in  Bishop  Butler's  Analogy,  2nd  Part, 


THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH.  IID 

favour,  and  a  Sanctifier  to  renew  us  to  holiness,  and  that  man  needed 
them  both.  Hence  it  is,  that  amidst  all  this  wickedness,  facts  are 
recorded,  which  hold  out  the  prospect  of  recovery,  and  even  fore- 
shadow the  means  of  sec\iring  it.  In  Abel  and  Seth,  and  Enoch 
and  Noah,  we  find  faith  in  the  Divine  promise,  and  consequent 
holiness.  They  "  called  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord."  They 
''  offered  a  more  excellent  sacrifice  "  than  their  ungodly  neighbours, 
expressive  at  once  of  their  obligation  and  then- guilt;  they  "walked 
with  God." 

As  the  world  was  repeopled,  human  sinfulness  is  seen  in  other 
forms.  Men  are  scattered  over  the  earth,  and  ultimately,  the  plan 
of  the  Divine  procedure  is  changed.  A  particular  family  is  made 
the  depository  of  the  Divine  will,  and  its  history  is  given.  Of  that 
family,  the  son  of  the  promise  is  chosen :  and  of  his  sons,  not  the 
elder  and  favourite,  but  the  younger.  The  history  of  his  descendants 
is  then  given  -with  a  double  reference,  first  to  then-  own  faith 
and  obedience,  and  then  to  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  There  is 
both  an  ultimate  and  an  immediate  pui^ose,  and  both  are  moral. 
The  institutes  of  this  people  illustrate  the  doctrines  of  the  cross, 
and  we  have  moreover,  the  record  of  their  sins,  for  om*  warning, 
and  of  their  repentance,  for  oiu:  imitation  and  encoviragement. 

Concerning  all  these  narratives,  much  might  have  been  told 

. ,        us,   which  is   withheld.     Difficulties  might  have 

on  this  prin-   been  solved  :   important  physical,  or  historical  or 

"P  ^'  ethical  questions  might  have  been  answered.     But 

we  have  to  seek  the  solution  of  these  questions  elsewhere. 

Of  Assyria,  for  example,  we  read  in  a  single  passage  of  the  book  of 
Genesis,  (Gen.  lo.  1 1,  1 2,)  but  not  again  for  15 00  years,  till  the  time  of 
Menahem  (2  Kings  15.  19):  and  of  Egypt  we  have  no  mention,  be- 
tween the  days  of  Moses  and  those  of  Solomon.  The  early  history 
of  both  nations  is  exceedingly  obscure,  perhaps  impenetrably  so. 
But  the  knowledge  is  essential  neither  to  our  salvation  nor  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  church,  and  it  is  not  revealed. 

In  the  prophetic  Scriptures,  tliis  peculiarity  is  equally  ob- 
Soofpro-  vious.  They  are  all  either  intensely  moral,  or 
pLecy.  evangehcal,  or  both.     It  might  have  been  other- 

wise, without  injury  to  prophecy  as  an  outward  evidence  of 
Scripture.  The  gifts  of  prediction  and  of  moral  teaching, 
might  have  been  disjoined  :  but  in  fact  they  are  not.  What 
might  have  ministered  to  the  gratification  of  natural  curiosity 
only,  is  enlisted  on  the  side  of  practical  holiness.  The  pro- 
phet is  the  teacher,  and  the  history  of  the  future  (which 


120  THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH. 

prophecy  is),  becomes  like  the  history  of  the  past,  the  hand- 
maid of  evaugehcal  truth,  and  of  spiritual  improvement. 

So  is  it  in  all  that  is  revealed  in  relation  to  Christ.  We 
read  of  the  dignity  of  his  person,  but  it  is  with 
^  ^  ^"^  ■  a  constant  reference  to  "  us  men,  and  to  our  sal- 
vation." If  he  is  set  forth  as  the  Light  of  the  world,  it  is  to 
guide  us  into  the  way  of  peace  :  if,  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  it  is 
that  he  may  redeem  us  by  his  blood  :  if,  as  entering  into 
heaven,  it  is  as  our  propitiation  and  intercessor.  We  call  him 
justly  the  "  Son  of  God  :"  he  loved  to  call  himself  as  his 
apostles  never  called  him,  and  with  a  pecuhar  reference  to 
his  sympathy  and  work,  the  "  Son  of  man." 

Scripture  then,  is  the  revelation  of  religious  truth,  and  of 
truth  adapted  to  our  nature  as  fallen  and  guilty.  We  use  it 
rightly  therefore,  only  as  it  ministers  to  our  hohness  and  con- 
solation. It  might  have  revealed  other  truth,  or  the  truth  it 
does  reveal  may  be  regarded  by  us  only  as  subhme  and 
glorious.  But  this  is  not  God's  purpose.  He  has  given  it  for 
our  instruction,  our  conviction,  our  rectification  (or  correction), 
and  our  estabhshment  in  righteousness.  All  knowledge 
may  be  Tiseful :  but  this  knowledge  is  necessary.  "  Let  it  not 
go,  keep  it,  for  it  is  thy  Hfe,"  Prov.  4-  I3- 

221.  Two  practical  rules  are  suggested  by  these  remarks. 
First,  we  must  not  expect  to  learn  anything  from  Scripture, 
except  what  it  is,  in  a  rehgious  point  of  view,  important  for  us 
to  know.  Some  seek  "  the  dead  among  the  living,"  (as  Lord 
Bacon  jjhrased  it,)  and  look  into  the  Bible  for  natural  philo- 
sophy and  human  science  :  others  inquire  in  it  for  the  "  secret 
things  "  which  "  belong  only  to  God  :"  and  both  are  rebuked  by 
the  very  character  and  design  of  the  Bible.  It  is  the  record 
of  necessary  and  saving  truth  ;  or  of  truth  in  its  rehgious  as- 
pects and  bearings,  and  of  nothing  besides  :  its  histories  being 
brief  or  full,  as  brevity  or  fulness  may  best  secure  these  ends. 

222.  Secondly.  It  becomes  the  Christian  to  make  ai^ractical 
application  of  every  truth  which  Scripture  reveals.  He  must 
believe,  and  apply  the  whole.  To  reject  truth  is  wrong  :  to 
deny  morality  is  wrong :  and  it  is  equally  wrong  to  disjoin 
them.  It  is  only  as  virtue  is  moulded  on  truth,  that  it  be- 
comes genuine  and  complete. 

223.  Bvit  though  the  Bible  is  not  a  revelation  of  science,  it 


THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH.  121 

may  be  expected  to  be  free  from  error,  and  to  con- 

Scripture  not         ''  "^  i      •        i      i  -. 

iiKonsistent  tain,  under  reserved  and  simple  language,  much 
with  science,  concealed  wisdom,  and  turns  of  expression  which 
harmonize  with  natural  facts,  known  perfectly  to  God,  but 
not  known  to  those  for  whom  at  first  the  revelation  was 
designed. 

This  expectation  is  just :  and  in  both  respects,  the  Bible 
presents  a  striking  contrast  to  the  sacred  books  of  heathen 
nations. 

224.  All  ancient  systems  of  rehgion,  and  all  eminent  philo- 
.    .         ,    sophers  of  antiquity,  so  far  as  they  are  known. 

Ancient  and  •    ,    ■       ^  .  '^  .  ,     "^     ,  ,     ,      ' 

Scripture        maintained  notions  on  science  no  less  absurd  than 

cosmogonies.    ^^^^^  theologv. 

In  Greek  and  Latin  pliilosophy,  the  heavens  were  a  solid  vault 
over  the  earth,*  a  sphere  studded  with  stars,  as  Aristotle  called 
them.  The  sages  of  Egypt  held  that  the  world  was  formed  by  the 
motion  of  air  and  the  upward  coui'se  of  flame :  Plato,  that  it  was  an 
intelligent  being:  Empedocles,  held  that  there  were  two  suns: 
Zeucippus,  that  the  stars  were  kindled  by  then-  motions,  and  that 
they  nourished  the  sun  with  their  fires. 

All  eastern  nations  beheved  that  the  heavenly  bodies  exercised 
powerful  influence  over  human  aflfairs,  often  of  a  disastrous^  kind, 
and  that  all  nature  was  composed  of  four  elements,  fire,  aii',  earth, 
and  water,  substances  certainly  not  elementary. 

In  the  Hindoo  philosophy,  the  globe  is  represented  as  flat  and 
triangular,  composed  of  seven  stories;  the  whole  mass  being  sus- 
tained upon  the  heads  of  elephants,  who,  when  they  shake  them- 
selves, cause  earthquakes.  Mohammed  taught  that  the  mountains 
were  ci-eated  to  prevent  the  earth  from  moving,  and  to  hold  it  as 
by  anchors  and  chains.  The  ''Fathers  of  the  church"  themselves 
teach  doctrines  scarcely  less  absurd.  '•'  The  rotundity  of  the  earth  is 
a  theory,"  says  Lactantius,  ''v,-hi(;h  no  one  is  ignorant  enough  to 
believe." 

How  instructive,  that  while  every  ancient  system  of  idol- 
atry may  be  overthrown  by  its  false  physics,  not  one  of  the 
forty  writers  of  the  Bible,  most  of  whom  hved  in  the  vicinity 
of  one  or  other  of  the  nations  who  held  these  views,  has 
written  a  single  Hne  that  favours  them.  This  silence  is  con- 
solatory, and  furnishes  a  striking  confirmation  of  the  truth  of 
their  message. 

'  Firmamentum,  v.if.ufji.si..  "  h;  cLirrpoy,  '' ili-stan-ed." 

G 


122  THE  BIBLE  A  REVELATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  TRUTH. 

225.  The  exactness  of  Scripture  statements,  and  its  agree- 
ment with  modern  discovery,  is  also  remarkable. 

The  S(fl:iptiires,  for  example^  speak  of  the  earth  as  a  globe,  and  as 
suspended  upon,  nothing,  Isa.  40.  22:  Job  26.  7-10:  Prov.  8.  27.  In 
treating  of  its  age,  they  distinguish  between  the  creation  of  unor- 
ganized matter,  and  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  Gen.  i.  i,  i. 
They  give  to  man  a  very  I'ecent  origin,  and  their  accuracy  in  this 
respect  is  attested  by  the  ascertained  state  of  the  earth's  surface 
and  by  the  monuments  of  antiquity.  They  describe  the  heavens  as 
boundless  space,  not  as  a  solid  sphere ;  and  light  as  an  element  inde- 
pendent of  the  sun,  and  as  anterior  to  it,  anticipating  the  generally 
received  theory  of  modem  inquirers.  When  they  speak  of  air,  they 
say  that  God  gave  it  weight,  as  Galileo  proved;  and  of  the  seas,  that 
he  gave  them  their  measure :  a  proportion  of  land  and  sea  such  as 
now  obtains  being  essential  to  the  health  and  safety  of  both  animal 
and  vegetable  life.  The  waters  above  ''the  expanse"  have  an  im- 
portance attached  to  them  in  Scripture  which  modern  science  alone 
can  appreciate  ;  many  millions  of  tons  being  raised  from  the  surface 
of  England  alone  by  evaporation  every  day.  (See  Whewell's 
*  Bridgewater  Treatise.') 

When  they  speak  of  the  human  race  they  give  it  one  origin,  and 
of  human  language  they  indicate  original  identity  and  subsequent 
division,  not  into  endless  diversities  of  dialect  such  as  now  exist, 
but  rather  into  two  or  three  primeval  tongues ;  facts  which,  though 
long  questioned,  ethnography  and  philosophy  have  confirmed, 
Gen.  II.  i:  10.  32. 

When  they  arrest  the  course  of  the  sun,  that  is,  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion, they  stay  the  moon  too;  a  precaution  which  could  not  have 
been  supposed  necessary,  but  on  the  supposition  of  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth.  When  they  speak  of  the  stars,  instead  of  sup- 
posing a  thousand,  as  ancient  astronomers  did  (Hipparchus  says 
1022,  Ptolemy,  1026),  they  declare  that  they  are  innumerable;  a 
declaration  which  modern  telescopes  discover  to  be  not  even  a  figure 
of  speech.  "  God,"  says  Sir  John  Herschel,  after  sun^eying  the 
groups  of  stars  and  nebulse  in  the  heavens,  "has  scattered  them 
like  dust  through  the  immensity  of  space."  And  when  the  Scrip- 
tures speak  of  their  hosts,  it  is  as  dependent,  material,  obedient 
things,  Isa.  40.  26,  27. 

226.  Generally,  however  (it  maybe  added).  Scripture  speaks 
Apparent  i^  relation  to  physical  facts  in  the  language  of 
exception.  common  life,  and  sometimes  that  language  is 
not  strictly  accurate;   as  in  Job  38.  6:  9.  6:  Psa.   104.  3: 


THE  BIBLE  CONSISTENT  WITH  ETHICAL  SCIENCE.  123 

Prov.  3.  20.  And  the  reason  is  plain.  If  strictly  philo- 
sophical language  had  been  employed,  Scripture  must  have 
been  less  intelligible :  and  besides,  suth  language  describing 
natural  facts  not  as  they  appear,  but  as  they  reaUy  arc,  would 
have  made  all  such  facts  matters  of  revelation.  It  must  have 
excited  doubts  among  the  ignorant,  and  prejudice  (from  the 
necessary  incompleteness  of  Scripture  teaching  on  such  ques- 
tions) among  the  philosophic  ;  destroying,  among  all,  the 
unity  of  impression  which  the  Bible  seeks  to  produce.  The 
Bible  would  have  become,  in  that  case,  a  Divine,  though  in- 
complete hand-book  of  science  ;  an  arrangement  as  little  con- 
ducive to  the  cultivation  of  a  truly  philosophical  spirit  as  to 
the  interests  of  religion  itself. 

227.  JSTor  less  remarkable  is  the  way  in  which  the  Bible  has 
Scriptural  noticed  abstract  questions,  or  gi-eat  principles  of 
ethics  con-      ethical  science.     The  laws  of  our  moral  nature  are 

sistent  with 

experience,     evidently  kuo-^Ti  to  the  Author  of  Scripture,  but 

they  are  not  formally  announced.     They  are  rather  involved 

by  implication  in  the  truths  or  precepts  which  are  revealed. 

Independent  investigation  long  ago  discovered   that  the 

heart  of  man  takes  much  of  its  complexion  from 

his  thougl]ts,  and  that  what   interests  the  mind 

influences  the  character.     In  harmony  with  this  law  is  the 

doctrine  of  Scripture,  that  habitual  and  beheving  attention 

to   the  truths   of  Christianity  is   the  great  instrument   of 

bringing  the  mind  into  holy  states. 

r  John  4.  10,  16,  19:  Gal.  2.  20:  i  Cor.  15.  2:2  Cor.  3.  18: 
I  Tim.  4.  16:  Psa.  119.  9-11:  Psa.  19:  i  Pet.  i.  22. 

"How  can  man  regulate  his  behef  ?"  is  a  question  which 
long  occupied  the  attention  of  thoughtful  men.  "By  attend- 
ing to  evidence,  and  then  by  contemplating  truth,"  is  the 
reply  of  philosophy.  And  Scripture  is  in  direct  harmony 
with  her  decision.  Faith  and  affection  are  both  influenced, 
not  by  analysing  them  or  by  violently  attempting  to 
strengthen  or  purify  them,  but  by  examining  truth  and 
holding  communion  with  the  objects  that  deserve  and  claim 
our  love.  The  Bible  bids  us  consider  and  give  heed,  assuring 
us  that  earnest  humble  consideration  wiU  end  in  faith,  and 
faith  be  followed  by  holy  and  appropriate  feeling. 

Men  beheve  by    ''giving  heed"  to  truth,  Acts  8.  6,  8:    Heb. 

g2 


1 24  THE  BIBLE  A  PROGRESSIVE  REVELATION. 

2.  I:  Prov.  4.  1-4:  2.  1-9:  Mark  4.  24,  25:  Acts  17.  11,  12.  Their 
impenitence  is  a  consequence  of  their  neglect,  and  their  neglect,  of 
a  wrong  state  of  heart,  2  Thess.  2.  11,  12:  Mark  8.  18:  John  3. 
19,  20:  5.  38,  39:  2  Cor.  4.  3,  4:  Hos.  4.  10.  Holy  aflFection  is  in- 
fluenced by  attention  and  faith,  Gal.  5.  6:  2  Cor.  5.  ii:  Heb.  11. 
7:  I  John  4.  16-18:  Rom.  6.  6:  Col.  i.  22,  23:  Josh.  22.  5. 

Scripture  embodies  these  laws,  and  acts  upon  them  ;  ad- 
ding, however,  the  significant  fact,  that  where  hohness  and 
salvation  follow  in  the  train  of  attention  and  thoughtfulness, 
this  result  is  to  be  ascribed  throughout  every  part  to  the 
grace  and  blessing  of  the  Divine  Spirit. 

Attention  is  the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  Acts  16.  14:  Zech.  12.  10. 
Faith,  which  follows  attention,  is  his  gift,  Acts  10.  44  (see  11.  17, 
18):    II.  21. 

The  clearer  understanding  of  truth,  which  follows  the  believing 
study  of  it,  is  his  gift,  Isa.  42.  7:  Psa.  119.  18:  Luke  24.  45:  i  Cor. 
2.  14:   2  Cor.  3.  16:  Eph.  I.  17,  18. 

The  holy  feeling  that  follows  an  attentive  and  believing  study  of 
truth,  is  his  gift,  Ez.  36.  27:  2  Thess.  2.  13:  2  Pet.  i.  2,  3: 
Gal.  5.  22. 

Sec.  3.  Tlte  BilJe  a  gradual  and  progressive  Eevelation. 

228.  Another  peculiarity  of  Scripture  is,  that  it  is  a  gradual 
and  progressive  revelation. 

229.  The  truths  and  purpose  of  God  are  in  themselves  in- 
In  what  capable  of  progress  5  but  not  the  revelation  of 
sense,  those  truths.  In  nature,  the  rising  sun  scatters 
the  mists  of  the  morning,  and  brings  out  into  light  first  one 
prominence,  and  then  another,  till  every  hill  and  valley  is 
clothed  in  splendour.  The  landscape  was  there  before,  but  it 
was  not  seen.  So  in  revelation,  the  progress  is  not  in  the 
truth,  but  in  the  clearness  and  impressiveness  with  which 
Scripture  reveals  it, 

230.  In  the  beginning,  for  example,  God  taught  the  unity 
In  the  reve-  of  his  nature  ;  while  the  truth  that  there^is  a  plu- 
indThe^Hoiy  ^'^^^^^  ^^  *^®  Godhead  was  taught  but  indistinctly. 
Spirit.  Several  expressions  in  the  earliest  books  imply  it, 
and  are  evidently  calculated  to  suggest  it."     In  the  later 

*  Such  expressions,  for  example,  as.  Let  us  make  man  in  our 
image  (see  Gen.  i.  26:  3.  22);  and  the  use  of  the  plural  noun,  to 
indicate  the  true  God,  with  a  singular  vei-b,  Gen.  i.  i:  Psa.  58.  11 
(Heb.):  Prov.  9.  10  (Heb.),  and  several  himdred  times. 


I 


THE  BIBLE  A  PROGRESSIVE  REVELATION.  125 

prophets,  the  truth  comes  out  with  greater  distiuctness  ;" 
and  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  fully  revealed.  In  the  same 
way,  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  recognised  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  with  increasing  clearness  as  we  approach  the 
timus  of  the  gospel.  It  is  in  the  New  alone,  however,  that 
vre  have  a  distinct  view  of  his  personality  and  work.^ 

231.  This  gradual  disclosure  of  the  Divine  will  is  yet  more 
remarkable  in  the  case  of  our  Lord.  The  first 
promise  (Gen.  3. 15)  contained  a  prophetic  declara- 
tion of  mercy,  and  foretold  his  coming  and  work,  though  in 
mysterious  terms.  The  first  recorded  act  of  acceptable  wor- 
ship (Gen.  4.  4:  Heb.  11.  4)  was  a  type,  expressing  by  an 
action  the  faith  of  the  ofierer  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  first 
prediction.  There  was  to  be  triumph  through  suSering,  and 
there  was  to  be  the  substitution  of  the  innocent  for  the 
guilty. 

These  promises  and  types  were  multiplied  with  the  lapse 
Patriarchal  of  time.  In  the  person  or  worship  of  Enoch,*"  of 
period.  Noah,d  of  ]\Ielchizedec,'=   and   of  Job,f  there    was 

much  that  was  typical  and  predictive  ;  still  more  in  the  his- 
tory of  Abraham"  and  his  immediate  descendants. 

Under  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  other  typical  acts  or  per- 
sons, and  places  and  thing.s,  were  instituted,  and 
the  design  of  the  institution  was  most  distinctly 

The  expressions  in  Numb.  6.  22-27,  compared  with  the  Xew  Tes- 
tament benediction,  Isa.  6.  3,  8:  48.  16:  Jer.  23.  5,  6,  are  very 
remai'kable. 

The  "  angel  of  the  Lord"  probably  refers  in  most  passages  to  the 
Messiah,  as  the  Jewish  writers  generally  maintain,  regarding  him 
as  an  object  of  Divine  worship.  See  Gen.  16.  7  and  13,  where  the 
incommunicable  name  of  Jehovah  is  given  to  him :  see,  also.  Gen. 
22.  11-18:  31.  11-13:  32.  28-30:  Hos.  12.  4,  5:  Gen.  48.  15,  16: 
Ex.  3.  2-15:  19.  ig,  20:  20.  i:  23.  20,  21,  compared  with  Acts 
7.  38:  Josh.  5.  13-15:  6.  2:  Judg.  13.  3-23:  Isa.  63.  8,  9:  Mai.  3.  i. 

*  Isa.  9.  6:  Mic.  5.  2:  Zech.  13.  7. 

^  Gen.  I.  2:  6.  3:  Psa.  51.  ir,  12:  Isa.  48.  16:  61.  i:  Ezek.  3c 
24,  27. 

°  Jude  14.  <i  I  Pet.  3.  20:  Gen.  8.  20 

^  Heb.  5:6,  f  Job.  19,  25:  I.:  42.  7.  8. 

^  Gen.  12.  3:  26.  4:  49.  10,  etc. 


126  THE  BIBLE  A  PROGRESSIVE  REVELATION. 

explained.'^  Prophecies,  also,  became  more  clear  and  fre- 
quent. ^ 

Between  the  days  of  Samuel  and  Malachi — a  period  of  more 

than  six  hundred  years — a  succession  of  prophets 

appear,  who  gradually  set  forth  the  person  and 

work  of  the  Messiah  ;  they  foretell,  too,  the  outpouring  of  the 

Spirit  and  the  general  prevalence  of  the  truth  f  points  on 

which  the  earlier  revelation  is  silent. 

In  the  extent  of  their  predictions,  the  prophets  have  not 
gone  beyond  the  first  promise  which  was  intended  to  give 
hope  of  complete  redemption  ;  but  in  their  clearness,  in  the 
detailed  account  they  give  of  what  redemption  involved,  and 
what  it  cost,  the  difference  is  most  marked ;  while  in  the 
same  qualities,  the  Gospels  have  gone  at  least  as  far  beyond 
the  prophets  as  the  prophets  have  gone  beyond  the  law. 

232.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  the  predictions  of  the  old 
Pi-acticai  economy  and  its  practical  doctrines  go  hand  in 
doctrines.  hand.  The  revelation  spreads  on  each  point. 
The  light  that  illuminates  the  living  spring,  or  the  harvest- 
field  of  truth,  shows  with  equal  clearness  the  path  that  leads 
to  them.  The  law  gives  Divine  precept  with  more  fulness 
than  previous  dispensations,  and  the  prophets  go  beyond  the 
law,  occupying  a  middle  place  between  it  and  the  gospel. 
They  insist  more  fully  on  the  principles  of  personal  hohncss, 
as  distinguished  from  rational  and  ceremonial  purity,  and 
their  sanctions  have  less  reference  to  temporal  promises. 
The  precepts  of  the  law  are  in  the  law  stern  and  brief :  its 
penalties  denounced  with  unmitigated  severity.  In  the  pro- 
phets, the  whole  is  presented  in  colours,  softer  and  more  at- 
tractive ;  hues  from  some  distant  glory,  itself  concealed,  have 
fallen  upon  their  gloomy  features  and  illumined  them  into  its 
own  likeness.  The  law  had  said,  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord 
thy  God  with  all  thy  heart  and  with  all  thy  strength ;"  and 
the  extent  of  this  command  nothing  could  exceed.  The 
prophets,  however,  expound  and  enforce,  and  animate  it  with 
a  new  spirit,  and  direct  its  application  to  greater  holiness. 

*  Lev.  1.  4:  6.  2-7;  17.  II.  ^  N"unib.  24.  17:  Deut.  18.  15: 
Acts  3.  22,  23. 

•  I  Pet.  1. 11:  Psa.  68.  18:  Joel  2.  28:  Isa.  '53:  61.  11:  Zech.  14.  9, 


THE  BIBLE  A  PROGRESSIVE  REVELATION.  127 

The  rule  of  life  thus  becomes  in  their  hands  increasingly 
luminous  and  practical. 

The  Psalms,  again,  are  a  great  instrument  of  piety,  and  are 
so  far  additions  to  the  institutes  of  legal  worship,  which 
contain  no  specific  provision  for  devotion. 

234.  If  the  reader  will  compare  the  precepts  of  the  Penta- 

teuch on  repentance  with  those  of  the  prophets  on 
the  same  duty,'*  or  the  statements  of  both  on  the 
relation  between  the  Jews,  or  of  the  world  generally,  and  Him 
who  came  to  enhghten  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  his  people 
Israel,^  or  will  mark  the  increasing  spirituality  and  clearness*" 
of  the  whole  horizon  of  spiritual  truth  as  the  dawn  of  the 
gospel  day  drew  on,  he  will  not  fail  to  understand  the  con- 
sistency and  progressive  development  of  revelation.  In  both 
he  wiU  see  evidence  of  the  presence  of  that  God  who  (as 
Butler  expressed  it)  "  appears  deHberate  in  aU  his  operations," 
and  who  accomphshes  his  ends  by  slow  and  successive  stages, 
whether  they  refer  to  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  the  move- 
ments of  Providence,  or  the  more  formal  disclosures  of  his 
wiU. 

235.  This  peculiarity  of  Scripture  makes  it  important  that 
Importance     the  various  parts  of  the  Bible  should  be  read  in  the 

gkaia'SSige-  ^^'^®^'  ^^  "^'^^^^  *^®  ^P^^'^^  revealed  them.  A 
ment.  chronological  arrangement  of  sacred  history,  the 

Psalms,  and  the  Prophets,  is  essential  to  the  complete  explana- 
tion of  the  several  parts  :  nor  is  it  less  so,  to  a  clear  and  con- 
sistent view  of  the  progressive  unveiling  of  the  Divine  cha- 
racter and  plans.^ 

236.  It  deserves  to  be  remembered  too,  that  even  when  we 
On  other  are  not  contemplating  the  gradual  unfolding  of 
grounds.  truth,  the  study  of  Scripture  chronologically  is 
often  essential  to  a  just  appreciation  of  truth. 

Compare,  for  example,  Paul's  first  two  Epistles  with  the  last, 
I  and  2  Thess.  with  i  and  2  Tim.,  as  they  lie  side  by  side  in  the 
English  version:  and  we  shall  see  what  changes  several  years  of 

*  Dent.  30.  1-6:  Ezek.  18:  Isa.  57.  15,  16:  Psa.  40.  6-8:  51. 
16,  17. 

^  Isa.  66.  21.  <=  See  especially  Jer.  31.  31-34. 

«•  For  a  chronological  arrangement  of  the  whole.of  the  Bible,  see 
Part  U. 


128  SUCCESSIVE  DlSrENSATlONS. 

labour  had  produced  in  the  apostle's  feelings,  and  in  the  state  ol 
the  church. 

Touching  as  is  the  enumeration  of  the  apostle's  suflferings,  given 
in  2  Cor.  ii.,  chronological  arrangement  reminds  us,  that  that 
chapter  supplies  comparatively  little  of  the  evidence  we  have  of 
liis  sincerity.  It  was  written  befoie  his  imprisonment  in  Judea 
and  at  Rome.  Two  years  of  imprisonment,  shipAvreck,  another 
imprisonment,  and  finally,  martyrdom  are  to  be  added  to  the  ac- 
count. 

Voltaire  ridicules  the  force  of  the  language,  in  which  are  pre- 
dicted (as  he  thinks,)  the  fortunes  of  a  people,  whose  narrow  strip 
of  country  did  not  exceed  200  miles  in  length.  Chronological  ar- 
rangement would  have  made  his  remark  the  more  striking,  but  it 
might  also  have  suggested  the  solution  of  the  difficulty.  The  pro- 
phecy grows  most  confident  and  comprehensive  when  the  nation  is 
all  but  annihilated.  Is  it  likely,  therefore,  to  have  had  its  origin 
in  national  vanity,  or  to  have  its  accomplishment  in  national  revival 
and  success  ? 

237.  Sometimes  this  gradual  development  of  the  Diviue 
Various  dis-  will  is  spoken  of  as  successive  dispensations  : — the 
pensations.  Adamic,  the  Patriarchal,  the  Mosaic,  and  the  Gos- 
pel :  Dispensation  meaning  the  way  in  which  God  deals  with 
men,  or  (in  this  connection,)  the  truth  revealed,  the  ordi- 
nances and  consequent  conduct  which  are  enjoined. 

The  Adamic  dispensation  continued  only  during  man's 
inuocency.  The  Patriarchal  lasted  more  than  2500  years, 
and  the  history  of  it  is  given  in  Gen.  3. — Exod.  20.  It  is  so 
called  from  the  fact,  that  the  heads  of  families  were  the 
governors  and  teachers  of  men — (Patriarchs),  such  as  Adam, 
Seth,  Enoch,  and  Noah,  before  the  flood,  and  Job,  Melchizedec, 
Abraham,  and  his  immediate  descendants  after  it.  They  were 
the  depositaries  of  the  Divine  will,  the  guardians  of  prophecy, 
and  some  of  them  furnished  in  their  history  types  of  our 
Lord.  There  were,  during  this  period,  but  few  predictions, 
though  there  are  distinct  intimations  of  preparation  for  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  as  in  the  distinction  between  clean 
and  unclean  animals,  in  reference  to  sacrifice,  Gen.  8.  20,  in 
sacrifice  itself,  and  in  the  covenant  with  Abraham,  Gen.  15.  20. 
In  the  Patriarchal  dispensation,  too,  may  be  traced  many  of 
the  first  principles  of  the  Mosaic. 

The  covenant  made  with  the  Jews  through  Moses — the 
Mosaic  dispensation — lasted  for  about  1500  years,  and  abounds 


SUCCESSIVE  DISPENSATIONS.  129 

with  typical  persons,  places,  and  things.    The  Jewish  people 
were  in  truth  a  type  both  in  their  institutions  and  history. 

See  Lev.  6.  2-9:  i6.  21:  17.  ii:  Eph,,  Heb.,  and  i  Cor.  10. 

The  GOSPEL  dispensation,  the  great  principles  of  which  may 
be  traced  in  the  previous  economies,  is  founded  on  the  facts 
given  in  the  Gospels,  the  Hfe  and  death  of  our  Lord.  In  tha 
Acts  we  see  truth  in  action,  both  among  individual  behevers 
and  in  the  church  ;  in  the  Einstles,  the  doctrines  founded  on 
these  facts  are  developed  and  enforced  ;  and  in  the  Bevelation 
we  have  in  prophetic  visions,  the  history  of  truth  in  its  strug- 
gles with  error,  and  of  the  church  till  the  end  of  time. 

238.  These  books  constitute  the  dispensation  of  the  gospel, 

and  with  them,  the  development  of  evangelical 
ends^wEh^^  truth  (so  far  as  the  present  state  is  concerned), 
Scripture.  ends.  There  may  be  passages  in  the  Bible,  whose 
full  meaning  is  not  yet  discovered,  and  which  are  perhaps 
"  reserved,"  as  Boyle  expressed  it,  "  to  quell  some  future 
heresy,  or  resolve  some  yet  unformed  doubt,  or  confound  some 
error  that  hath  not  yet  a  name,''  or  prove  by  fresh  prophetic 
evidence  that  it  came  from  God.  Scripture,  moreover,  is  hke 
the  deep  sea ;  beautifully  clear,  but  immeasurably  profound. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  definable  limit  to  our  insight  into  its 
meaning.  But  we  are  to  look  for  no  further  revelation  :  nor 
are  we  to  regard  as  developments  of  Scripture  doctrine,  the 
additions  of  men. 

Examples  of  the  abuses  of  this  truth  it  is  not  necessary  to 
multiply.  Popery  is  the  standing  illustration.  It 
ment  ends*^in  pleads  for  the  development  of  truth  out  of  Scrip- 
Scripture,  ^^^g^  ^^^  -j^  ^1^3  church.  The  blessedness  of  the 
dead  who  die  in  the  Lord  for  example,  is  said  on  its  theory, 
to  be  the  natural  germ  of  saint  worship.  Christ's  presence 
in  the  supper,  is  in  the  same  way,  the  germ  of  the  adoration 
of  the  host,  and  the  salutation  of  the  angel,  of  the  deification 
of  the  virgin.  But  all  this  is  abuse.  The  gradual  develop- 
ment of  truth  in  Scripture,  is  one  thing.  An  accretion  which 
overlays  the  truth  is  another  ;  and  it  is  for  the  former  only 
we  contend. 

Sec.  4.  The  Unity  of  the  Bihle. 

239.  Nor  less  instructive  is  the  unity  of  the  sacred  volume, 

G  3 


130  THE  UNITY  OF  THE  BIBLE, 

It  has  the  first  requisite  of  a  great  book — a  single  purpose, 
and  that  purpose  kept  in  view  throughout  every  page. 

240.  This  unity  is  not  owing  (it  will  be  observed)  to  the 

circumstance,  that  the  volume  is  the  work  of  one 
but  of  doc-  '  author,  or  of  one  age.  As  many  as  forty  different 
tone.  writers  (including  the  authors  of  smaller  portions,) 

composed  it.  The  style  is  now  history,  now  song,  now  argu- 
ments or  dialogue,  now  biography,  or  prophecy,  or  letters. 
Deeper  than  these  causes  of  diversity  and  sufficiently  strong 
to  counteract  their  influence,  must  be  the  secret  of  this  mar- 
vellous harmony.  It  is  found,  in  fact,  in  the  superhuman 
care  of  One  who  is  infinite  in  power  and  wisdom.  The  entire 
building  which  was  4000  years  in  rearing,  is  symmetrical 
throughout,  and  must  have  had  a  Divine  founder,  who  first 
planned  and  then  superintended  the  whole. 

241.  Look  again,  for  example,  at  the  uniformly  moral  pur- 

pose of  the  volume.  It  is  the  story  of  human 
moral  pur-  beings  in  relation  to  God  :  first  of  man,  as  man  : 
P°^^*  then  of  families :  then  of  a  nation :  then  of  the 

wider  society  of  the  church.  In  aU  other  professed  revela- 
tions, the  writers  dwell  at  length  on  the  origin  of  the  universe 
(as  in  the  shastras  of  the  Hindoos),  or  on  the  physical  theory 
of  another  life  (as  in  the  pretended  revelations  of  Mohammed), 
or  on  topics  which  cannot  even  be  imagined,  to  be  of  any  prac- 
tical importance  (as  in  the  fables  of  the  Talmud,  the  legends 
of  the  Romish  church,  and  the  visions  of  Swedenborg).  All 
that  the  Bible  teaches,  on  the  other  hand,  refers  to  God  as 
connected  with  man,  singly  or  socially,  or  to  man  as  connected 
with  God  :  and  is  moral  and  practical.  It  contains  no  cos- 
mogony, no  mythology,  no  metaphysics,  no  marvels  which  are 
not  moral :  no  ideal  which  is  not  also  a  reality.  In  its  histories, 
biographies,  prophecies  and  psalmody,  it  has  but  one  aim,  to 
knit  together  the  broken  relations  between  God  and  man, 
and  between  man  and  man :— to  redeem  and  sanctify  our 
race, 

243.  If  we  look  at  the  doctrines  which  were  beUeved  and 
taught,  we  find  a  unity  no  less  remarkable. 
Of  doctrine,  -g^^^g^  ^^,^^^  dispensation,  the  great  principles  of 
Christianity  have  been  recognised  by  aU  holy  men.  Rehgion, 
"subjectively"  regarded,  has  ever  been  faith  and  obedience.  And 
as  a  system  of  truth  ("objective  rehgion"),  it  has  never  obliged. 


THE  UNITY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  131 

From  the  earliest  times  "we  find  a  belief  in  the  unity  of  God  ; 
in  the  creation  and  preservation  of  all  things  by  Divine 
power ;  in  a  general  and  particular  providence ;  in  a  Divine 
law,  fixing  distinctions  between  right  and  wi-ong ;  in  the  fall 
and  corruption  of  man  ;  in  the  doctrine  of  atonement  through 
vicarious  suffering ;  in  the  obligation  and  efficacy  of  prayer  ; 
in  direct  Divine  influence ;  in  human  responsibility  ;  and  in 
the  necessity  of  practical  hohness. 

The  laiv,  as  given  by  Moses,  abounds  in  ceremony,  and 
Of  the  law  was  evidently  adapted  to  the  peculiar  circum- 
^dofhu-'  stances  of  one  people.  The  gos])el  has  but  few 
man  nature,  ceremonies,  remarkable  for  their  simplicity,  and 
the  whole  is  of  universal  application.  But  though  at  first 
sight  so  dissimilar,  the  two  systems  are  essentially  one. 
They  present  the  same  views  of  God  and  of  man,  suggest  or 
plainly  teach  the  same  tniths,  and  are  adapted  to  excite  the 
same  feelings. 

One  example  more  :  we  have  in  Scripture  several  succes- 
sive portraits  of  human  nature  ;  one  taken  before  the  deluge, 
another  soon  after  it :  one  probably  800  years  later,  and  pre- 
served in  the  book  of  Job  ;  another,  500  years  later  still,  by 
David  ;  a  fifth,  500  years  later,  by  Jeremiah  ;  and  a  sixth,  500 
years  later  still,  by  Paul.  Let  the  reader  compare  these  pic- 
tures with  one  another  and  with  experience,  and  he  will  feel 
that  each  description  had  really  the  same  origin,  and  that  the 
inspired  writers  had  one  purpose — ^the  elevation  of  our  nature 
by  humihation,  and  penitence,  and  faith. 

Gen.  6.  5:  8.  21:  Job  15.  16:  Psa.  14.  2,  3:  Rom.  i.  19:  3. 

243.  This  unity  comprehends  doctrines  entirely  beyond 
Its  doctrines  human  knowledge.  The  Bible  reveals  everywhere 
mJn^ow-  *^®  same  God,  holy,  wise,  and  good :  it  speaks  of 
ledge.  ]2is  designs  in  governing  the  world,  and  of  the  final 

issue  of  the  present  struggle  between  good  and  evil.'^  It 
treats  of  human  nature  and  of  true  happiness  ;^  analyses  with 
matchless  skiU  the  secret  motives  of  human  action,  and 
points  out  the  grand  source  of  human  misery  :  subjects  which 
have  engaged  the  thoughts  of  the  wisest  men,  whose  views 

^  Gen.  3.  15:  Dan.  7.  14:  i  John  3.  8. 

^  Gen.  I.  26:  Rom.  3.  23:  Eccl.  12.  13:  Matt.  5.  3,  etc. 


132  THE  UNITY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

are  as  remarkable  for  their  vagueness  and  variety  as  are 
those  of  the  Bible  for  their  consistency  and  clearness. 

244.  Two  remarks  are  suggested  by  these  facts — 

First,  The  Bible  must  be  regarded,  not  as  a  series  of  dis- 
tinct revelations,  but  as  one  and  indivisible.  Doctrines  which 
are  clearly  revealed  in  the  New  Testament  depend  for  many 
of  their  evidences,  and  yet  more  for  their  illustrations,  on  the 
Old.  The  one  dispensation  is  the  completion  of  the  other. 
The  first  is  the  type,  or  earthly  figure  ;  the  second,  the  hea- 
venly reality.  The  nature  of  the  "  good  things  to  come  "  may 
be  gathered  from  "  the  shadow,"  as  well  as  from  the  things 
themselves.  The  ancient  record,  moreover,  has  many  his- 
torical and  precious  associations.  It  fostered  in  the  ancient 
church  the  same  graces  as  are  required  now.  It  exhibits 
holy  men  struggling  with  our  temptations.  Above  all,  it 
must  be  remembered,  that  in  the  history  of  individuals  and 
of  nations,  as  of  the  race,  there  is  a  time  when  the  delivery 
of  truth,  in  forms  as  elementary  and,  comparatively,  rude  as 
those  found  in  the  Old  Testament,  seems  to  be  essential  to 
the  spiritual  training  of  character.  To  this  day,  it  is  known 
that  some  of  the  narratives  and  practices  of  the  old  economy 
give  to  heathen  nations  a  clearer  idea  of  the  Divine  holiness, 
and  of  human  duty,  than  even  the  more  full  disclosures  of 
the  new. 

245.  Secondly,  Hence  an  important  test  of  truth,  and  of 
the  relative  value  of  truth.  If  it  be  said,  for  example,  that 
the  sacrifice  and  priesthood  of  Christ  are  not  revealed  in  the 
gospel,  or  are  subordinate  truths,  we  look  to  the  law,  or  to 
earlier  dispensations ;  and  if  it  be  maintained  that  in  the 
gospel  there  is  no  priesthood  or  sacrifice,  we  have  then  in  the 
law  a  series  of  shadowy  observances,  without  reference  or 
meaning.  The  blood,  the  altar,  the  holy  place,  the  propiti- 
atory intercession,  are  all  types  of  nothing,  and  the  previous 
economy  is  robbed  of  its  significance.  If  it  had  significance, 
but  is  now  abohshed,  the  substitution  of  the  gospel  in  its 
place  implies  a  change  in  the  very  princij)les  of  the  Di\dne 
government.  Under  that  dispensation,  law  was  inexorable  ; 
now  it  is  yielding  and  remiss.  Then  repentance  alone  was  pow- 
erless to  save,  now  it  is  mighty  and  efiicacious.  At  first,  man 
was  pardoned  through  an  atonement,  at  least,  by  prerogative. 
As  it  is,  the  mystery  is  solved.     Eevelation  is  a  consistent 


THE  BIBLE  NOT  A  SYSTEM.  133 

whole.  The  doctrines  of  the  later  manifestation  unfold  their 
meaning,  and  instruct  with  increased  impressiveness  and 
consistency,  when  studied  amidst  the  patterns  of  the  earher. 

Sec.  5.  Not  a  Bevelation  of  systematic  Truth  or  of  specific  Bides. 

246.  Another  of  the  pecuHarities  of  Scripture,  no  less 
striking  than  those  named,  is  the  absence  of  all  systematic 
form  in  the  truths  revealed.  There  is  no  compend  of 
Christian  doctrine,  nor  are  there  specific  rules  on  the  duties 
of  the  Christian  life  :  an  omission  the  more  marked,  as  in  the 
books  of  most  false  religions  (the  Koran  and  Shastras,  for  ex- 
ample) the  description  of  the  '  faith '  is  most  precise,  and  the 
minutest  directions  are  given  concerning  fasts,  ablutions,  and 
other  points  of  rehgious  service. 

247.  This  peculiarity  is  both  natural  and  instructive.     In 

the  Old  Testament,  the  earher  part  (and  much  of 
natural  and  the  later)  is  purely  historical.  Moral  truth 
instructive,  transpires  exclusively  through  narrative,  and  the 
narrative  is  fragmentary  and  concise.  God  had  been  in  com- 
munication with  man  for  more  than  2000  years  before  he 
gave  "the  law."  What  he  had  revealed,  or  how  he  revealed, 
it,  cannot  be  fully  gathered  from  the  record.  The  very  ob- 
ject, indeed,  of  a  large  portion  of  the  Bible,  seems  to  be  not  so 
much  the  disclosure  of  truth,  as  the  embodiment  of  truth 
already  disclosed. 

The  New  Testament,  again,  was  written  for  those  who  had 
received  instruction  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  had  embraced 
it.  It  can  hardly  be  expected,  therefore,  to  contain  regular 
elementary  instruction,  or  an  enumeration  of  articles  of  faith. 
When  the  Epistles  were  written,  the  churches  had  been 
formed  under  Divine  teaching  and  on  a  Divine  model ;  while 
the  Gospels  are  clearly  historical,  and  rather  imply,  or  sug- 
gest, religious  truth,  than  systematically  reveal  it. 

248.  Religion  is  objective,  or  subjective  ;  a  system  of  holy 
How  truth  is  doctrine,  or  of  active  holy  principles.  The  first  is 
revealed.  truth,  and  the  second  is  piety.  In  Scripture  both 
are  revealed,  but  it  is  rather  in  the  form  of  examples,  or  of 
incidental  illustrations,  than  of  systematic  teaching. 

Let^us  notice,  for  example,  how  the  Bible  speaks  of  the 


134  THE  BIBLE  XOT  A  SYSTEM. 

lUustrated  iu  character  of  God,  as   a  moral  governor,  and  of 
God  and  man.  man,  both  as  sinful  and  as  holy. 

By  the  character  of  God  is  meant  his  power,  his  wisdom,  his 
holiness;  and  by  his  moral  government,  his  superintendence  of  the 
concerns  of  the  universe  on  fixed  and  holy  principles. 

Evei-ywhere,  throughout  the  Bible,  his  perfections  are  revealed, 
but  they  are  revealed  in  his  works.  They  are  never  defined  or  men- 
tioned even,  without  reference  to  some  practical  end. 

When  Abraham,  through  Sarah's  impatience  or  unbelief,  had 
taken  Hagax-,  hoping  to  see  an  early  fulfilment  of  the  Divine  pro- 
mise, Jehovah  rebuked  him,  and  for  the  first  time  spoke  of  himself 
as  the  ''Almighty  God."  Gen.  17.  i.  "When  Israel  exclaimed,  ''My 
way  is  hid  from  the  Lord,"  the  answer  was  given,  "  Hast  thou  not 
known  .  .  .  that  the  everla.sting  God  fainteth  not,  neither  is  weary: 
there  is  no  searching  of  his  vmderstanding,"  Isa.  40.  28. 

Considering  his  government,  we  find  its  principles  embodied  in 
facts,  or  in  practical  precepts,  exclusively.  His  dispensations  are 
unchangeable,  like  himself.  In  every  nation  and  age,  he  that 
worketh  righteousness  is  approved.  He  judges  according  to  every 
man's  work.^  He  controls  what  seems  most  accidental.*'  He 
brings  about  his  ends  by  means  apparently  trifling  or  contradictory.*' 
He  makes  even  the  wicked  the  instruments  of  his  will."^  Ho  for- 
gives, and  is  ready  to  foi-give.''  He  hears  and  answers  prayer.^  He 
marks  the  motives  of  men,  as  in  the  case  of  Lot's  wife  and  of 
Joash.^  He  chastises  those  whom  he  most  loves,  as  in  the  case  of 
Moses,  of  David,  and  of  Hezekiah.*^  He- preserveth  the  righteous, 
and  none  that  trusteth  in  Him  shall  be  desolate,' 

Man  is  set  before  us  in  lights  equally  instructive.  If  we  would 
analyse  and  describe  our  sinfrdness,  we  may  find  scoffing  infidelity 
in  the  antediluvians ;  J  envy  in  the  brethren  of  Joseph,  and  in 
Cain;''  malice  in  Saul;'  slander  in  Doeg  and  Ziba;™  contempt  for 
Divine  teaching  in  Korah  and  Ahab  ;'*  covetousness  in  Achan  and 

"  Deut.  JO.  17:2  Chron.  19.  7:  Rom.  2.  11:  Gal.  2.  6:  Eph.  6.  9: 
Col.  3.  25:  I  Pet.  I.  17. 
^  Jer.  38.  7-13:  Acts  16.  23. 
"  I  Sam.  9.  3,  15,  16:  Judges  7.  13-15- 

d  Neh.  13.  2:  Acts  2.  23.  °  Dan.  9.  24:  2  Chron.  7.  14, 

<■  2Chron.  33.12,13:  Gen.  24. 12.  s  Gen.  19.  26:  2  Kings  13.  9. 
i»  ITumb.  20.  12:  2  Sam.  24.  11,  15:  2  Chron.  32.  25. 
'  I  Sam,  17.  37:  Phil.  4,  12,  18.      J  Jude  14,  15. 
^  Gen.  4.  5:  37.  II.  '  I  Sam.  18.  28,  29. 

»"  I  Sam.  22.  9:  2  Sam.  16.  i.       "  Num.  16.  3:  i  Kings  20:  22. 


THE  BIBLE  NOT  A  SYSTEM.  135 

Balaa-m,  in  Gehazi,  and  Jtidas ;"  ambition  in  Abimelech  and  the 
sons  of  Zebedee  ;^  pride  in  Hezekiali  and  Xebnchadnezzai-.* 

To  set  forth  the  inconsistencies  of  human  nature,  it  shows  us,  in 
Ahithophel,  the  friend  and  the  traitor;"^  in  Joab,  the  brave  soldier 
and  faithful  servant/  yet  "a  doer  of  evil,"  and  one  who  opposed 
God's  appointment  and  sided  with  Adonijah;*'  in  Jehoram,  a 
destroyer  of  the  images  of  Baal,  who  yet  cleaved  to  the  sin  of  Jero- 
boam f  in  Herod,  reverence  for  John,  and  a  spirit  of  hardened 
disobedience;^  in  Agrippa,  belief  of  the  prophets,  and  a  rejection  of 
the  gospel;'  in  many  of  the  chief  rulers,  a  faith  in  Christ,  combined 
with  a  readiness  to  join  in  the  sentence  of  the  Sanhedrim,  that  he 
was  '' guilty  of  death."J 

"VYe  see  the  power  of  self-deceit  in  David  and  Balaam;^  oi prejudice, 
in  Naaman,  in  Nicodemus,  in  the  people  of  Athens  and  of  Ephesus;^ 
of  habitj  in  Ahab,  who  humbled  himself  before  Elijah,  and  yet  re- 
turned to  his  idols  ;"  and  in  Felix,  of  whom  we  read  that  he 
trembled  once,  though  we  never  read  that  he  trembled  again."^ 

The  danger  of  ungodly  connections  is  seen  in  the  antediluvians 
and  Esau,  who  married  with  those  who  were  under  the  curse  of 
God  f  in  Solomon  ;P  in  Jehoshaphat's  connection  with  Ahab 
(through  Athaliah);i  and  in  Ahab's  connection  with  Jezebel:''  of 
worldly  prosperity,  in  Eehoboam*  and  Uzziah.' 

If  we  seek  for  the  exhibitions  of  Christian  excellence,  again,  we 
have  it  not  defined,  but  illustrated:  faith  in  Abraham;"  patience  in 
Job  ;^  meekness  in  Moses  ;^  decision  in  Joshua  ;"  patriotism  in 
iN'ehemiahjy  friendship  in  Jonathan/  In  Hannah,  we  have  a  pat- 
tern to  mothers  ;^^  in  Samuel,  and  Josiah,  and  Timothy,  to  children;^^ 
in  Joseph  and  Daniel,  to  young  men;'^''  in  Barzillai,  to  the  aged;<^<i  in 

^  Josh.  6.  19,  etc.  ^  Jud.  9.  1-5:  Mark  10.  35. 

'^  2  Kings  20.  13:  Dan,  4.  30.  ^  pga.  55.  13:  2  Sam.  16.  15. 

^  2  Sam.  12.  28:  24.  3.  f  2  Sam.  3.  27-39. 

*  2  Kings  3.  1-3.  ^  Mark  6.  16-20. 

■  Acts  26.  27,  28.  J  John  12.  42:  Matt.  26.  66, 
^  2  Sam  12.  5-7:  Num.  32. 

'  2  Kings  5.  II,  12:  John  3:  Acts  17.  18:  19.  28. 

"  I  Kings  21.  27:  22.  6.  "*  Acts  24. 

°  Gen.  6.  1-3:  26.  34.  p  Neh.  13.  25,  26. 

"i  2  Kings  8.  18-26.  '  I  Kings  21. 

*  2  Chron.  12.  i.  '2  Chron,  26.  16. 
Gal.  3.  7-9.  V  James  5.  11. 

"^  Numb.  12.  3.    »  =f  Josh.  24.  15. 

y  Xeh.  I.  4:  5.  14.  2  I  Sam.  19.  2-4,  &c. 

"^  I  Sam.  I.  27,  28.  ^^  I  Sam.  3 :  2  Chron.  34.  9:  2  Tim.  3.  15. 

"  Gen.  39.  9.  dd  2  Sam.  19.  34,  35. 


136  THE  BIBLE  2:0T  A  SYSTEM. 

Eliezer,  to  servants;^  in  David,  to  those  under  authority;^  in  our 
Divine  Lord,  to  all  of  evexy  age  and  in  every  condition,  whether  of 
duty  or  of  suffe  ing. 

To  make  the  truth  taught  in  these  examples  (except  in  the  last) 
complete,  we  must  trace  the  evidence  of  their  weakness.  They 
failed  in  the  very  parts  of  their  character  which  were  strongest. 
Abraham  throvigh  fear,*^  Job  through  impatience,  ^  Moses  through 
irritability  and  presumption.^ 

If  we  attempt,  again,  to  ascertain  from  Scripture  what  Paley  has 
called  the  "devotional  \drtues"  of  religion,  veneration  towards 
God,  a  habitual  sense  of  his  providence,  faith  in  his  wisdom  and 
dealings,  a  disposition  to  resort  on  all  occasions  to  his  mercy  for 
help  and  pardon,  we  shall  find  them  rather  illustrated  than  defined, 
embodied,  that  is,  in  character  and  example,  and  not  in  propo- 
sitions ;'  the  whole  adapted  with  admirable  skill,  and  by  the  very 
form  they  assume  to  our  wants. 

It  is  this  presence  in  Scripture  of  men  like  oui'selves,  that 
brings  it  home  to  our  business  and  bosoms.  There  is  felt 
to  be  something  human  in  it,  as  well  as  Divine.  It  meets  us 
at  every  turn.  We  feel,  as  we  look,  that  it  has  a  power  which, 
like  the  eye  of  a  good  portrait,  is  fixed  upon  us,  turn  wherer 
we  will.^ 

See  Miller's  Bampton  Lectures,  p.  128. 

249.  What  an  essential  quality  in  a  volume  designed  for  all 
Scripture  Countries  and  for  every  age  !  If  articles  of  faith^ 
^¥°^® J .    „  or  minute  rules  of  practice  had  been  given,  they 

adapted  to  all  ,    .       1    «  ^       ■t^    n 

countries.  must  have  been  retained  for  ever,  and  with  them 
the  heresies  and  errors  which  they  were  intended  to  condemn. 
Either,  they  must  have  been  very  general,  and  therefore  use- 
less for  their  avowed  purpose,  or  they  must  have  been  so 
minute  as  not  to  be  practicable  in  all  countries,  and  compre- 

"  Gen.  24.  ^  I  Sam  24.  6-10,  etc.  "  Gen.  20.  2, 

>!  .[ob.  3.  I.  ®  Deut.  32.  51. 

t  Paley  has  some  admirable  remarks,  applying  these  principles  to 
the  character  (given  in  Scripture)  of  ovir  Lord.  "  Evidences,"  p.  23  r. 
Keligious  Tract  Society's  ed. 

s  Besides  answering  this  moral  purpose,  it  is  wox-thy  of  remark 
that  the  style  of  Scripture,  consisting  of  figurls  and  specific  exam- 
ples, or  "  singtilar  terms"  is  the  kind  of  diction  lea.st  impaired  by 
ti-anslation.     See  Whateley's  Rhet.,  part  iii.,  chap.  2,  §  2. 


THE  BIBLE:   XOT  A  SYSTEM.  137 

hcKsible  by  all  .Christians.  The  Koran  for  example,  places 
the  utmost  importance  on  the  offering  of  prayer  at  sunrise 
and  sunset ;  a  rule  which  proves  that  the  rehgion  of  the  false 
prophet  was  never  designed  for  Greenland  or  Labrador,  where 
for  several  months  the  sun  never  sets.  A  summary  of  doc- 
trine, too,  perfectly  intelligible  to  a  matured  Christian,  might 
be  nearly  all  mysterious  to  the  converted  Hottentot. 

250.  And  even  if  such  a  summary  could  have  been  made 

generally  intelligible,  its  effects  upon  the  minds  of 
awUifflecdon  Christians  would  have  been  disastrous.  They 
important,  -vvould  have  stored  their  memory  with  the  very 
words  of  the  Creed,  without  searching  the  rest  of  Scripture. 
There  would  have  been  no  room  for  thought,  no  call  for  in- 
vestigation, and  no  excitement  of  the  feelings  or  improvement 
of  the  heart.  The  creed  being,  not  that  from  which  the  faith 
is  to  be  learned,  but  the  faith  itself,  would  be  regarded  with 
indolent  and  useless  veneration.  It  is  only  when  our  energies 
are  roused  and  our  attention  awake,  when  we  are  acquiring 
or  correcting,  or  improving  our  knowledge,  that  knowledge 
makes  the  requisite  impression  upon  us.  God  has  not  made 
Scripture  like  a  garden,  "  where  the  fruits  are  ripe  and  the 
flowers  bloom,  and  all  things  are  fully  exposed  to  our  view ; 
but  like  a  field,  where  we  have  the  ground  and  seeds  of  all 
precious  things,  but  where  nothing  can  be  brought  to  maturity 
without  our  industry  ;"^  nor  then,  without  the  dews  of  hea- 
venly grace.  "  I  find  in  the  Bible,"  says  Cecil,  "  a  grand  pecu- 
liarity, that  seems  to  say  to  all  who  attempt  to  systematize  it, 

I  am  not  of  your  mind I  stand  alone.     The  great  and 

the  wise  shaU  never  exhaust  my  treasures  :  by  figures  and 
parables  I  will  come  down  to  the  feelings  and  imderstandings 
of  the  ignorant.     Leave  me  as  I  am,  but  study  me  incessantly." 

251.  Even  good  men,  too,  have  undue  preferences.     If  aU 

truth  of  the  same  order  were  placed  together  in 
and  duties  Scripture,  men  would  read  most  what  they  most 
interwoven,  jQyg  j  .  ^q  ^j^g  neglect  of  what  may  be  as  important 
though  less  welcome.  But  as  truth  is  scattered  throughout 
the  Bible,  we  learn  to  think  of  doctrine  in  connection  with 
duty,  and  of  duty  in  connection  with  the  principles  by  which 
it  is  enforced. 

"  More's  Mystery  of  Godliuess. 


138  THE  BIBLE:   NOT   A  SYSTEM. 

252.  These  facts  rebuke  the  system  of  the  Romish  church  : 
UotTheo-  she  condemns  the  study  of  the  Bible,  fostering 
logy,  but  the   man's  aversion  to  the  investigation  of  truth,  and 

H'Lhl P  to   DG 

studied.  his  indolent  acquiescence  in  what  is  ready  prepared 

to  his  hand  :  a  propensity  against  which  the  very  structure 
of  the  Christian  Scriptures  seems  designed  to  guard. 

They  suggest,  too,  a  lesson  to  those  who  regard  the  Bible  as 
influential  only  when  made  a  treasury  of  intellectual  truth. 
Systematic  Divinity,  founded  upon  the  Bible,  is  perhaps  the 
last  perfection  of  knowledge,  but  not  necessarily  of  character. 
A  man  may  be  drawn  to  the  sacred  page  by  its  pictures  of 
Divine  goodness,  and  may  love  it  with  a  return  of  affection 
for  all  its  mercy,  or  of  hope  for  its  promises,  or  may  feed  his 
soul  with  its  provisions,  or  direct  his  life  by  its  counsel,  and 
yet  do  nothing  to  systematize  its  doctrines,  or  at  all  under- 
stand the  technical  phrases  of  theological  truth.  This  life  of 
devotion  with  its  acknowledgment  of  Providence,  and  imita- 
tion of  Christ,  is  the  chief  thing  :  combined  with  systematic 
thinking,  it  makes  a  man  profoundly  holy  and  profoundly 
wise  ;  but  without  the  systematic  thinking  there  may  be  both 
holiness  and  wisdom. 

253-  They  suggest  a  third  lesson.     Systematic  cateclietical 
treatises  on  doctrine  are  of  use,  chiefly  in  definini;^ 
b^ok  fo'Ah?  or  preservmg  unity  of  faith  :  but  must  not  be  re- 
young.  garded  as  the  instruments  of  rehgious  training,  or 

as  the  store-houses  of  effective  knowledge.  They  address  the 
intellect  only,  and  that  too  in  logical  forms,  without  narrative, 
or  example,  or  feehng,  or  power.  They  contain  no  patterns  of 
hohness  :  no  touches  of  nature.  Use  them  therefore  in  their 
right  place  ;  but  remember  that  the  Divine  instrument  of 
man's  improvement,  is  that  book  which  abounds  in  examples 
of  tenderness,  of  pity,  of  remonstrance  ;  which  gives  forth 
tones,  and  looks,  and  words,  at  once  human  and  Divine,  ever 
the  same,  and  yet  ever  new — the  Bible. 

[On  the  subjects  of  this  section,  see  "  Errors  of  Romanism 
traced  to  their  Origin  in  Human  Nature,"  and  "  Essays  on 
aome  of  the  Pecuharities  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  by  Arch- 
bishop Whately.] 


INTERPRETATION:    STUDY.  139 


CHAPTER  IV. 

On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture. 

"  Man  can  weary  himself  in  any  secular  affair,  but  diligently  to  search  the  Scrip- 
tures is  to  him  tediou;-  and  burdensome.  Few  covet  to  be  mighty  in  the  Scriptures  ; 
though  con\  inced  theu-  great  concern  is  enveloped  in  them." — Locke,  Commonplace 
Book,  Pref. 

"  The  generality  of  Scripture  hath  such  a  contexture  and  coherence  one  part  with 
another,  that  small  insight  into  it  will  be  gained  by  reading  it  confusedly.  There- 
fore, read  the  whole  in  order." — Dit.  Fkaxcis  Kobeets. 

"  The  tropical  sense  is  no  other  than  the  f  gurative  sense.  As  we  say  in  language 
derived  from  the  Greek,  that  a  trope  is  turned  from  its  literal  or  grammatical  sense, 
so  we  say  in  language  derived  from  the  Latin  that  a  fgure  is  then  used,  because  in 
such  cases  the  meaning  of  the  word  assimies  a  new  form.  The  same  opposition, 
therefore,  which  is  expressed  by  the  terms  literal  sense  and  figurative  sense,  is 
expressed  also  by  the  terms  gi'ammatical  sense  and  .tropical  sense." — Maksh, 
Lectures,  Part  iii. 

Sec.  I.  On  the  necessity/  of  Care  in  the  Study  of  ScrijAure. 

254.  The  importance  of  carefuUy  studying  the  Bible  with 

every  accessible  help  may  be  gathered  from  the 

need  study      circumstances  connected  with  the  preparation  of 

^ZS:«S-   the  sacred  books. 

in  which  they      They  were  written  by  different  writers  of  every 

,„  .  ^  "  deoree  of  cultivation,  and  of  different  orders — 
Wnters  of  °  o.  1 

different  priests  as  Ezra,  poets  as  Solomon,  prophets  as 
orders.  Isaiah,  warriors   as    David,  herdsmen   as  Amos, 

statesmen  as  Daniel,  scholars  as  Moses  and  Paul,  fishermen, 
"  unlearned  and  ignorant  men,"  as  Peter  and  John. 

The  first  author,  Moses,  lived  400  years  before  the  siege  of 
Dates  and  Troy,  and  900  before  the  most  ancient  sages  of 
Places.  Greece  and  Asia,  Thales,  Pythagoras,  and  Confucius : 

and  the  last,  John,  1500  years  later  than  Moses. 

The  books  were  written  in  different  places  ;  in  the  centre 
of  Asia,  on  the  sands  of  Arabia,  in  the  deserts  of  Judaea,  in 
the  porches  of  the  temple,  in  the  schools  of  the  prophets  at 
Bethel  and  Jericho,  in  the  palaces  of  Babylon,  on  the  idolatrous 
banks  of  Chebar,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  western  civihzation  ; 
the  allusions,  and  figures,  and  expressions,  being  taken  from 
customs,  scenery,  and  habits,  very  different  from  each  other, 
and  from  those  of  modem  Europe. 


140      CIRCUMSTANCES  IN  WHICH  THE   BIBLE  WAS  WRITTEN. 

Some  of  the  writers,  as  Moses,  frame  laws,  others  sketch 
Have  differ-  ^^i^^^^'y)  ^^  Joshua ;  some  compose  psalms,  iu* 
ent  purposes,  David ;  or  proverbs,  as  Solomon.  Isaiah  writes 
differentcba-  prophecies  ;  the  evangehsts,  a  biography  ;  several 
racters.  of  the  apostles,  letters. 

Whole  books,  and  parts  of  books,  refer  to  the  heathen,  as 
in  Isaiah  and  Nahum  ;  while  parts  are  addressed  to  the  Jews 
only  :  one  Gospel  was  intended  for  Hebrew  converts,  and 
another  for  Gentiles.  The  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  are 
addressed  to  men  who  had  little  respect  for  authority,  and 
were  unwilling  to  be  bound,  except  by  the  fewest  possible 
ties.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  is  addressed  to  those  who 
wished  to  bring  their  converts  under  the  bondage  of  the  law. 
That  to  the  Eomans  addresses  (in  ];jart,)  the  pharisaically  self- 
righteous  ;  the  Epistle  of  James,  the  nominal  and  careless 
professor. 

The  time,  the  place,  the  employment  and  previous  history, 
the  character  and  aim  of  the  various  writers,  and  even  the 
position  of  those  they  addressed,  all  need  to  be  considered ; 
as  these  circumstances  must  have  exercised  an  influence,  if 
not  upon  the  thoughts  embodied  in  the  language  of  Scripture, 
yet  upon  the  language  itself. 

255.  The  importance  of  a  careful  study  of  Scripture  will  yet 
Scripture        D^ore  appear,  when  we  consider  the  difficulty  of 
needs  study,    communicating  to  men,  and  in  human  language, 
fection  onaii-  any  ideas  of  rehgious  or  spiritual  truth. 
K"^s^-  256.  Most  of  the  language  which  men  employ  in 

logy  in  meii-  reference  to  spiritual  things,  is  founded  on  aualogj' 
tai  science,  or  resemblance.  This  is  true  of  all  language  which 
speaks  of  the  mind  or  of  its  acts ;  and  especially  of  the  lan- 
guage of  early  times.  In  the  infancy  of  races,  language  is 
nearly  all  figure,  and  describes  even  common  facts  by  the  aid 
of  natural  symbols.  The  very  word  "  spirit,"  means  in  its 
derivation,  "  breath."  The  mind  is  said  to  see  truth,  because 
the  act  of  the  mind  by  which  it  is  perceived,  bears  somo 
resemblance  to  the  act  of  the  eye.  To  "  reflect,"  is  literally 
to  bend  or  throw  back,  and  so  to  look  round  our  thoughts. 
"  Attention  "  is  a  mental  exercise,  analogous  to  the  stretching 
of  the  eye  in  the  examination  of  some  outward  object.  It  is 
the  necessity  of  man's  state,  that  scarcely  any  fact  connected 
with  the  mind,  or  with  spiritual  truth,  can  be  described,  but 


ANALOGICAL  LANGUAGE   OF  SCRIPTURE.  141 

in  language  borrowed  from  material  tilings.  To  words  ex- 
clusively spiritual  or  abstract,  we  can  attach  no  definite  con- 
ception. 

257.  And  God  is  pleased  to  condescend  to  our  necessity. 
He  leads  us  to  new  knowledge  by  means  of  what  is 

In  religion.         ^         ^      ,  ^_  -,"-,.,„ 

already  known.  He  reveals  himself  m  terms  pre- 
viously famihar.  If  he  speak  of  liimself,  it  must  be  in  words 
originally  suggested  by  the  operations  of  the  senses.  If  he 
speak  of  heaven,  it  is  in  figures  taken  from  the  scenes  of  the 
earth. 

We  say  that  God  "  condescends  to  our  necessity."  This 
is  true  :  but  it  might  be  said  with  as  much  truth,  that  God 
having  stamped  his  own  image  upon  natural  things,  employs 
them  to  describe  and  illustrate  himself.  "  The  visible  world 
is  the  dial-plate  of  the  invisible."  Spiritual  thoughts  were 
first  embodied  in  natural  symbols  ;  and  those  symbols  are 
now  employed  to  give  ideas  of  spiritual  truth.  To  the  devout 
man,  especially,  the  seen  and  the  unseen  world  are  so  closely 
blended,  that  he  finds  it  difiicult  to  separate  them.  The  world 
of  nature  is  to  him  an  emblem,  and  a  witness  of  the  world  of 
spirits.     They  proceed  from  the  same  hand.     In  his  view, 

Earth 
Is  but  the  shadow  of  heaven,  and  things  therein. 
Are  each  to  other  like. 

It  is  impossible  to  avoid  the  conviction,  that  many  of  the 
figures  of  the  Bible  have  originated  in  such  a  habit,  and  are  the 
oflspring  of  exquisite  taste  and  devout  piety. 

Nor  is  it  only  from  the  nature  of  spiritual  truth,  or  from 
the  marvellous  connection  which  subsists  between  material  and 
spiritual  things,  that  the  inspired  writers  employ  the  language 
of  figure.  Such  language  is  often  most  appropriate,  because 
of  its  impressiveness  and  beauty.  It  conveys  ideas  to  the  mind 
with  more  vividness  than  prosaic  description.  It  charms  the 
imagination,  while  instmcting  the  judgment,  and  it  impresses 
the  memory,  by  interesting  the  heart. 

258.  (i.)  Sometimes,  for  example,  common  things  are  as- 
Common    "    sociated  in  Scripture,  with  what  is  spiritual. 

things  sug- 
gest reUgious       God  dwells  in  "  light."     He  sets  up  his  ''kmgdom." 
tenns.  Heaven  is  his  "throne."  The  Christian's  faith  is  described 

in  the  same  order  of  terms.     He  "  handles "  the  word   of  life. 


142  EXPRESSIONS  TAKEN  FROM  MAN. 

He  "sees"  him,  who  is  invisible.     He  "comes"  to  Christy  and  he 
**  leans  "  upon  him.. 

259.  (2.)  Sometimes  the  Bible,  borrowing  comparisons  from 

ourselves,  speaks  of  God  as  having  human  affections, 
and  performing  human  actions. 

Hands,  eyes,  and  feet,  are  ascribed  to  God;  and*  the  meaning  is, 
that  he  has  power  to  execute  all  such  acts,  as  those  organs  in  us  are 
instrumental  in  effecting.  He  is  called  "the  Father;"  because  he 
is  the  creator  and  suppoi-ter  of  man,  and  especially,  because  he  is 
the  author  of  spiritual  life.  He  "  lifts  up  the  light  of  his  coun- 
tenance," when  he  manifests  his  presence  and  love  (Psa.  4.  6,)  and 
He  "hides  his  face"  (Psa,  10,  i),  when  these  blessings  are  withheld. 

In  Gen.  6,  it  is  said,  "  It  repented  the  Lord  that  he  had  made 
man,"  i.  e.,  He  had  no  longer  pleasm-e  in  his  work,  so  unpleasing 
and  unjprofitable  had  man  become  by  transgression. 

In  Gen.  18.  21,.  He  says,  "  I  will  go  and  see,"  to  imply  that  he 
should  examine  the  doings  of  men  before  he  condemned  them. 

In  Jer.  7.  13,  He  says,  "  I  spake  unto  you,  rising  up  early  and 
speaking,"  to  imply  the  interest  he  felt  in  their  welfare,  and  the 
care  he  had  taken  to  instruct  them. 

In  Dan.  4.  35,  it  is  said,  "  He  doeth  according  to  his  will,"  i.  e., 
not  capriciously,  but  independently  of  men,  and  so  as  justly  to  re- 
quire our  entire  submission. 

It  may  be  observed  generally,  that  though  there  is  some  analogy 
between  the  love  and  wisdom,  the  knowledge  and  holiness,  which  we 
ascribe  to  God,  and  those  same  faculties  in  men,  there  is  a  great 
difference  between  them.  The  faculties  in  God  are  infinitely  more 
noble,  though  there  is  enough  of  resemblance  in  the  expressions  of 
each,  to  justify  the  application  of  the  same  terms. 

Two  remarks,  in  reference  to  the  employment  of  this  ana- 
logical language,  are  important. 

260.  (i.)  The  figures  which  are  used  in  speaking  of  spiritual 

truth,  are  not  used,  as  in  common  description,  to 
do  not^exag-  give  an  unnatural  greatness  or  dignity  to  the  ob- 
gerate  truth,  j^^^g  ^^^  describe.  The  things  represented  have 
much  more  of  reahty  and  perfection  in  them,  than  the  things 
by  which  we  represent  them.  It  is  so  in  all  such  language. 
The  mind  weighs  arguments,  and  that  action  is  more  noble 
than  the  mechanical  habit  from  which  the  expression  is  taken. 
God  m^s  much  more  perfectly  than  the  eye  :  and  the  light  in 
which  he  dwells  is  very  feebly  represented  by  the  material 


EXPRESSIONS  TAKEN  FROM  JEWISH  RITES.  143 

element  to  -which  that  name  is  apphed.  When  it  is  said  that 
the  chm-ch  is  the  bride  of  Christ,  the  earthly  relation  is  but 
a  lower  form  of  the  heavenly  ;  in  the  same  way  as  earthly 
kingdoms  and  earthly  majesty  are  but  figures  and  faint  sha- 
dows of  the  true.  The  figurative  language,  then,  which  we  are 
compelled  to  employ  when  speaking  of  spiritual  things  is 
much  within  the  truth,  and  never  beyond  it. 

261.  (2.)  It  is  a  necessary  result  of  the  employment  of  such 
Often  used  in  language,  that  figurative  expressions  are  sometimes 
different        used  in  difiereut  senses. 

senses. 

If  God  is  said,  for  example,  to  repent,  and  to  turn  from  the  evil 
which  he  had  threatened  against  sinners,  and  in  other  places,  it  is 
said  that  God  is  ''not  a  man,  that  he  should  lie  j  neither  the  son  of  man, 
that  he  should  repent"  (JS'umb.  23.  19),  in  the  first,  it  is  meant  that 
God  changes  his  dealings  with  sinners,  when  they  change :  and  in 
the  second,  that  there  is  no  fickleness  or  untruthfulness  in  him. 

In  Psa.  18.  II,  God  is  said  to  make  "  darkness  his  secret  place,"  and 
in  I  Tim,  6.  16,  he  is  said  to  dwell  in  hght.  In  the  first  case,  dark- 
ness means  inscrutableness,  and  in  the  second,  light  means  purity, 
intelligence,  or  honour.  In  Exod.  33.  11,  it  is  said,  that  God  "spake 
unto  Moses  face  to  face,"  and  in  ver.  20,  he  declares  that  no  man 
can  see  his  face  and  live.  In  the  first  passage,  the  expression  means 
to  have  intercourse  without  the  intervention  of  another;  in  the 
second,  to  have  a  full  and  familiar  sight  of  the  Divine  glory. 

The  same  word  (it  has  been  remarked),  expresses  in  Hebrew, 
"  to  bless"  and  "to  curse,"  and  this  dissimilarity  of  meaning  has 
excited  surprise.  The  word  originally  means  "to  bend  the  knee,'' 
and  that  act  was  equally  appropi-iate  in  asking  a  favovir  for  others, 
and  in  denouncing  them. 

262.  (3.)  It  may  be  remarked  further,  that  the  Bible  often 

speaks  of  spiritual  truth,  in  terms  suggested  by 
Jewish  his-  the  facts  of  Jewish  history,  or  by  rites  of  Divine 
*'*'^'-  institution. 

The  idea  of  holiness,  e.  g.,  for  which  in  its  Christian  sense,  the 
heathen  have  no  word,  was  suggested  to  the  Jews  by  means  of  a 
special  institution.  All  animals,  common  to  Palestine,  were  divided 
into  clean  and  unclean.  From  the  clean,  one  was  chosen  without  spot 
or  blemish :  a  pecuHar  tribe,  selected  from  the  other  tribes,  was  ap- 
pointed to  present  it;  the  offering  being  first  washed  with  clean 
water,  and  the  priest  himself  undergoing  a  similar  ablution.  Is  either 
the  priest,  nor  any  of  the  people,  nor  the  %'ictim,  however,  was  deemed 


144  EXPRESSIONS   TAKEN   FROM  JEWISH   RITES. 

sufficiently  holy  to  come  into  the  Divine  presence,  but  the  offering 
was  made  without  the  holy  i^lace.  The  idea  of  the  infinite  purity 
of  God,  was  thus  suggested  to  the  mind  of  observers,  and  holiness 
in  things  created,  came  to  mean  imder  the  law,  ''  purification  for 
sacred  uses,"  and  under  the  gospel,  freedom  from  sin,  and  the  pos- 
session by  spiritual  intelligences,  of  a  "  Divine  nature." 

The  demerit  of  sin,  and  the  doctrine  of  an  atonement,  were  taught 
in  words  taken  from  equally  significant  rites.  The  victim  was  slain, 
and  its  blood  (which  was  the  life,)  was  sprinkled  upon  the  mercy  seat, 
and  toAvards  the  holy  place ;  and  while  the  people  prayed  in  the 
outer  coiu't,  they  beheld  the  dark  volume  of  smoke  ascending  from 
the  sacrifice,  which  was  burning  in  their  stead.  How  plainly  did 
this  sviggest  that  God's  justice  was  a  consuming  fire,  and  that  the 
souls  of  the  people  escaped  only  through  a  vicarious  atonement! 
The  ideas  thus  suggested,  wei'e  intended  to  continue  through  all 
time,  and  we  find  them  often  expressed  in  terms  borrowed  from 
these  ancient  institutions. 

Under  the  law,  again,  the  priests  were  clothed  in  white  linen, 
and  dressed  in  splendid  apparel.  Expressions  taken  from  these 
customs  are  hence  employed  to  indicate  the  purity  and  dignity  of 
the  redeemed. 

The  whole  of  Jewish  history  is  in  the  same  way  suggestive 
of  spiritual  truth,  and  of  analogous  expressions. 

Men  are  the  "slaves  "  of  sin.  Their  road  is  through  the  "desert." 
They  cross  the  "  Jordan"  of  death.  They  enter  the  "  rest "  that  i-e- 
mains  for  the  people  of  God.  They  have  their  "  forerunner:"  their 
prophet :  their  priest,  who  is  also  called  in  prophecy  after  the  days 
of  Saul,  their  king. 

263.  (4.)  It  may  be  remarked  again,  tlxat  many  of  the  ex- 
pressions of  the  New  Testament  are  employed  in 
used^iu  new    senses  entirely  unknown  to  the  common  writers  of 
«ense«.  ^j^g  Q^eek  tongue. 

The  New  Testament  term  for  humility,  meant  in  classic  Greek, 
mean-spiritedness,  and  though  Plato  has  used  the  word  once  or 
twice,  to  indicate  a  humble  spirit,  this  is  confessedly  an  unusual 
meaning,  De  leg.  iv.  The  Greeks  had  no  virtue  under  that  name, 
and  even  Cicero  remarks,  that  meekness  is  merely  a  blemish.  De 
Off.  Ill,  32.  Grace  in  the  sense  of  Divine  unmerited  favour:  Justi- 
fication as  an  evangelical  blessing  :  Qod  as  a  holy,  self-existent  merci- 
ful Being  :  Faith  as  an  instrument  of  holiness,  and  essential  to 
pardon :  all  these  terms  are  used  in  Greek,  and  in  all  versions  of  the 
New  Testament,  with  peculiar  meaning.     To  us  all,  they  are  old 


FIGURATIVE  EXPRESSIONS.  145 

words  in  a  new  sense.  All  language  exhibits  similar  changes: 
"  calamity "  meant  oi'iginally,  in  the  language  from  which  it  is 
taken,  the  loss  of  standing  corn  (calamus):  "sycophant"  meant 
fig-informer,  and  "sincerity,"  without  wax,  alluding  to  the  practice 
of  the  potter  in  concealing  tho  flaws  of  his  vessels:  but  in  Scripture, 
such  changes  are  imusually  numerous.  Happily,  however,  there 
need  be  no  misappx-ehension  concerning  the  terms  which  are  thus 
employed,  as  Scripture  itself  has  defined  the  ideas  they  convey, 
sometimes  by  a  reference  to  the  old  dispensation,  sometimes  by  a 
formal  or  indirect  explanation  of  the  terms  themselves. 

264.  It  may  aid  the  reader  in  interpreting  Scripture,  to 
Figures  cias-  k^ow  how  the  various  figures  which  our  condition 
sitied.  compels  US  to  use  in  speaking  of  spiritual  truth, 
are  classed  and  named  by  grammarians.  A  knowledge  of  the 
names  is  not  essential,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  differences  on 
which  the  classification  is  founded,  may  often  prove  so. 

265.  When  a  word,  which  usage  has  appropriated  to  one 

thing,  is  transferred  to  another,  there  is  a  trope  or 
figure  :  and  the  expression  is  tropical  or  figurative, 
if,  however,  the  first  signification  of  a  word  is  no  longer  used, 
the  tropical  sense  becomes  the  proper  one.  The  Hebrew 
word  "  to  bless,"  for  example,  meant  originally  "  to  bend  the 
knee,*'  but  it  is  not  used  in  Scripture  with  that  sense,  and 
therefore  "  to  bless  "  is  said  to  be  the  proper,  and  not  a  figura- 
tive meaning. 

When  there  is  some  resemblance  between  the  two  things  to 
which  a  word  is  applied,  the  figure  is  called  a  Metaphor,  as 
*'  Judah  is  a  hon's  whelf),"  Gen.  49.  9.  "  I  am  the  true  Vine," 
John  15.  I. 

When  there  is  no  resemblance,  but  only  a  connection  between 
them,  the  figure  is  called  Synecdoche  :  as  when  a  cup  is  used 
for  what  it  contains,  i  Cor.  ii.  27  :  or  as  when  a  pai-t  is  put 
for  the  whole,  "  my  flesh  "  for  "  my  body,"  in  Psa.  16.  9. 

When  the  connection  is  not  visible,  or  is  formed  in  the 
mind,  as  when  the  cause  is  j)ut  for  the  effects,  or  the  sign  for 
,  the  thing  signified,  the  figure  is  called  Metonymy,  as  in  John 
13.  8.  "  If  I  ivash  thee  not,  thou  hast  no  part  with  me,"  where 
by  wash,  is  meant,  purify  or  cleanse.  Sometimes  the  figure 
is  explained  in  Scripture  itself,  as  in  i  Pet.  3.  21,  where  bap- 
tism is  explained  as  there  meaning  "  the  answer  of  a  good 
coDiscience  toward  God" 

H 


146  ALLEGORICAL  NARRATIVES. 

All  the  foregoing  figures  refer  to  single  words,  The  follow- 
ing refer  to  several  words,  as  they  make  a  continued  represen- 
tation or  narrative. 

366.  Any  statement  of  supposed  facts,  which  admits  of  a 
Allegories  literal  interpretation,  and  requires  or  justly  admits 
classified.  g^  moral  or  figurative  one,  is  called  an  Allegory. 
It  is  to  narrative  or  story  what  trope  is  to  single  words,  adding 
to  the  Hteral  meaning  of  the  terms  employed,  a  moral  or 
spiritual  one.  Sometimes  the  allegory  is  pure,  that  is,  contains 
no  direct  reference  to  the  apphcation  of  it,  as  in  the  history 
of  the  prodigal  son.  Sometimes  it  is  mixed,  as  in  Psa.  80, 
where  it  is  plainly  intimated  (ver.  17,)  that  the  Jews  are  the 
people  whom  the  vine  is  intended  to  represent. 

When  the  allegory  is  written  in  the  style  of  History,  and  is 

^    ^,  confined  to  occurrences  that  may  have  taken  place, 

Parables,  etc.   .,   .         „    ,       -^^  "^  i         ■> 

it  IS  called  a  Parable. 

When  the  allegory  contains  statements  of  occurrences, 
which,  from  their  very  nature  could  not  have  happened,  it  is 
called  a  Fable.  (Judges  9.  6-21  :  2  Kings  14.  9  :  2  Chron. 
35.  18.) 

When  the  resemblances  on  which  an  allegory  is  founded, 
are  remote  and  abstruse,  it  is  called  a  Eiddle.  Nothing,  how- 
ever, need  be  said  of  Scripture  riddles,  as  their  hidden  mean- 
ing is  always  explained.    (Judges  14.  14 :  Prov.  30.  15-21.) 

When  the  resemblance  between  two  persons  or  things  is 
represented,  not  in  ivords,  but  in  some  action  or  object,  the 
object  or  action,  which  has  (so  to  speak)  the  double  meaning, 
a  literal  and  a  spiritual  one,  is  called  a  Type.  It  is  a  double 
representation  in  action  :  as  an  allegory  is  a  double  represen- 
tation in  words. 

When  the  act  or  thing  which  is  represented  is  present,  or 
past,  or  near  at  hand,  the  act  which  represents  it  is  called  a 
Symbol,  and  is  said  to  be  symbolical.  Baptism  is  thus  an 
outward  and  visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace  ; 
and  the  bread  we  eat  in  the  holy  supper,  and  the  wine  wo 
drink,  are  symbolically  the  body  and  the  blood  of  Christ. 
(See  also  i  Kings  11.  30:  2  Kings  13.  14-19:  Jer.  27.  2-8: 
13.  1-7  :  18.  2-10.)  Some  things,  as  the  Passover,  are  both 
symbols  and  types.  They  commemorate  one  event,  and  they 
prefigure  another.  Language  drawn  from  types  and  symbols. 
is  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  ordinary  figures  of  speeoli. 


STUDY   NEEDED.  147 

267.  Tropical,  or  figurative,  then,  is  a  general  term,  applied 
Figiirativo  ^^  words  or  single  expressions,  and  includes  meta- 
<md  alio-  plior,  synecdoche,  and  metonymy ;  allegorical, 
"■^^  ■  again,  is  a  general  term,  apphed  to  continuous  nar- 

rative, and  is  used  whenever  the  narrative  (whether  it  be 
riddle,  or  fable,  or  parable,  or  common  history)  has,  or  re- 
ceives, a  double  meaning.  Typical  refers  to  an  action  with  a 
double  meaning,  and  generally  relates  to  something  future ; 
symbolical  refers  to  actions  with  a  double  meaning,  and  relates 
generally  to  something  past  or  at  hand. 

.  268.  These  figures  of  speech,  it  may  be  noticed,  are  not 
Common  in  pecuhar  to  the  language  of  the  Bible.  They  are 
all  language.  ^^^^^  :^^  ^U  languages ;  but,  as  they  are  most 
common  in  those  which  are  most  ancient,  and  are  necessary 
to  enable  us  to  speak  impressively  or  inteUigibly  even,  of 
spiritual  truth,  they  are  very  frequent  in  Scripture.  To  com- 
prehend parts  of  Scripture,  therefore,  and  to  avoid  error  in 
interpreting  it,  it  is  specially  important  that  we  should 
understand  them. 

269.  Let,  then,  these  various  facts  be  combined.  Scripture 
Summa  ^^^  written  by  different  persons,  at  remote  periods, 

in  distant  countries,  amidst  manners  and  customs 
altogether  unlike  our  own,  on  subjects  of  the  greatest  extent 
and  variety — civil,  ecclesiastical,  historical,  prophetic  ;  the 
latter,  especially,  requiring  terms  both  precise  and  ambiguous, 
and  the  whole  expressed  in  dead  languages,  and  in  terms  to  a 
great  degree  analogical  and  figurative.  Be  it  remembered, 
also,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  grand  theme  of  Scripture  ex- 
tends through  all  time,  involving  truths  and  precepts  (the 
former  both  physical  and  moral),  with  which  our  reason  and 
experience  are  but  httle  conversant ;  that  it  is  not  confined 
to  time,  but  includes  in  its  connections  both  worlds  ;  that  all 
its  disclosures  are  comprehended  in  a  narrow  space  and 
treated  with  much  brevity ;  and  it  will  at  once  be  clear  how 
much  learning  is  needed  to  make  these  things  plain.  There 
is,  in  fact,  in  Locke's  definition  of  theology  a  hteral  truth  :  It 
is  the  direction  of  all  knoiuledge  to  its  true  end,  the  glory  of 
the  eternal  God,  and  the  everlasting  welfare  of  the  human 
race. 


148  SPIRIT   OF  STUDY. 


Sec.  2.   Of  the  Spirit  in'tvhich  the  Bible  slwuld  he  studied. 

"  God  has  detennined  that  Divine  things  shall  enter  through  the  heart  into  the 
mind,  and  not  through  the  mind  into  the  heart.  In  Divine  things,  therefore,  it  is 
necessary  to  love  them,  in  order  to  know  them,  and  we  enter  into  trutli  only 
through  charity."— Pascal  (Pt.  i.,  $3). 

"  He  who  has  not  beUeved  will  not  experience,  and  he  who  has  not  experienced 
cannot  know." — Anselji. 

•'  The  theologian  must  himself  believe  the  doctrines  which  he  studies.  Without 
this  moral  qualificatiou,  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  true  insight  into  theological 
truth." — TnoLUCK  (Lectures  on  Methodology,  Bibl.  Piep.,  1844). 

"  An  inward  interest  in  the  doctrines  of  theology  is  needful  for  a  Biblical  inter- 
preter. The  study  of  the  New  Testament  presupposes  as  an  indispensable  requisite 
a  sentiment  of  piety  and  religious  experience.  The  Scripture  will  not  be  rightly 
and  spiritually  comprehended  imless  the  Spirit  of  God  become  himself  the  intei'pretcr 
of  his  words ;  the  avgelus  interpres  to  open  to  us  the  true  meaning." — Hagekbach. 

"  Pectus  est  quod  facit  theologum."— Nea>dek's  Motto, 

270.  The  first  place  is  due,  wlien  we  speak  of  tlie  study  of 
Teachable  "tl^e  Bible,  to  the  exercise  of  a  humble  and  devout 
spirit.  mind.  It  becomes  us,  first  of  all,  to  cherish  the 
habit  of  earnest  and  reverential  attention  to  all  it  reveals 
and  to  seek  that  inward  teaching  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which 
God  has  promised  to  them  that  ask  him.  This  is,  perhaps, 
not  strictly  a  rule  of  interpretation,  but  it  is  essential  to  the 
apphcation  of  all  rules.  An  analogous  truth  is  admitted  in 
relation  to  every  other  subject  of  inquiry.  To  appreciate 
true  poetry,  there  must  be  a  poetic  taste.  The  study  of  phi- 
losophy requires  a  philosophic  s]3irit.  An  inquirer  into  the 
processes  of  nature  needs,  above  all,  to  be  imbued  with  the 
temper  of  the  inductive  system  which  Bacon  taught ;  nor 
should  this  truth  be  questioned  when  it  is  apphed  to  the 
study  of  the  Bible. 

271.  Men  need  Divine  teaching,  not  because  of  the  peculiar 
Origin  of  this  difficulty  of  Scripture  language,  nor  because  of  the 
need.  incomprehensibility  of  Scripture  doctrine — for  the 
things  most  misunderstood  are  the  things  which  are  revealed 
most  clearly — but  because,  without  that  teaching,  men  will 
not  learn,  nor  can  they  knoiu  those  truths  which  are  revealed 
only  to  those  who  feel  them.  When  Christ  appeared,  the 
light  shone  in  the  darkness,  and  the  darkness  comprehended 
it  not.  Unholy  affection  had  surrounded  the  mental  eye  with 
the  very  opposite  of  clear  "  dry  hght,"  and  had  impaired  the 
"Whence  and  *^^'g^^  itself.  Blindness  of  heart  jDroduced  ig- 
how  Bupl  •  norance  ;  and  alienation  "  from  the  life  of  God  " 
^'^^'^^*  was  at  once  the  cause  and  the  aggravated  efiect  of 


SPIRIT  OF  STUDY.  140 

an  "understanding  darkened."  Epli.  4.  18.  The  source  of  tliis 
teaching  is  clearly  revealed  :  Christians  are  "  all  taught  of  the 
Lord  ;"  and  he  who  gave  to  the  Ephesian  church  "  the  spirit 
of  wisdom  and  revelation,"  was  "the  God  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  Father  of  glory,"  Eph.  i.  17.  The  means  of  se- 
curing this  teaching  is  equally  revealed.  "  The  meek  will  h& 
guide  in  judgment,  the  meek  will  he  teach  his  way."  He  that 
is  willing  to  do  His  will  "  shall  know  of  the  doctrine,  whether  it- 
be  of  God,"  John  7.17.  "  If  any  of  you  lack  wisdom,  let  him  ask 
of  God  .  .  .  and  it  shall  be  given  him."  A  child-like  docility, 
an  obedient  heart,  a  dependent  and  prayerful  frame,  are  evi- 
dently essential  to  the  successful  study  of  Divine  truth.. 
"  Be7ie  orasse  est  bene  studuisse "  is,  therefore,  an  aphorism, 
subordinately,  indeed,  of  Luther's,  but  really  of  God's. 

272.  It  is  necessary,  however,  in  order  to  complete  this- 
A  teachable  ^^'^th,  to  add,  that  the  Spirit  of  God  does  noi 
spirit  dis-  commuuicatc  to  the  mind  of  even  a  teachable,, 
revealed"^  obedient,  and  devout  Christian,  any  doctrine  or 
truth.  meaning  of  Scripture  which  is  not  contained  al- 
ready in  Scripture  itself.  He  makes  men  wise  up  to  what  is 
written,  but  not  beyond  it.  When  Christ  opened  the  under- 
standing of  his  apostles,  it  was  "  that  they  might  understand 
the  Scriptures,"  Luke  24.  45.  When  he  opened  Lydia's  heart 
she  attended  to  the  things  that  were  spoken  by  Faid :  David 
prayed  that  God  would  be  pleased  to  open  his  eyes,  that  he 
might  behold  wondrous  things  out  of  the  Divine  law,  Psa.  119. 
18.  "The  Bible,  and  through  the  Bible,"  indicates,  therefore, 
at  once,  the  subject  and  the  method  of  Divine  wisdom. 
Whatever  is  taught  contrary  to  it,  or  in  addition,  or  without 
its  aid,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  spirit  of  darkness,  or  to  our- 
selves. 

273.  This  first  principle  of  Bible  interpretation  is  taken 
This  order  ^^m  the  Bible  itself.  It  occupies  the  same  place, 
sanctioned  by  too,  in  the  teaching  of  our  Lord,  who,  in  his  first 

recorded  discourse,  assured  Nicodemus  that,  "  ex- 
cept a  man  be  bom  again,  he  caimot  see  " — can  neither  under- 
stand the  nature  nor  share  the  blessedness  of — "the  kingdom 
of  God,"  John  3.  3. 

Compare,  also,  i  Cor.  2.  14  :  i  Cor.  12.  8  :  i  Cor.  i.  21. 
I  Johu  2.  20,  27:  2  Cor.  4.  1-6.  I  Pet.  2.  i,  2 :  James  i.  ir. 
Vaz..  25.  4,  5:  119.  12,  18:  2  Tim.  3.  13,  etc. 


160  RULES   OF  INTERPKETATIOX  :  FIRST  RULE. 


Sec.  3.   Of  Eules  of  Interpretatimi. 

"Strict  grammatical  analysis,  and  the  rigid  observance  of  exegetical  rules,  lead  to 
tbe  same  views  of  truth  as  are  entertained  by  theologians,  who  bring  to  the  study  of 
the  Bible  strong  sense  and  devout  piety." — Tholuck. 

"  The  various  controversies  among  interpreters  have  commonly  led  to  the  admis- 
sion, tliat  tlie  old  Protestant  views  of  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  text  are  the  correct 
views."— WiNEu. 

"  He  that  shall  be  content  to  use  these  means,  and  will  lay  aside  the  prejudices 
.  .  .  which  many  bring  with  them  to  every  question,  will  be  honoured  to  gain  an 
imderstanding  of  Scripture ;  if  not  in  all  things,  yet  in  most ;  if  not  immediately,  yet 
ultimately."— Whitaker  (Disput.  of  Scrip.,  p.  47?). 

"  The  most  ilUterate  Christian,  if  he  can  but  read  his  English  Bible,  and  will  take 
the  pains  to  read  it  in  this  manner,  will  not  only  attain  all  that  practical  knowledge 
which  is  essential  to  salvation,  but,  bj^  God's  l^lessing,  he  will  become  learned  ui 
everything  relating  to  his  religion  in  such  a  degi'ee  that  he  will  not  be  liable  to  be 
misled,  either  by  the  refuted  arguments,  or  the  false  assertions  of  those  who  endea- 
vour to  engraft  their  own  opinions  upon  the  oracles  of  God." — Hoksley. 

274.  Wlietlier  words  are  used  literally  or  tropicaUj,  the 
First  rule  •  ^^^^  ^^^®  ^^  interpretation  is  to  ascertain  the  sense 
usage  of  Ian-  in  which  general  usage  employs  them.  As  all  the 
■^^se-  writers  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  wrote  or  spoke  to 
"be  understood,  we  must  interpret  their  language  as  we  inter- 
pret the  language  of  common  hfe. 

They  tell  mb,  for  example,  that  "there  is  none  that  doeth  good;"^ 
figuratively,  that  ''all  flesh  has  corrupted  his  way;"'' 
affirming  the  same  truth  in  two  different  forms.  They 
state  that  repentance  is  necessary  to  forgiveness;*^  and  that  both  re- 
pentance and  forgiveness  are  the  gifts  of  Christ."^  All  the  great 
doctrines  of  the  gospel  are  stated  in  language  equally  simple  and 
decisive  :  the  existence  and  perfections  of  God  ;  the  unity  of 
Jehovah,  of  God  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit;  the  fall 
of  man;  the  corruption  of  human  nature;  our  moral  responsibility; 
redemption  through  the  atonement  of  Christ;  the  rencAval  of  the 
heart  by  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  the  freeness  and  sove- 
reignty of  Divine  grace;  the  progressive  holiness  of  Christians,  and 
their  final  and  eternal  blessedness.  If  language  have  meaning, 
these  doctrines  are  taught  in  innumerable  passages  of  the  Bible,  and 
in  terms  incapable  of  mistake. 

275.  Simple,  however,  as  this  rule  is,  it  is  often  broken  in 
This  rule       ^^^^  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 

violated.  Origen,  for  example,  reading  that  Abraham  married 

Keturah,  in  his  old  age,  and  learning  that  Kcturah  meant,  in  He- 
brew, "sweet  odour,"  and  that  "  sweet  odour"  is  specially  applicable 

^  Rom.  3.  12.  ^  Gen.  6.  12. 

"  Isa.  55.  7,  ^  Acts  ?.  31. 


FIRST  rule:   HEBRAISMS.  15\ 

to  such  as  have  the  fragrance  of  righteousness  in  their  character, 
thought  that  one  most  important  meaning  must  be,  that  in  his  old 
age  Abraham  became  eminently  holy.  A  more  modern  commen- 
tator, Cocceius,  examining  the  8th  Psalm,  thinks  that  when  it  is 
said  that  "all  sheep  and  oxen"  are  put  under  his  feet,  "the  fowl  of 
the  air,  and  the  fish  of  the  sea,"  it  is  meant  that  all  Christians  are 
subject  to  Christ;  and  that  even  the  -ungodly  (represented  by  the 
birds  and  the  fish)  are  really,  though  unwillingly  under  his  rule. 

276.  A  kindred  error  changes  the  plainest  history  into 
fable,  and  teaches  us  to  regard  the  whole  of  the  miracles  of 
Christ  as  common  occurrences,  obscurely  described.  On  this 
principle,  Scripture  history  means  nothing  that  is  definite,  or 
it  means  anything  which  a  vivid  fancy  can  imagine  is  to 
mean.  In  either  case,  the  meaning  is  not  in  the  Bible,  but  in 
the  mind  of  the  inquirer. 

277.  But  while,  as  a  general  rule,  we  are  to  understand  the 
.  words  of  Scripture  in  their  common  sense,  there 

are  some  pecuharities  which  need  to  be  noticed. 
Being  translated  from  the  Hebrew  with  great  literalness,  the 
English  version  often  employs  the  idioms  and  expressions  of 
that  tongue,  and  those  are  to  be  understood  not  according  to 
the  English,  but  according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom. 

(a).  The  Jews,  for  example,  frequently  expressed  a  qualifying 
.  ..^  ..^  thought  by  the  use,  not  of  an  adjective,  but  of  a  second 
how  ex-  noun  ;  a  practice  which  may  be  ti'aced  in  the  Hebrew 

pressed.  Greek  of  the  IS'ew  Testament.     "Your  work  of  faith, 

and  labour  of  love,  and  patience  of  hope,"  means,  "your  beheving 
work,  and  loving  labour,  and  hopeful  patience,"  i  Thess.  1.3.  So, 
in  Eph.  I.  13,  the  "Spirit  of  promise"  means  the  "promised 
Spirit." 

(h).  It  was  a  common  idiom  of  the  Hebrew  to  call  a  person 
having  a  peculiar  quality,  or  subject  to  a  peculiar 
Quaa.ics.        ^^  .^^  ^^^  ^j^.^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^  ^j^^^  quahty. 

In  I  Sam.  2.12,  EH's  sons  are  called  "sons  of  Belial,"  that  1%  of 
wickedness.  In  Lvike  10.  6,  a  "son  of  peace"  means  a  person  of 
gentle  and  attentive  mind,  disposed  to  give  the  gospel  a  willing  re- 
ception. In  Eph.  5.  6-8,  "  children  of  disobedience,"  and  "children 
of  light,"  mean,  respectively,  disobedient  and  enlightened  persons. 

So  Matt.  24.  15:  Mark  13. 14:  Rom.  7.  24:  i  John  3.  10:  Jas.  2.4: 
Heb.  I.  3:  Rev.  3.  10.  In  some  of  these  passages,  however,  the 
idiom  ir,,  perhaps,  emphatic. 


152  FIRST  rule:  Hebraisms. 

(c).  Comparison,   again,   is   very    peculiarly   expressed    iii 
Hebrew. 

Comparison. 

To  love  and  to  hate,  for  example,  is  a  Hebrew  ex- 
pression for  preferring  one  thing  to  another.  Thus  it  is  said  in 
Luke  14.  26,  "If  any  man  come  to  me,  and  hate  not  his  father:" 
for  which  we  find,  as  in  Matt.  10.  37,  ''He  that  loveth  father  more 
than  me."  The  same  expression  is  used  in  John  12.25;  in  Rom.  9. 
13;  in  Gen.  29.  18,  30,  31;  and  in  Deut.  21.  15. 

Comparison  is  sometimes  intimated  by  the  use  of  adverbs 
of  negation. 

Thus  in  Gen.  45.  8,  "not  you  sent  me  hither,  but  God:"  it  was  God 
rather  than  you.  So  Ex.  16.  8:  i  Sam.  8.  7:  Prov.  8.  10:  Hos.  6.  6: 
Jer.  7.  22,  23.  So  in  Mark  9.  37,  ''Whosoever  shall  receive  me 
receiveth  not  me,  but  him  that  sent  me ;"  not  so  much,  or,  not  only 
mdj  but  him.  So  in  Matt.  5.  39:  Luke  14.  12:  John  5.  22,  30,  45: 
ejiage.         ts  5.  4:  I  Cor.  I.  17:  Eph.  6.  12:  i  Thess.  4.  8. 

\/?/>  '■^livral  nouns  are  sometimes  used  in  Hebrew  to  imply 
Plurals,  iiow  that  there  are  more  than  one,  though  it  may  be  to 
used.  Q^e  Qjily  ^i^at  reference  is  made. 

Gen.  8.  4:  19.  29:  Judges  12.  7:  Neh.  3.  8:  Matt.  24.  i,  wher-e 
"his  disciples"  means  one  of  them:  Mark  13.  i:  Matt.  26.  8,  and 
John  12.  4:  Matt.  27.  44.:  Mark  15.  32,  and  Luke  23.  39:  Luke  23. 
36,  and  Matt.  27.  48.  In  some  of  these  instances,  however,  all  or 
Geveral  shared  in  the  sentiment,  John  13.  4.  "  Gai'ments,"  i.e., 
one  of  them,  the  upper,  see  Mark  5.  27,  30  (original). 

(e).  The  names  of  parents,  or  ancestors,  are  often  used  in 
Scripture  for  their  posterity. 

Names  of  •■■  i  J 

imceAors,  ThMQ  in  Gen.  9.  25,  it  is  said,  "Cursed  be  Canaan," 

i,  e.,  his  posterity.  This  curse,  it  will  be  remembered, 
did  not  affect  those  of  his  posterity  who  were  righteous;  for  both 
Melchisedec  and  Abimelech  were  Canaanites,  as  was  the  woman  who 
came  to  Christ,  and  whose  daughter  was  healed.  Gen.  14.  18-20: 
20.  6:  Matt.  15.  22-28.  In  the  same  way,  Jacob  and  Israel  are 
often  put  for  the  Israelites,  as  in  Ex.  2.  24:  Psa.  14.  7:  i  Kings 
18.  17,  18. 

(/).  The  word  "son"  is  sometimes  used,  by  a  Hebraism 

(common,  indeed,  to  nearly  all  languages),  for  a 

remote  descendant. 

The  priests  arc  called  the  sons  of  Levi.  Mephibosheth  is  called 
the  son  of  Saul,  though  he  was  the  son  of  Jonathan,  2  Sam.  19.  24: 


riKST  rule:  Hebraisms.  153 

BO  Gen.  46.  22.  Zechariah,  the  grandson  of  Iddo  (Zech.  i.  i),  ia 
called  his  son,  Ezra  5.1.  ''Son  "  is  thus  used  for  any  descendant, 
as  ''father"  is  used  for  any  ancestor,  i  Chron.  i.  17. 

"Brother"  is  used  in  the  same  way  for  any  collateral  relation. 
It  is  thus  applied  by  Abraham  to  Lot,  who  was  his 
nephew.'^  In  one  instance,  too,  the  descendants  of  a 
man  who  married  a  daughter  of  Barzillai  are  called,  from  the  name 
of  their  maternal  ancestor's  father,  the  children  of  Barzillai.^  In 
the  same  way,  Jair  is  called  the  son  of  Manasseh,  because  his  grand- 
father had  married  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  heads  of  Manasseh. 
Mary  is  also  thought  to  have  descended  from  David  in  this  way;  so 
that  our  Lord  was  David's  son,  not  only  thi'ough  his  reputed 
father,  but  by  direct  descent  through  his  mother. 

278.  A  knowledge  of  these  last  rules  of  speech  will  often 
Apparent  Correct  apparent  contradictions.  Athaliah,  for  ex- 
contradictions  ample,  is  called  in  2  Kings  8.  26,  the  daughter  of 

Omri,  and  in  ver.  18  she  is  called  the  daughter  of 
Ahab.  She  was  really  Ahab's  daughter,  and  Omri's  grand- 
daughter. See  also  i  Kings  15.  10,  and  2  Chron.  13.  2,  and 
I  Chron.  3.  15,  compared  with  2  Chron.  36.  9,  10. 

279.  There  are  other  peculiarities,  semi-Hebraisms,  which 
Other  pecu-     need  to  be  named. 

liarities :  use       (a).  Some  numbers  in  Hebrew  are  used  for  an 

of  numbers.      •     i    />    .,  t 

mdennite  number. 

"Ten,"  for  example,  means  "several,"  as  well  as  that  preciso 
number,  Gen.  31.  7:  Dan.  i.  20. 

"Forty"  means  "many."  Persepolis  is  called  in  Eastern  lan- 
guage, "the  city  of  forty  towers ;"  though  the  number  was  much 
larger.  This  is  probably  the  meaning  in  2  Kings  8,  9,  where  Hazael 
is  said  to  have  brought  as  a  present  to  Elisha  forty  camels'  burden 
of  the  good  things  of  Damascus.  This  is  probably  the  meaning,  too, 
in  Ezek.  29.  11,  13. 

"Seven"  and  "seventy"  are  used  to  express  a  large  and  com- 
plete, though  an  uncertain  number,  Prov,  26.  16,  25 ;  Psa.  119.  164: 
Lev.  26,  24,  etc.  We  are  commanded,  for  example,  to  forgive  till 
seventy  times  seven,  to  indicate  that,  if  our  brother  repent  of  his 
sin,  there  must  be  no  end  of  our  forgiveness.  The  seven  demons 
cast  out  of  Mary  of  Magdala  indicate  her  extreme  suflfering,  and, 
perhaps,  her  great  wickedness. 

**  Gen.  14.  16:  29.  12,  15:  so  the  word  is  probably  used  in  John 
7.  3:  Gal.  I.  19.  b  Ezra  2.  61:  Neh.  7.  63. 

h3 


154  FIRST  RULE  :   PROPER  NAMES. 

(&).  The  Scriptures  sometimes  use  a  round  number  when 
not  perfectly  accurate. 

From  Numb.  25.  9  and  i  Cor.  10,  8,  we  learn  that  between 
23,000  and  24,000  were  slain  by  the  plague.  The  first  passage 
mentions  24,000,  the  second  23,000.  In  Judges  11.  26,  300  years 
is  put  for  293.  See  Josh.  4.  19:  Numb.  33.  3 :  and  compare  14.  33: 
Judges  20.  46,  35:  9.  5,  18,  56. 

(c).  Occasionally,  in  Scripture,  verbs  denoting  simple  being 
Tj-a  e  of        °^'  action  are  used,  when   only  a   declaration  is 
verbs  of         intended,  or  even  a  mere  supposition  that  the  act 
is  or  will  be  done,  or  regarded  as  done. 

In  Lev.  13.  3,  13,  for  example,  where  the  priest  is  said  to  cleanse 
the  leper;  i.  e.,  he  declares  him  to  be  clean.  The  letter  killeth;  that 
is,  declares  death  as  a  consequence  of  sin,  Rom,  5.  20:  Phil.  3.  7. 
See  also,  Eom.  4.  15  :  7.  9  :  2  Cor,  3.  6,  So  in  prophecy,  the 
speaker  is  said  to  do  what  he  only  foretells,  Jer.  i.  10:  Ezek,  43.  3 : 
Isa.  6.  10. 

(d).  In  interpreting  the  words  of  Scripture,  it  needs  to  be 
Use  of  proper  noticed,  that  the  proper  names  are  used  very 
names,  peculiarly. 

Different  persons  have  often  the  same  name, 

Pharaoh  (or  ruler,  from  Phre,  the  sun)  was  the  general  name  of 
the  kings  of  Egypt  from  the  time  of  Abraham  till  the  invasion  of 
Egypt  by  the  Persians,  as  Ptolemy  was  the  common  name  of  their 
kings  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  Abimelech  (meaning  my  father 
the  king)  seems  to  have  been  the  common  name  of  the  kings  of  the 
Philistines;  Agag  was  the  name  of  the  kings  of  the  Amalekites;  as 
was  Benhadad  (the  son  of  the  sun)  of  the  kings  of  Damascus. 
Among  the  Romans,  Augustus  CaBsar  was  the  common  title  of  their 
emperors.  The  Augustus  mentioned  in  Luke  2,  i  was  the  second 
of  that  name.  The  Caosar  who  reigned  when  Christ  was  crucified 
was  Tiberius,  The  emperor  to  whom  Paul  appealed,  and  who  is 
called  both  Augustus  and  Csesar,  was  Nero,  Acts  25,  21.  The 
Egyptian  and  the  Philistine  kings  seem  to  have  had,  like  the  Ro- 
mans, a  proper  as  well  as  a  common  name.  We  read,  for  example, 
of  Pharaoh  Necho  and  of  Pharaoh  Hophra;  and  the  Abimelech 
mentioned  in  Psa,  34,  is  called  Achish  in  i  Sam.  21.  11, 

In  the  New  Testament,  several  very  diflerent  persons  are  known 
under  the  common  name  of  Herod,     Herod  the  Grpiat, 

cro  ,  WHO.  ^^  ^^  ^^  called  in  profane  history,  was  he  who  slew  in 
his    old  age  the  young  children  at  Bethlehem.      It  was  he  who 


FIRST   RULE  :    PROPER  XAMES.  155 

rebuilt  and  decorated  the  Temple,  and  enlarged  Csesarea.  He  was 
notorious  for  Ms  jealousy  and  cruelty.  On  his  death,  the  half  of 
his  kingdom  (including  Judasa  and  Samaria)  was  given  to  his  son 
Archelaus ;  most  of  Galilee  was  given  to  his  son  Herod  the  Tetrarch, 
or  king,  Luke  3,1:  Matt.  14.  9;  and  some  other  parts  of  Syria  and 
Galilee  to  his  third  son,  Philip  Herod.  It  was  Herod  the  Tetrai-ch 
who  beheaded  John,  and  mocked  our  Lord  in  his  last  sufferings. 
His  conduct  towards  Herodias,  his  niece  and  sister-in-law,  ended  in 
his  being  banished  to  Gaul.  The  dominions  of  both  Herod  and 
Philip  were  ultimately  given  to  his  nephew,  the  brother  of  Herodias, 
Herod  Agrippa,  who  is  called  in  Scripture,  Herod  only.  In  the 
end,  he  possessed  all  the  ten-itory  in  Palestine  \vhich  had  belonged 
to  his  grandfather,  Herod  the  Gi'eat.  He  was  the  murderer  of  the 
apostle  James,  and  died  miserably  and  suddenly  at  Caesarea.  His 
son  was  Herod  Agrippa,  called  in  the  New  Testament  Agi-ippa  only. 
It  was  before  him  that  Paul  was  brought  by  Festus.  The  character 
of  this  man  was  very  different  from  that  of  his  father,  and  a  know- 
ledge of  the  fact  that  they  were  not  the  same  man  is  essential  to  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  history. 

Different  places  have  often  the  same  name. 

Csesarea  is  the  name  of  two  cities  ;  one  called  Csesarea  Philippi, 
in  Galilee;  the  other  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  one 
mentioned  throughout  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  was  the  port  whence 
travellers  generally  left  Judsea  for  Rome. 

Antioch,  in  Syria,  again,  is  the  place  where  Paul  and  Barnabas 
commenced  their  labours,  and  where  the  followers  of  Christ  were 
first  called  Christians.  The  Antioch  of  Acts  13.  14,  and  of  2  Tim. 
3.  II,  is  in  Phrygia. 

There  is  a  Mizpeh  ('watch-tower')  in  Moimt  Gilead,  where 
Jephtha  resided,  where  Jacob  and  Laban  made  their  covenant.  Gen. 
31,  49:  Judges  II.  34;  a  Mizpeh  of  Moab,  i  Sam.  22.  3,  perhaps 
the  same  as  the  previous;  a  Mizpeh  of  Gibeah,  where  Samuel  re- 
sided, and  where  Saul  was  chosen  king,  i  Sam.  7.  ii;  and  there  is 
also  a  Mizpeh  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  Josh.  15.  38. 

Sometimes  the  same  name  is  applied  to  a  person  and  to  a 
place. 

Magog,  for  example,  is  the  name  of  a  son  of  Japheth,  and  it  is 
also  the  name  of  the  country  occupied  by  a  people  called  Gog, 
probably  the  Scythians,  or,  as  they  are  now  called,  the  Tartars, 
Ezek.  38.:  Rev.  20.  8.  The  Turks  have  sprung  from  the  same 
etock 


156  FIRST  rule:   PROrER  NAMES. 

The  same  persons  and  places  have  sometimes  different 
names. 

The  father-in-law  of  Moses,  for  example,  is  called  Hobab  antl 
Jethro,  Judges  4.  ii :  Ex.  3.1.  Eeuel  was  perhaps  his  wife's  grand- 
father-, though  called  her  father.  Ex,  2.  18.  Levi  is  the  same  aj 
Matthew.  Thomas  and  Didymus  are  the  same  person;  the  words 
meaning  a  twin.  Thaddeus,  Lebbseus,  and  Judas,  are  all  names  of 
the  apostle  Jude.  Sylvanus,  Lucas,  Timotheus,  are  Latin  forms 
of  Silas,  Luke,  and  Timothy;  the  last  three  belong  to  our  transla- 
tion, not  to  the  original. 

Horeb  and  Sinai  are  names  now  and  anciently  applied  to  different 
peaks  of  the  same  range  of  mountains;  and  both  names  are  some- 
times applied  to  the  whole  range. 

Cesarsea  (of  Galilee)  was  called  Laish,  and  then  Dan,  i  Kings  12. 
29:  Judges  18.  29. 

The  Lake  of  Gennesarcth  was  anciently  called  the  Sea  of  Cin- 
neretli,  afterwards  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  or  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  Matt. 
4.  18:  John  21.  I. 

The  modern  Abyssinia  is  called  Ethiopia,  and  sometimes  Gush; 
the  latter  name,  however,  being  applied  generally  to  Arabia  or  to 
India;  hence,  probably,  Chusistan.  Greece  is  called  Javan  and 
Greece,  Isa.  66.  19:  Zech.  9.  13.  Egypt  is  called  Ham  and  Rahab, 
Psa.  78.  51:  Isa.  51.  9. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  called  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  from  its  occupying, 
or  adjoining,  the  plain  on  which  the  cities  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
once  stood;  the  East  Sea,  from  its  position  in  relation  to  Jerusalem; 
and  sometimes  the  Salt  Sea,  2  Kings  14.  25:  Gen.  14.  3. 

The  Nile  is  called  in  Scripture  Sihor,  Josh.  13.  3,  but  more  com- 
monly the  River;  both  names,  however,  being  applied  also  to  other 
streams. 

The  Mediterranean  Sea  is  sometimes  called  the  Sea  of  the  Philis- 
tines, who  resided  on  its  coasts;  or  the  Utmost  Sea;  or,  more  com- 
monly, the  Gi-eat  Sea,  Ex.  23.  31:  Deut.  11.  24:  Numb.  34.  6,  7. 

The  Holy  Land  is  called  Canaan;  the  Laud  of  Israel,  of  Judsea; 
Palestine,  or  the  Land  of  the  Shepherds;  and  the  Land  of  Promise, 
Ex.  15.  14:  I  Sam.  13.  19:  Isa.  14.  29:  Heb.  11.  9. 

280.  The  careful  recognition  of  the  different  application  of 
proper  names  is  of  great  moment,  especially  in  reconciling 
apparent  contradictions  in  sacred  Scripture. 

Aha.-,iah,  for  example,  the  son  of  Jehoram,  is  called  Azariah  and 
Jehoahaz,  2  Kings  8.  29:  2  Chron.  22.  6:  21.  17. 

Jehoahaz,  the  son  of  Josiah,  is  called  Johanau  and  Shallum, 
2  Kings  23.  30:  I  Chron.  3.  15:  Jer.  22.  11, 


RULES  OF  INTERrRETATION  :  SECOND  RULE.      157 

Jehoiada,  the  priest,  is  called  Johanan  and,  probably,  Barachias, 
2  Chroii.  24.  2c:  i  Chrou.  6.  9.  Matt.  23.  35.  The  meaning  of  all 
these  names  is  similar. 

Uzziah  is  called  Azariah ;  ISTathaniel,  Bartholomew.  In  such 
instances,  the  different  names  have  often  the  same  meaning. 

281.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  a  word  has  often  various 
Second  rule-  senses,  each  of  which  is  sanctioned  by  general 
usage,  as  in-  usage.  We  need,  therefore,  a  second  rule  of 
the  rest  of  interpretation  ;  to  fix  the  meaning  of  a  word,  it 
the  sentence,  jg  necessary  to  mark  the  meaning  of  the  other 
words  with  which  it  is  connected  in  the  sentence  ;  i.  e.,  we 
must  ascertain  the  sense  in  which  general  usage  employs  it 
in  its  particular  connection. 

Faith,  for  example,  sometimes  means  the  gospel  (of  which  faith 
in  Christ  is  the  great  doctrine),  as  in  Gal.  i.  23,  "he 
Illustrations.  ^^^^  preacheth  the  faith  which  once  he  destroyed." 
And  so  in  i  Tim.  3.  9:  4.  i:  Acts  24.  24.  It  means,  again,  truth 
or  faithfulness,  as  in  Rom.  3.  3,  "shall  their  imbehef  make  the 
faith  of  God  without  effect?"  iind  so  in  Titus  2.  10  (orig.),  and 
probably  in  Gal.  5.  22.  It  means,  further,  in  one  passage,  proof 
or  evidence.  Acts  17.  31  (Gr.)  It  means  a  conscientious'-; 
viction  of  duty,  as  in  Rom.  14.  23;  or,  most  comprehensively,  at 
exercise  of  the  mind  and  heart  which  receives  spiritual  an<  '!'  ,ine 
truth  (Heb.  11.);  or,  more  specifically,  the  repose  of  the  r,  id  and 
heart  in  the  work  of  Christ  as  the  ground  of  our  pardon  and  means 
of  our  holiness  (Rom.  3.  28). 

Flesh  means  sometimes  what  is  tender  and  teachable,  as  in 
Ez.ek.  ir.  19;  "I  will  give  you  a  heart  of  flesh;"  Avhere  it  is  opposed 
to  a  heart  of  stone.  It  means,  also,  human  nature,  without  any 
reference  to  its  sinfulness,  John  i.  14:  Rom.  i.  3:  9.  3;  or,  more 
commonly,  human  nature  as  corrupt  and  sinful,  Rom.  8.  5  :  Eph.  2.3. 
Another  meaning  is,  all  that  is  outwai-d  and  ceremonial  in  religion, 
aa  distinguLshed  from  what  is  inward  and  spmtual,  as  in  Gal.  6.  I21 
3,3;  where  it  refers  more  especially  to  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic 
ritual  (compare  Phil.  3.  3). 

Salvation  means  in  some  places  outward  safety  and  deliverance, 
as  in  Ex.  14.  13;  Acts  7.  25  (orig.);  or  healing,  aa  in  James  5.  15, 
where,  in  the  case  of  a  sick  Clu'istian,  the  prayer  of  faith  is  said  to 
save,  i.  e.,  heal,  the  sick.  Its  more  common  meaning,  however, 
is  in  reference  to  spiritual  blessing  ;  when  it  sometimes  includes 
jxistification  for  as  much  of  our  salvation  as  is  completed  on  earth; 


158  SECOND   RULE:   FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE. 

as  iu  Eph.  •2.  8:  Luke  i.  77;  or,  more  frequently,  the  whole  of  the 
blessing  which  Christ  has  secured  for  believers,  beginning  -with 
forgiveness,  and  ending  in  etei-nal  glory,  Eom.  13.  11.  Sometimes 
it  means  simply  the  gospel,  as  in  Heb.  2.  3,  where  it  is  said  to  be 
''spoken  by  the  Lord,  and  confirmed  unto  us  by  them  that  heard 
him," 

In  the  same  way,  blood  is  used  in  Scripture  with  several  mean- 
ings :  God  "hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men,"  Acts 
17.  26,  i.  e.,  they  have  a  common  origin  or  nature.  To  give  the 
wicked  blood  to  drink,  is  to  place  in  their  hands  the  cup  of  death. 
In  Matt.  27.  25,  ''His  blood  be  on  us,  and  on  our  children,"  means, 
the  guilt  of  having  put  him  to  death:  "his  death"  (that  is,  the 
guilt  of  it)  be  upon  us.  In  Rom.  5 .  9,  the  Christian  is  said  to  be 
justified  by  the  blood  of  Christ;  and  ia  Heb.  9.  14,  the  blood  of 
Christ  is  said  to  "purge  our  consciences  from  dead  woi-ks."  The 
robes  of  the  redeemed  are  made  white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb. 
In  these  passages,  the  blood  of  Christ  means  his  "obedience  unto 
death,"  "the  offering  of  himself"  on  the  ci'oss,  the  ground  of  our 
justification,  the  instrument  and  motive  of  our  holuiess. 

The  general  meaning  of  the  word  grace  is  "  favour."  As  applied 
to  God,  it  means  the  unmerited  favour  exercised  by  him  towards 
men;  as  in  2  Tim.  i.  9,  "According  to  His  own  purpose  and  grace." 
It  means,  moreover,  all  the  different  gifts  of  that  grace  :  justifi- 
cation, as  in  Rom.  5.  15;  strength  and  holiness,  as  in  2  Cor.  12.  g, 
"My  grace  is  sufficient  for  thee;"  and  eternal  glory,  i  Pet.  i.  13, 
The  "word  of  his  grace"  is  the  gospel,  in  Acts  14.  3.  So  in  Heb. 
13.  9,  it  means  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  and  not  meats  or  rites. 

In  nearly  all  these  passages,  the  meaning  of  the  words  is  fixed  by 
tlie  position  in  which  they  stand.  The  general  ideas  which  the 
words  suggest  are  defined  by  their  particular  connection. 

282.  The  rule  which  thus  helps  us  to  select,  out  of  the 
Rule  dH  d  ^^^^y  meanings  of  a  word,  the  single  meaning 
to  figurative  which  is  appropriate  to  the  place,  helps  us  also  to 
language.  determine  whether  the  word  is  used  literally  or 
figuratively.  If,  on  reading  the  sentence,  it  is  found  that  the 
words,  in  their  proper  sense,  involve  a  contradiction  or  an 
impossibility,  it  becomes  plain  that  there  is  a  figure  of 
speech. 

In  I  Pet.  2.  5,  for  example.  Christians  are  called  "living  stones." 
In  Rom.  13.  12,  they  are  exhorted  to  "  put  on  the  armour  of  light." 
In  I  Pet.  I.  13,  they  are  said  "to  gird  up  the  loins  of  their  mind." 
In  all  these  passages,  the  connection  of  each  word  shows  it  be  figii- 


THIRD   RULE:   CONTEXT.  159 

rative.  Taken  alone,  it  may  be  figurative,  or  it  may  be  literal;  but 
in  its  present  connection,  tne  literal  interpretation  would  be  incon- 
gruous. Thus,  again,  the  washing  which  the  apostle  states 
Christians  to  have  received  (i  Cor.  6.  ii)  is  clearly  figurative;  for 
it  is  "by  the  Spirit  of  our  God."  The  command  of  our  Lord, 
*•'  Let  the  dead  bury  their  dead"  (Matt.  8.  22),  must  be  understood 
figtiratively,  and  means,  let  the  worldly-minded  attend  to  worldly 
concerns.  The  words  of  Christ,  ''  This  is  my  blood,"  are  figurative; 
the  literal  interpretation  of  them  being  repugnant  to  reason  and 
Scripture. 

In  the  use  of  figurative  language,  the  inspired  writers  seem 
to  have  selected  their  expressions  on  the  principle 
fi^^ativ?       of  resemblance. 

Scrmtm-e.^^  What  is  grand  in  nature  is  used  to  express  what  is 
dignified  and  important  among  men  :  the  heavenly 
bodies,  mountains,  stately  trees,  designating  kingdoms,  or  those  in 
authority;  the  lower  ground,  the  branches,  and  the  earth  generally, 
designating  the  mass  of  the  people. 

Political  changes  are  represented  by  earthquakes,  tempests, 
eclipses,  the  tiiming  of  rivers  and  seas  into  blood,  Jer.  4.  23-28: 
Isa.  13.  10,  13:  Matt.  24.  29:  Acts  2.  19. 

Things  which  have  a  fertilizing  influence,  as  dew,  showers,  streams, 
are  used  to  represent  spiritual  blessings,  Isa.  25.  6:  John  4.  13,  14. 

The  qualities  of  animals  are  referred  to  in  figurative  expressions; 
beasts  and  birds  of  prey  being  emblems  of  oppressors. 

A  horn  signifies  power,  Dan.  8.  A  rod,  the  exercise  of  power  in 
chastening.  Light  and  darkness  express  joy  and  sorrow,  knowledge 
and  ignorance,  prosperity  and  adversity,  holiness  and  sin.^  Mar- 
riage often  denotes  a  covenant  with  God;  adultery,  the  violation  of 
that  covenant  by  idolatry.  A  vineyard  often  denotes  a  chiu'ch;  if 
it  bear  wild  grapes,  it  is  unfruitful;  if  its  inclosures  are  broken 
down,  it  is  afflicted,  or  corrupt,  Isa.  5.  1-7. 

This  rule  will  not  determine,  in  all  cases,  whether  vv'ords 
are  to  be  understood  literally  or  figuratively ;  but  it  will  go 
far  to  decide  in  most.  Other  rules  will  be  found  noticed 
below. 

283.  But,  while  the  words  employed,  or  their  connection  in 
Third  rule :  the  Sentence,  will  often  suggest  the  meaning,  it  is 
the  context,  sometimes  necessary  to  look  beyond  the  words, 
and  even  the  sentence,  to  the  context ;  and  there  we  find — 

*  Esther  8.  16:  Isa.  5.  20:  Psa.  97.  11:  Eph.  5.  14. 


160  THIRD  rule:  context. 

284.  (i).  Words  and  passages  explained  in  the  language  of 
the  inspired  writers  themselves,  sometime^  by  definitions, 
and  sometimes  by  examples ;  sometimes  by  expressions 
which  hmit.the  meaning. 

In  Heb.  11,  for  instance,  Faith  is  first  described,  and  then  illus* 
trated.  It  is  said  to  be  a  confident  expectation  of  things 
hoped  for :  a  perfect  pei-suasion  of  things  not  seen :  and 
then  examples  are  given  of  both  parts  of  the  definition.  In  Noah, 
it  was  perfect  persuasion  of  the  truth  of  God  in  regard  to  the  Deluge. 
In  Abraham,  it  was  confident  expectation  of  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise  made  to  himself,  and  to  his  seed.  If  the  Divine  word  speak 
of  mercies,  faith  hopes  for  them;  if  of  things  pm-ely  spiritual  and 
future,  faith  believes  in  them. 

Perhaps  no  x^assage  illustrates  better  than  this,  the  difficulty  of 
making  a  good  translation;  and  the  wisdom  of  God  in  giving  us  a 
Bible  of  examples,  rather  than  of  definitions.  The  word  ''  substance," 
is  a  literal  translation  of  the  original ;  and  means,  whatever  stands 
under  and  sustains  all  that  is  attached  to  it,  whether  subjects  or 
qualities.  No  one  word  could  have  expressed  more  completely, 
the  idea  of  the  original:  and  yet  it  is  not  clear.  In  Heb.  1.  3,  the 
same  word  is  translated  '^ person"  and  in  2  Cor.  11.  17,  confidence, 
(of  boasting :)  and  buth  translations  are  connect.  The  full  idea  is 
that  of  well-founded  or  confident  expectation.  Faith  is  therefore, 
as  to  things  hoped  foi',  a  thing  on  which  real  or  substantial  confidence 
may  rest.  It  is  moreover,  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen.  The 
full  idea  here,  again,  is,  such  evidence  of  things  not  seen,  as  silences 
doubt  and  refutes  opposition;  or  rather,  it  is  the  conviction  which 
such  evidence  produces.  All  this  extent  of  meaning  is  found  in  the 
original  words :  but  no  one  word  can  express  it.  If  the  Bible  were 
made  up  of  definitions,  a  translation  without  a  paraphrase  would  be 
impossible.  We  may  well  feel  thankful,  therefore,  that  it  is  a  book 
of  examples  chiefly :  and  that  it  illustrates  its  principles  rather  in 
the  lives  of  believers,  than  in  logical  and  abstruse  terms. 

Perfection,  again,  is  defined  in  several  parts  of  the  Bible. 

In  Psa.  37.  37,  it  is  used  as  synonymous  with  uprightness  or  sin- 
cerity, a  real  unfeigned  goodness :  and  this  is  its  general  meaning  in 
the  Old  Testament,  i  Chron.  12.  33,  38.  In  the  New  Testament,  it 
means  either  the  possession  of  clear  and  accurate  knowledge  of  Di- 
vine truth,  or  the  possession  of  all  the  gx'aces  of  the  Christian  cha- 
racter, in  a  higher  or  lower  degree.  The  first  is  the  meaning  in 
Heb.  5.  14:  where  strong  meat  is  said  to  belong  "  to  them  that  are 
of  full  age,  (marg.  ]oerfcct) :  even  to  those  who  by  I'eason  of  use  have 
theu'  senses  exercised  to  discern  both  good  and  evil."     So  in  i  Cor. 


THIRD   RULE  :    C0N1»EXT.  161 

2,  6:  Phil,  3.  15.  The  second  is  the  meaniiig  in  James  i,  4:  where 
"perfect"  is  defined  as  ''entire,  wanting  nothing."  In  2  Pet.  i. 
5-7,  the  graces  which  make  up  the  perfect  Christian,  are  enumerated. 

In  Eph.  3.4,  5,  Mystery  is  defined  by  example,  as  the  truth,  that 
the  Gentiles  should  be  partakers  of  the  promise  in  Christ  by  the 
gospel. 

The  cocese  of  this  world,  means  man's  natural  state  and  life, 
as  opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  Chiist :  it  is  the  outgoing  of  the  spirit 
that  worketh  in  the  children  of  disobedience. 

In  Gal.  4.  3,  the  expression,  the  elements  of  this  world  is  used; 
and  is  explained  in  ver.  9,  10,  of  the  same  chapter.  See  also  Heb. 
2.  5  :  6.  5  :  I  Cor.  10.  11. 

Not  unfrequently,  the  meaning  is  limited,  or  explained  by 
the  context  even  in  simple  narrative. 

Compare  Gen.  6. 19,  20:  7.  2,  3:  where  "pairs,"  and  the  number 
of  pairs  are  spoken  of  respectively:  so  from  Gen.  48,  8,  10,  we 
gather  that  Jacob's  blindness  was  partial:  From  Exod.  6.  3,  and 
Gen.  13.  4  (Heb.  Jehovah),  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  faithfulness 
of  Jehovah  in  giving  effect  to  his  promises,  was  not  revealed  to  the 
Israelites  till  the  Exode:  From  Exod.  9.  6:  9.  20,  it  is  clear  that 
"  all,"  means  all,  -vsith  specified  exceptions.  The  Levites  spent  five 
years  on  probation,  before  fully  entering  upon  their  office,  hence 
Numb.  4.  3 :  8.  24.  Modify  in  the  same  way,  Numb.  14.  30,  by 
Josh.  14.  i:  and  Josh.  11.  19,  by  15.  63. 

285.  (2.)  Sometimes,  where  there  is  no  formal  definition, 
the  meaning  is  made  clear  by  the  use  of  some  ana- 
plained  by      logons  or  similar  expression ;   or  by  the  use  of 

oJ^iitTexJ     opposite  O^eS- 

In  Gal.  3.  17,  the  "  covenant  with  Abraham"  is  ex- 
Examples,      plained,  as  the  promise  which  God  made  to  him. 

In  Rom.  6.  23,  the  meaning  of  the  word  death  (the  wages  of  sin), 
is  gathered  from  the  opposite:  "the  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life, 
through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord." 

In  Col.  2.  7,  the  expression,  "  rooted  and  built  up  in  Christ,"  is 
explained,  as  meaning  "  established  in  the  faith." 

In  liom.  4.  5,  it  is  said,  that  "  to  him  that  worketh  not,  faith  is 
coimted  for  righteousness:"  the  expression  "worketh,"  being  ex- 
plained in  several  places  in  the  same  chapter.  In  ver.  2,  the  phrase 
is  "justified  by  works."  From  the  same  verse,  we  learn  that  it 
means  the  contrary  of  "  believing  in  Him  that  justifieth  the  un- 
godly."    So  in  James  2.  14,  the  faith  that  cannot  save,  is  the  faith 


162  THIBD  RULE:    CONTEXT. 

tliat  spends  itself  in  words,  and  not  in  deeds.  It  is  a  faith  that  is 
without  obedience :  it  is  a  faith  such  as  devils  feel  (vei\  19,)  and  it 
is  not  such  as  Abraham  felt  (ver.  23).  To  be  ''justified  by  works/' 
therefore,  expressly  includes  in  Paul,  the  rejection  of  Christ  as  the 
Saviour  of  the  guilty,  and  an  adherence  to  the  whole  covenant; 
while  the  "  works"  of  which  James  speaks  imply  faith  in  Christ. 
The  same  truth  is  taught  by  our  Lord  in  John  3.  36;  where  it  is 
said,  "  He  that  belie veth  on  the  Son  hath  everlasting  life:  and  he 
that  believeth  not  the  Son  shall  not  see  life:"  where  the  word 
*'believeth  not"  is  in  the  original,  "  is  not  obedient  to;"  showing, 
as  Doddridge  well  observes,  that  the  faith  to  which  the  promise  of 
eternal  life  is  annexed,  is  a  principle  of  unreserved  obedience. 

In  I  John  3,  9,  it  is  said,  "  Whosoever  is  born  of  God  doth  not 
commit  sin."  But,  on  comparing  this  expression  with  other  parts 
of  the  Epistle,  wo  find  that,  to  commit  sin,  means  "  to  walk  in 
darkness,"  i.  6;  "  to  keep  not  the  commandments,"  2.  4;  "to  hate 
his  brother,"  2.  9  ;  ''to  love  the  world,''  2.  15  ;  expressions  that 
bespeak  settled  habit;  a  habit  alien  to  the  spirit  of  a  Christian. 

286,  To  this  class  of  expressions  belong  the  parallelisms  or 

metres  of  the  original  Scriptures  ;    in  which  one 
Words  ex-  ,      .  ,  ^  ^  '  ,    , 

plained  by  part  of  a  sentence  answers  more  or  less  accurately 
Parallelisms.    ^^  another. 

Sometimes  the  parallelism  is  synonymous  or  gradational  ; 
Synonymous  giving  precisely  the  same  thought,  or  the  same 
or  gi-ada-        thought  with  somo  addition. 

tional.  » 

■  The  first  Psalm  is  a  beautiful  instance  of  this  gradual  extension 
of  thought : 

Blessed  is  the  man 

That  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the  ungodly, 

Nor  standeth  in  the  way  of  sinners, 

Nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the  scornful. 


The  gradations  are  obvious — 


Walketh — has  casual 
intercovirse. 

Standeth — has  close 
intimacy. 

Sitteth — has  perma- 
nent connection. 


Counsel — has    public 

i-esort. 
Way — chosen  path. 

Seat — habitual     rest- 
ing place. 


Ungodly —  negatively 

wicked. 
Sinners  —   positively 

wicked. 
Scornful  —  profanely 

wicked. 


Similar  instances  may  be  found  in  Psa.  24.  3,  4:  Isa.  55.  6,  7. 
Prov.  16.  32,  is  an  instance  of  the  synonymous  parallel.     He  that 
is  slow  to  anger  is  commended,  not  because  he  is  listless  or  indif- 


THIRD  RULE  :   PARALLELISMS.  163 

ferent,  but  because  lie  "rulethhis  own  spirit:"  the  one  expi'essioa 
defining  the  meaning  of  the  other. 

Occasionally  these  parallelisms  extend  over  whole  chapters^  or 
over  books  of  Scripture.  In  this  case,  the  similarity  of  thought 
needs  to  be  traced  with  some  care.     Thus  in  Psa.  132. 

Ver.  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  is  answered  by  ver.  12. 

Ver.  7, , ,  by  ver.  13. 

Ver.  8, , ,  by  ver.  14. 

Ver.  9, , ,         by  ver.  15,  16. 

Ver.  10, ,,  by  ver.  17,  18. 

In  Psa.  135.  15-18,  thei'e  is  a  similar  instance. 

An  attention  to  these  parallelisms  is  often  necessary  to  bring  out 
the  meaning  of  Scriptiire.  In  Luke  12.  47,  48,  for  example,  the 
comparison  of  the  expression,  "  he  who  prepared  not,  neither  did 
according  to  his  will,"  with  the  expression,  "  he  that  did  commit 
tilings  worthy  of  stripes,"  suggests  the  reason  that  acts  of  omission 
in  spite  of  knowledge,  are  to  be  punished  with  many  stripes,  while 
sins  of  commission  without  knowledge,  are  to  be  punished  with  few. 

Sometimes  the  Paralldisms  are  antithetic  ;  containing  op- 
Antithetic,      posite  terms,  and  sometimes  opposite  sentiments. 

In  Prov.  10.  7,  for  example,  it  is  said  that  ''  the  memory  of  the 
just  is  blessed;"  where  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  memory  "  is  fixed 
by  the  following  line:  "but  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot," 
"  jSTame"  and  "memory"  are  synonymous.  In  Prov.  11.  24,  the 
scattering  which  tends  to  increase,  is  not  the  scattering  in  which 
extravagance  may  indulge,  but  the  exercise  of  a  \\ise  generosity:  for 
the  following  clause  opposes  it  to  the  withholding  of  more  than  is 
meet,  which  tends  to  poverty. 

In  Hosea  14.  9,  it  is  said,  "The  ways  of  the  Lord  are  right,  and 
the  just  shill  walk  in  them:  but  the  transgressors  shall  fall 
therein:"  where  the  just  are  obviously  the  obedient. 

Other  kinds  of  metrical  parallelism  are  also  frequent  in 
Scripture  :  but  as  they  are  parallelisms  of  construc- 

Constructive.  -^  /     n    i   .  i         r 

tion  only,  (called  therefore,  synthetic  or  construc- 
tive,) and  refer  only  to  the  form  of  the  sentence,  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary here  to  notice  them.  Psa.  19.  7-11 :  Psa.  148.  7-13: 
Isa.  14,  4-9,  are  instances. 

287.  (3.)  Very  often  the  meaning  is  decided  by  the  general 
Words  ex-      reasoning,  or  allusions  of  the  context. 
Sereaso^^ng       ('']  Sometimes  the  meaning  is  defined  by  the 
or  allusions,    allusions  of  the  context :  and  the  words  are  to  be 
t-aken  in  a  hmitea  sense. 


164  INTERPRETATION:   CONTEXT. 

In  Psalm  7.  8,  for  example,  David  prays,  "Judge  me,  0  Lord,  ac- 
cording to  my  X'ighteousness;"  i.e.,  according  to  his  innoceucy,  in  re- 
ference to  the  charge  of  Cnsh  the  Benjamite.  He  often  uses  the  same 
expression  with  similar  limitations.  The  word  ' ' righteous  "  or  "more 
righteous"  is  even  applied  to  -vsacked  men:  as  in  i  Kings  2.  32;  and 
in  2  Sam.  4.  1 1 .  In  the  second  instance,  Ishbosheth  is  said  to  be 
righteous  (though  he  had  opposed  Avhat  he  knew  to  be  God's  promise 
in  reference  to  David,)  merely  to  imply  that  he  had  done  no  injury 
to  his  murderers.  The  same  phrase  is  applied  to  Sodom  and  Go- 
morrah, because  they  were  less  gtiilty  than  Jerusalem,  Ezek.  16,  52. 
The  counsel  of  Ahithophel  is  called  good,  and  the  conduct  of  the 
unjust  steward  icise,  not  because  they  were  absolutely  so,  but  be- 
cause they  were  likely  means  of  accomplishing  the  ends  of  each. 

In  John  9.  3,  it  is  said,  "  Neither  hath  this  man  sinned,  nor  his 
parents."  The  meaning  is  simply,  that  his  blindness  was  not  the 
punishment  of  any  particular  sin. 

In  James  5.  14,  the  elders  of  the  church  are  commanded  to  anoint 
the  sick,  and  to  pray  over  him;  "  and  the  prayer  of  faith  shall  save 
him."  The  church  of  Rome  founds  on  this  one  passage  the  doctrine 
of  extreme  unction;  which  they  say  is  to  save  the  soul  of  the  dying. 
But  from  ver.  15,  16,  it  is  plain  that  by  "save"  is  meant  "heal." 
So  that,  whatever  this  practice  implied,  it  was  to  be  observed,  not 
with  the  view  of  saving  the  soul;  but,  in  the  case  of  one  already  a 
Christian,  with  the  view  of  restoring  his  health. 

Opposite  (^0  The  context,   or  general  arrangement  of  a 

sense  some-     passage,  may  even  prove  that  words  are  to  be  un- 
tiraes  uiten-     ^  \  .       ■,  •         pi- 

ded.  derstood  m  the  very  opposite  01  their  usual  sense. 

In  I  Kings  22.  15,  "Go,  and  prosper"  was  spoken  ironically: 
and  meant  the  reverse.  In  JSTumb.  22.  20,  "  Rise  up,  and  go"  ap- 
pears from  ver.  12.  32,  to  imply  "  If,  after  all  I  have  told  you,  yovir 
heart  is  set  on  violating  my  command,  do  it  at  your  own  risk." 
The  use  of  this  form  of  speech  may  be  seen  in  i  Kings  j8.  27; 
Judg.  10.  14:  Mark  7.  9:  i  Cor.  4.  8. 

288.  The  general  reasoning  of  the  various  passages  of 
In  reasoning  *^cripture  is,  commonly,  sufficiently  plain  to  indi- 
of  Scripture,  cate  the  meaning  of  the  words  employed.  Great 
and^particies  attention,  however,  needs  to  be  paid  to  the  use  of 
important,  parent'beses  and  of  particles ;  the  particles  con- 
necting different  branches  of  a  sentence,  or  argument,  toge- 
ther, and  the  parentheses  withdrawing  from  the  direct  line  of 
argument  the  words  which  are  included  in  them.    The  latter 


interpretation:  context.  165 

interrupt  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence,  and 
the  former  perfect,  or  complete  it. 

289.  When  the  parenthesis  is  short,  it  creates  no  difficulty, 
Parentheses  ^^^^  ^^^  scarcely  be  said  to  interrupt  the  reasoning, 
^^  *  as  in  Phil.  3.  18,  19  :  Acts  i.  15.  When  it  is  long, 
it  seems  to  embarrass  the  argument,  and  often  ends  in  the 
repetition  of  the  words  of  the  preceding  clause,  Eph.  3.  2  to 
4.  I  (first  clause)  is  all  in  parenthesis  ;  so  in  Phil.  i.  27  to 
2.  16,  and,  perhaps,  3.  2  to  3.  14.  In  the  first  and  last  of 
these  cases,  "  therefore  "  is  an  evidence  of  the  end  of  the  paren- 
thesis. 

Tlie  parenthesis  is  often  indicated  in  the  argumentative  parts  of 
Scripture,  by  the  use  of  the  word  "for:"  as  in  Eom.  2.  11-16,  or 
13-16:  2  Cor.  6.  2:  Eph.  2.  14-18. 

290.  Attention  to  particles  is  often  important. 

Thex,  for  example,  is  often  emphatic ;  sometimes  as 
an  adverb  of  time,  as  in  Mai.  3.  4,  and  16.  And  again 
in  I  Thess.  4.  16,  ''The  dead  in  Chi'ist  shall  rise  first.  Then,  we 
which  are  alive,  and  remain,  shall  be  caught  up  together  with  theia 
in  the  clouds."  It  is  not  said  here,  that  the  dead  in  ChrLst  rise  be- 
fore the  rest  of  the  dead,  but  that  the  dead  rise  before  the  living 
are  changed.  But  it  is  much  oftener  used  as  an  equivalent  for 
therefore.  Therefore,  itself  generally  expresses  an  inference  or 
conclusion  from  what  precedes :  but  it  sometimes  indicates  that  the 
sentence  has  been  interrupted  by  a  parenthesis,  or  is  repeated :  and 
means  "As  I  before  said,"  or  "to  resume."  Matt.  7.  24,  (see  ver. 
21):  I  Cor.  8.  4,  (see  ver.  i):  Mark  3.  31,  (see  ver.  21):  John  6.  24, 
(see  ver.  22):  Gal.  3.  5,  (see  ver.  2).  Through,  means  sometimes 
*'  by  means  of:"  as  in  John  15.  3.  "  Through  the  word  I  have 
spoken  unto  you:"  and  sometimes  "  for  the  sake  of,"  Eom.  5.  i ;  or 
'•'  in  the  midst  of,"  as  in  Gal.  4.  13.  Now,  is  sometimes  an  adverb 
of  time:  sometimes  it  means  "as  the  case  is,"  contrasting  an 
actual  with  a  supposable  one,  John  t8.  36,  where  "then"  means 
"in  that  case,"  and  asserts  the  consequence;  Luke  19.  42;  Heb. 
8.  6,  (ver.  4.)  "Eather"  means  "on  the  contrary,"  Eom.  11. 
II :  12.19:  Eph.  5.  II.  The  comparison  implied  in  the  modern  use 
of  the  word  is  expressed  in  Scripture  by  "  and  not."     See  §  277  (c). 

291.  The  connection  is  sometimes  obscured  through  the 
ether  sources  ^^se  of  a  covert  dialogue;  objections,  responses, 
Tn  thfcou-^     ^^"^  replies  not  being  distinctly  marked. 

iiectiou.  ggg  j^QjQ^  ,^  ^^  g|.g_^  where  we  have  a  dialogue  between 


166  INTERPRETATION  :   CONTEXT. 

the  apostle  and  an  objector,     Isa.  52.   13:  53,  54,  a  dialcgue  be* 
tween  God,  the  prophet,  and  the  Jews. 
Psa.  20.  15 :  24.  104,  are  responsive. 

The  abruptness  of  transition  in  historical  narrative,  and 
especially  in  prophecy,  creates  difficulty.  Different,  and 
often  distant  events  are  joined  in  what  seems  to  be  the  same 
paragraph. 

Frequently  a  difficulty  arises  from  the  fact,  that  the  con- 
clusion of  an  argument  is  omitted,  or  a  premise  is  suppressed, 
or  an  objection  is  answered,  without  our  being  told  what  the 
objection  is. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  furnishes  examples  of  all  these  diffi- 
culties.    Rom.  3.  22-24:  8.  17,  18:  9.  6:  chapters  3  and  4. 

292.  Attention  to  the  context  is  of  great  moment  in  ascer- 
taining the  meaning  of  the  figurative  language  of 
piiedTo  inter-  Scripture,  and  in  determining  whether  the  language 
pret  figures,  ^g  figurative  or  hteral.  That  the  expressions  are 
figurative  is  sometimes  stated  or  impUed,  and  then  the  mean- 
ing is  appended.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  look  to  the 
general  argument  or  allusions  of  the  passage. 

In  I  Pet.  3.21,  the  baptism  which  saves  us  is  defined.  It  is  ''not 
the  putting  away  of  the  filth  of  the  flesh,  but  the  answer  of  a  good 
conscience  towards  God."  ''To  bear  one's  sin,"  is  a  figurative  ex- 
pression, meaning  to  suffer  the  punishment  of  it.  Hence  the 
synonymous  expressions  to  be  cut  off,  and  to  die,  are  connected  with 
it,  Exod.  28.  43:  Lev.  19.  8. 

In  Hosea  4.  12,  and  elsewhere,  (especially  in  Ezekiel,)  a  spirit  of 
lasciviousness  is  said  to  have  drawn  the  Israelites  astray;  but  then 
it  is  immediately  added,  "  They  sacrifice  upon  the  tops  of  the 
mountains,  and  bm-n  incense  upon  the  hills;"  to  show  that  it  is 
spiritual  unfaithfulness  of  which  the  prophet  is  speaking. 

When  Christ  said  "  He  that  eateth  me,  even  he  shall  live  by  me," 
John  6.  57,  the  Jews  misunderstood  his  meaning,  but  he  had  him- 
self already  explained  it :  for  in  the  same  discourse,  he  had  repeated 
the  truth  in  literal  terms,  "  He  that  believeth  on  me  hath  ever- 
lasting life,"  This  text  is  understood  literally,  by  most  Roman 
Catholic  writers;  though  our  Lord  expressly  gave  it  this  figurative 
interpretation ;  and  the  ordinance  of  the  Supper,  to  which  they  sup- 
pose it  to  refer,  had  not  then  been  instituted,  and  was  entirely 
unknown  to  His  hearers. 

In  Matt.    26.  28,  Christ  calls  the  wine  his  blood:  and  again,  in 


interpretation:  scope.  167 

ver.  29,  he  calls  the  same  cup  the  fruit  of  the  vine:  implying,  that 
his  first  expression  was  figurative.  The  expression  in  i  Cor.  3.  15, 
''  He  himself  shall  be  saved,  yet  so  as  by  fire,"  is  the  passage  in 
Scripture  generally  quoted  in  favour  of  the  popish  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory. Attention  to  the  context  will  show  that  the  whole  is 
figurative.  The  wood,  hay,  stubble,  which  man  may  build  on  the 
foundation,  are  expressions  confessedly  figurative.  The  foundation 
itself  is  figurative,  and  means  Christ;  and  the  expression  '^  so  as  by 
fire,"  must  be  understood  in  a  sense  consistent  with  the  general 
argument  of  the  passage. 

Similarly  figurative  expressions  may  be  seen  in  i  Cor.  5.  8:  Matt. 
16,  6,  12.  See  also  Isa.  51.  i:  Eph.  5.  32,  where  the  union  of 
Christ  and  his  church  (and  not  marriage,)  is  spoken  of  as  the 
mystery. 

293.  When  the  words,  the  connection  of  the  sentence,  and 
Fourth  rule  the  context,  fail  in  removing  all  ambiguity,  or  in 
tion°*graerS"  gi^'i°g  ^^^  f^^l  meaning  of  the  writer,  it  is  then 
scope.  necessary  that  we  look  at  the  scope  or  design  of 
the  book  itself,  or  of  some  large  section,  in  which  the  words 
and  expressions  occur.  The  last  preceding  rule  touches  this  ; 
and,  indeed,  all  the  rules  of  interpretation  glide  by  degrees 
into  one  another. 

294.  Sometimes  the  scope  of  a  section,  or  of  the  book  itself, 

is  mentioned. 
Scope  some- 

tiSTed'"^'"  ^^  -^°'^-  ^-   ^^'  ^°^  example,    St.  Paul  tells  us  the 

conclusion,  to  which  his  reasonings,  iip  to  that  point, 
had  brought  him :  namely,  that  man  is  justified  by  faith,  without 
the  deeds  of  the  law. 

The  principal  conclusions  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  are 
stated,  the  first  doctrinal,  in  2.  ir,  12,  that  the  Gentiles  were  no 
longer  aliens;  the  second  practical,  in  4.  1-3,  exhorting  Jews  and 
Gentiles  to  exercise  the  spirit  and  temper  which  become  their  new 
relation.  Subordinate  conclusions  are  expressed  in  3.  13 :  4.  17,  25  : 
5.  I,  7:  6.  13,  14:  where  the  words  ''therefore"  or  "wherefore," 
generally  indicate  the  result  of  each  successive  argument. 

The  design  of  the  Proverbs  is  told  us  in  i.  1-4,  6;  of  the  Gospels 
Proverbs.  i^  Jol^  20.  31;  of  the  Bible  itself  in  Eom.  15.  4* 
The  Bible.       2  Tim.  3.  16,  17. 

295.  The  design  of  some  parts  of  the  Bible  can  be  gathered 
DesiKii  a-      Only  from  the  occasions  on  which  they  were  written. 

th^'^^ccS  ^^®  ^°*^  ^^^^  ^''"^^  probably  written  by  Moses,  at 
the  time  when  God  sent  back  the  children  of  Israel  to 
wander  in  the  wilderness.     The  scope  of  Psa.  18.  34.  3. 


16S  INTERPRETATION  :  SCOPE. 

5 1 .  is  illustrated  by  their  inscriptions .  The  Psalms  which  are  headed 
*'Songs  of  Degrees,"  120-134.  were  wiitten  forthe  Jews,  to  be  sung 
during  their  annxial  journeys  to  Jerusalem.  Many  of  the  verses 
will  be  seen  to  have  additional  meaning  from  the  knowledge  of  this 
fact. 

The  Epistles  to  the  Colossians,  the  Ephesians,  and  the  Galatians, 
Ep  Colos-  were  all  written  to  ilkxstrate  the  peculiar  doctrines  of 
sians,  Ep.  the  gospel,  and  to  answer  the  misrepresentations  of  the 
Ep!^Gala-^'  Judaizing  teachers  of  the  church.  Many  expressions 
tiana.  -will  be  explained  by  a  reference  to  the  Acts  of  the 

Apostles,  and  especially  to  the  15th  chapter;  where  we  have  the 
history  of  the  whole  question,  which  these  epistles  discuss. 

296.  The  great  means,  however,  of  obtaining  a  knowledge 
Scope  f-a-  ^f  *^®  scope  of  the  various  books  of  the  Bible,  or 
tberedlrom  of  particular  passages,  is  the  repeated  and  con- 
study  of  tinuous  study  of  the  books  themselves.  When 
Scripture.  q^xcq  this  knowledge  is  gained,  it  will  throw  great 
light  on  particular  expressions,  and  illustrate  other  parts  of 
the  Bible  in  a  way  both  instructive  and  surprising. 

To  understand  the  precept  of  our  Lord,  Matt.  19.  17.     "If  thou 

wilt  enter  into  life,  keep  the  commandments,"  we  look 

Examp  eb,       ^^  ^^^^  scope.     An  inquirer  proud  of  his  own  righteous. 

ness,  asks  what  he  must  do  to  obtain  eternal  life,  and  our  Lord  refers 

him  to  the  law,  to  rebuke  and  humble  him. 

The  subjects  of  the  predictions,  Isa.  1-39,  are  generally  indicated. 
The  subjects  of  subsequent  chapters,  are  less  marked,  and  the  con- 
nection can  be  traced  only  by  repeated  perusal.  When  traced,  it 
throws  light  upon  the  meaning.  Chapters  5 1-5  5,  for  example,  form 
one  prophecy;  51.  1-8,  containing  an  earnest  thrice-repeated  appeal 
to  the  people  to  hear,  verses  i,  4,  7 :  51.  9-52.  12,  contains  an  earnest 
appeal  to  God  and  to  Zion;  verses  9,  17:  52.  i:  52.  13-53.  12,  is  a 
glorious  description  of  the  work  of  the  Messiah,  and  forms  the 
centre  of  the"  prophecy;  54.  describes  the  results  of  his  work  on  the 
destiny  of  the  church;  and  55.  on  the  destiny  of  the  world. 

297.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  tell  whether  the  irame- 
sco  e  of  as-  ^^^'^^  scope  of  the  passage,  or  the  general  scope  of 
sage  and  of     the  book,  is  to  be  regarded. 

book  some- 
times dif-  In  Luke  1 5 .  for  example,  there  are  several  parables 
addressed  to  the  Pharisees,  who  complained  that  our 
Lord  received  sinners:  and  among  those  parables,  is  that  of  the 
prodigal  son.  It  is  certain  that  the  scope  of  the  Gospel  of  L\ike,  is 
to  exhibit  and  recommend  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles  :  and  the 
question  arises,  who  is  meant  by  the  elder  son,  and  who,  by  the 


INTERPRETATION  :   SCOPE.  169 

younger  ?  Some  say,  the  Pharisee  and  the  sinner;  othei-s  say,  the 
Jew  and  the  Gentile.  The  first  interpretation  is  sanctioned  by  the 
scope  of  the  context;  and  the  second,  by  the  general  scope  of  the 
Gospel.  It  will  be  seen  that  both  interpretations  are  consistent  and 
probable.  A  due  regard  to  the  scope  of  the  parables  is  of  great  im- 
portance. 

It  h?^  been  doubted  whether  the  "rest"  (or  the  keeping  of  a 
rest  or  sabbath,  a.s  it  may  be  translated,)  spoken  of  in  Heb.  4.  refers 
to  the  literal  sabbath,  to  heaven,  or  to  the  peace  which  the  gospel 
bi'ings,  ending  however  in  etei-nal  life:  a  question  that  can  be  de- 
cided only  by  the  argument.    Comp.  verses  3,  9,  10. 

In  the  same  Epistle,  the  description  of  Melchisedec  as  M'ithout 
descent,  has  created  some  difficulty.  It  will  be  noticed,  however, 
that  the  apostle  is  compaiing  his  priesthood  with  that  of  Christ; 
and  it  is  said,  that  both  are  alike  in  this,  that  they  are  equally 
without  succession;  and  so  differ  from  that  of  Aaron.  The  limited, 
and  not  the  universal  meaning  of  the  wojds,  is  therefore  the  only 
one  required  by  the  argument. 

In  the  same  way,  if  we  need  further  light  on  the  apparent  contra- 
Comparison  <iiction  between  St.  Paul  and  St.  James,  we  look  at  the 
of  the  scope  scope  of  their  Epistles.  That  to  the  Romans  is  designed  to 
Sdlesap.  P^o^^'  *^^*  ^y  *^^  performance  of  the  duties  of  the  law, 
parent  con-  no  man  is  justified,  because  his  obedience  is  imperfect. 
tnviictioDs.  rpj^Q  Q^jgg^  Qf  ^j^g  Epistle  of  James,  is  to  prove,  that  no 
man  can  be  justified  by  a  faith  which  does  not  tend  to  holiness.  If 
these  designs  be  kept  in  view,  it  will  be  found,  that  the  apparent 
contradictions  cease.  The  object  of  the  first  Epistle  of  John  is  de- 
fined in  chap.  2.  i,  as  similar  to  the  object  of  thp  Epistle  of  James, 

The  scope  of  the  Romans,  as  compared  with  the  scope  of  the  Ga- 
latians,  explains  an  apparent  contradiction  between  these  Epistles. 
In  the  one,  the  observance  of  days  is  allowed,  Rom.  14.  5 .  In  the 
other,  it  is  forbidden.  Gal.  4.  10,  11.  The  permission  is  given  to 
Jewish  converts  who  had  a  tender  conscientious  scruple  about  setting 
aside  the  precepts  of  the  law  in  which  they  had  been  trained.  The 
prohibition  is  addressed  to  Gentile  converts,  who  supposed  that  the 
cross  could  not  save  them,  but  through  circumcision.  Their  ob- 
servance of  days  was  owing  to  that  feeling,  and  therefore  con- 
demned. 

298.  The  most  comprehensive  rule  of  interpretation  yet 
Fifth  rule :  remains.  Compare  Scripture  w-ith  Scripture ; 
STheT  "^^ings  spiritual  with  spiritual,"  i  Cor.  2.  13.  It 
parts  of  is  by  the  observance  of  this  rule  alone  that  we 

i>Lnpture.       become  sure   of  the  true  meaning  of  particular 


170  INTERPHETATION  :   PARALLEL  PASSAGES. 

passages  ;  and,  above  all,  it  is  by  this  rule  alone  tliat  wo 
ascertain  the  doctrines  of  Scripture  on'questions  of  faith  and 
practice.  A  Scripture  truth  is  really  the  consistent  explana- 
tion of  all  that  Scripture  teaches  in  reference  to  the  question 
examined  ;  and  a  Scripture  duty  is  the  consistent  exj^lanation 
of  all  the  precepts  of  Scripture  on  the  duty  examined.  It  is 
in  studying  the  Scripture  as  in  studying  the  works  of  God. 
We  lirst  examine  each  fact  or  phenomenon,  and  ascertain  its 
meaning ;  and  then  classify  it  with  other  similar  facts,  and 
attempt  to  explain  the  whole.  Such  explanation  is  called  a 
general  law. 

299.  The  importance  of  studying  Scripture  in  this  way  is 
Importance  strikingly  manifest  from  the  mistakes  of  the  Jews, 
of  this  coui-  "  We  have  heard  out  of  the  law"  (said  they)  "  that 
paiison.  Christ  abideth  for  ever,"  Isa.  9.  7  :  Dan.  7.  14, 
"  and  how  sayest  thou  The  Son  of  man  must  be  lifted  up  ?" 
The  everlasting  duration  of  his  kingdom  was  often  foretold ; 
but  that  he  should  be  lifted  up  and  cut  off,  though  not  for 
himself,  had  been  foretold  too,  Isa.  53. :  Dan.  9.  26.  A  com- 
parison of  these  passages  would  have  removed  the  ground  of 
their  objections. 

300.  (i).  Sometimes  we  compare  the  words  of  Scripture 
Paiaiieiisni  with  oue  another,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining 
of  words.        ll^^,ly  moaning. 

David,  for  example,  is  called  in  i  Sam.  13,  14,  and  iu  Acta  13.  22, 
"  a  mau  after  God's  owu  heart:"  and  the  question  lias  been  asked, 
whether  this  expression  is  meant  to  exhibit  David  as  a  model  of 
perfection.  On  referring  to  i  Sam.  2.  35,  however,  it  will  befomid 
that  the  phrase  is  again  used,  "  I  will  raise  me  up  a  faithful  priest, 
who  shall  do  according  to  that  which  is  in  mine  lieart:"  and  this 
suggests  the  pi-imary  meaning;  namely,  that  David,  especially  in 
his  public  official  conduct,  should  fulfil  the  Divine  will,  and  main- 
tain inviolate  the  laws  which  God  had  enjoined. 

From  the  Psalms  and  histoi-y,  we  gather  that  David  was  also  an 
eminently  devout  mau,  but  it  was  in  reference  to  his  kingly  office, 
primarily,  that  this  description  was  given;  however  applicable  it 
may  also  be  to  tlie  general  spirit  of  piety  which  David  evinced,  and 
to  the  unfeigned  penitence  which  he  manifested  after  haviug  been 
betrayed  into  sin. 

In  x-eading  Gal.  3.  27,  we  find  the  expression  "  As  many  as  have 

been  baptized  into  Christ  have  put  on  Christ:"  and  we 
l*ulon Christ.    .  .    ^„  i  .1  r^     i     .1     i.  ^  i. 

turn  to  Kom.  13.  14;  and  there  find,  that  to  put  ou 


INTERPRETATION  :   PARALLEL  PASSAGES.  171 

-Christ,  13  opposed  to  making  provision  for  the  flesh;  and  then  again 
to  Col.  3.10,  where  the  same  phrase  of  "putting  on"  the  new  man, 
implies  renewal  in  knowledge  after  the  image  of  the  Redeemer, 
Cver.  12,)  kindness,  humbleness,  meekness,  and,  above  all,  charity, 
the  bond  of  perfectness.  In  Gal.  6.  17,  the  apostle  says,  "From 
henceforth,  let  no  man  trouble  me,"  (by  such  calumnies,  as  if  I 
Avere  a  friend  of  the  ceremonial  law);  "  for  I  bear  in  my  body  the 
marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus."  We  turn  to  2  Cor.  4.  10,  where  we  find 
a  similar  phrase,  "  bearing  about  in  the  body  the  dying  of  the  Lord 
Jesus:"  and,  turning  again  to  2  Coi\  11.  23-27,  we  gather  that  these 
jnarks  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  were  simply  the  scars  of  his  sufferings  for 
Christ;  not  (as  some  interpreting  the  passage  literally  have  sup- 
l)osed,)  the  marks  or  stigmata  of  the  cross. 

The  comparison  of  the  words  of  Scripture  is  often  essential 
Importance  to  the  right  understanding  of  Scripture  truth, 
<jf  comparison  especially  in  reference  to  proper  names. 

in  reference  x  ^  i      j. 

to  names.  jj^  p^g^^  jq^^  ^-q^.  example,  it  is  said,   "  They  make  a 

calf  in  HoREB :"  i.e.,  as  appears  from  Exod.  32,  in  the  very  place 
where  God  had  taken  tliem  into  covenant,  and  immediately  after 
they  had  pledged  themselves  to  renounce  all  idolatry. 

In  Numb.  22.  24,  we  have  an  account  of  the  character  of  Balaam: 
and  liis  position  as  a  prophet  makes  us  question  at  first  whether  he 
was  not  a  good  man,  though  gi'ievously  mistaken.  On  turning  to 
the  New  Testament,  however,  we  find  the  question  decided.  The 
apostle  Peter  tells  us  that  covetousness  was  his  snare.  The 
apostle  Jude  classes  him  with  Cain  and  Corah:  and  in  Rev.  2.  14, 
we  are  told  that  it  was  at  his  suggestion  that  Balak  threw  a  tempta- 
tion in  the  way  of  the  children  of  Israel,  which  caused  the  destruc- 
tion of  23,000  of  them  in  one  day. 

301.  A  close  attention  to  Scripture  will  show  that  there  are 
Verbal  mrai-  ^^  least  three  kinds  of  verbal  parallels.  First^ 
leiisms  of  where  the  same  thing  is  said  in  the  same  words, 
three  kinds.  ^  ^^  ^o.  2-17  :  Deut.  5.  6-18  :  Psa.  14. :  53. :  Isa. 
2.  2-4  :  and  Micah  4.  1-3.  Here  one  passage  may  be  used  to 
prove  the  accuracy  of  the  other,  or  the  occasion  or  application 
of  the  passage  may  throw  light  on  the  passage  itself.  Isa.  6. 
9,  10,  is  referred  to,  for  example,  six  times  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  a  comparison  of  all  the  passages  will  illustrate  the 
text.  Secondly,  where  the  same  facts  are  narrated  in  similar 
and  some  identical  words,  as  in  Exod.,  Lev.,  and  Deut. ;  Sam., 
•Kings,  and  Chron. ;  and  in  the  Gospels.     In  this  case,  plaia 

I  2 


172  INTERPRETATION  :    PARALLEL   P^VSSAGES. 

expressions  illustrate  difficult  ones.  One  passage  explains  or 
modifies  the  other,  as  in  Matt.  2.  i,  and  Luke  2.  1-4.  Thirdhj 
where  the  words  or  idioms  are  used  in  difierent  connections  ; 
"sound  doctrine,"  for  example,  is  an  expression  used  in 
I  Tim.  I.  10 :  6.  3 :  2  Tim.  i.  13 :  4.  3  :  Tit.  1.9:  2.  i,  2,  8 : 
and  from  a  comparison,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  phrase  means, 
the  grand  simple  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  as  opposed  to  sub- 
tlety, and  as  sanctifying  in  their  influence.  In  reference  to 
such  cases,  the  signification  of  words,  in  a  passage  where  it 
is  fixed  by  the  connection,  should  be  applied  to  interpret 
j)assages  where  there  is  nothing  that  can  fix  it.  In  Rom.  7. 
18,  the  word  "flesh"  means  a  natural  unholy  state,  as  is 
ascertained  from  chap.  8.  8,  etc. 

Sometimes  the  phrases  employed,  though  in  themselves 
ahke,  are  used  in  altogether  difierent  senses,  as  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages:  John  i.  21  :  Matt.  11.  14:  John  5.  31: 
8.  14  :  Acts  9.  7  :  22.  9  :  Luke  i.  33  :  i  Cor.  15.  24. 

Apparently  difierent  expressions  are  thus  harmonized. 
God's  ofier,  for  example,  of  seven  years'  famine,  2  Sam.  24. 13, 
includes  the  three  preceding  years  during  which  that  calamity 
had  continued,  2  Sam.  21.  i.  In  i  Chron.  21.  11,  12,  there  is 
no  reference  to  the  j)receding  famine,  and  the  ofier  is  there- 
fore of  three  years  only.     So  2  Sam.  24.  24  :  i  Chron.  21.  25. 

302.  In  considering  verbal  parallelisms,  two  general  mles 
c  f  n  in  ^^^  im^Dortant.  Ascertain,  first,  the  sense  which 
using  verbal  the  words  to  be  examined  bear  in  other  parts  of 
para  e  sms.  ^-^^  same  author,  and  then  in  other  writings  of  the 
same  date,  and  then  throughout  the  Bible.  The  meaning  of 
words  often  changes ;  and  all  writers  do  not  use  the  same 
word  in  the  same  sense.  And,  secondly,  no  meaning  can  be 
admitted  from  an  apparently  parallel  passage,  if  that  meaning 
is  inconsistent  with  the  context,  or  with  the  reasoning  of  the 
author.  In  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Galatians, 
for  example,  "  works,"  when  used  alone,  means  the  opposite 
of  faith,  namely,  the  performance  of  legal  duties  as  the 
ground  of  salvation.  In  James,  the  expression  always  means 
the  obedience  and  hohness  which  flow  from  faith.  In  the 
one  case,  works  are  inconsistent  with  salvation  ;  in  the  other, 
they  are  essential  to  it.  But  it  is  impossible  to  explam  the 
one  by  the  other.  So,  in  John  i .  i ,  the  term  "  word  "  cannot 
bo  explainea  by  2  Tim.  4.  2,  where  the  same  term  is  em- 


INTERPRETATIOX  :  PAR.\XLEL  PASSAGES.  173 

ployed,  but  in  a  different  sense.  The  "word"  means  the 
gospel  in  Timothy,  but  that  meaning  cannot  be  apphed  to 
the  passages  in  John,  so  as  to  give  any  consistent  sense  to 
the  context. 

303.  (2).  Sometimes  we  compare  the  facts  or  doctrines  of 
Parallelism  Scripture  in  order  to  gain  a  complete  view  of 
of  ideas.  Scripture  truth.  This  is  the  parallehsm  of  ideas, 
and  not  of  words  only. 

If,  for  example,  we  wish  to  know  whether,  in  the  Lord's  supper, 
the  cup  is  to  be  received  by  all  the  faithful,  or  only  by  the  priest, 
we  turn  to  Matt.  26.  27,  and  we  find  the  command,  "Drink  ye  all 
of  it."  And,  if  it  be  asked  whether  "all "  means  the  apostles  only, 
or  all  in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  we  turn  to  i  Cor.  11.  28, 
where  the  same  topic  is  treated  of.  There  we  find  that  in  each  case 
(six  in  all)  the  eating  of  the  bread  and  the  drinking  of  the  cup  ai'e 
mentioned  together,  and  enjoined  on  all  Chi-istians  indifierently. 
The  charge  given  to  all  is,  "  Let  a  man  examine  himself;  and  so  let 
liim  eat  of  that  bread,  and  drink  of  that  cup." 

If  we  are  investigating  the  meaning  of  Matt.  16.  18,  "Thou  art 
Peter,  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  my  church,"  and  desh-e  to 
know  its  meaning,  we  turn  to  i  Cor.  3 .  1 1,  and  find  that  the  only 
foundation  of  the  church  is  Christ.  In  the  sense,  therefore,  of 
being  the  foundation  on  which  the  salvation  of  the  church  is  to  rest, 
the  passage  in  one  sense  of  it  is  at  variance  with  other  parts  of 
Scripture.  We  turn,  again,  to  Acts  2.  41,  and  to  Acts  10:  15.  7, 
and  find  that  Peter's  preaching  was  the  means  of  the  first  conver- 
sions, both  among  Jews  and  Gentiles.  His  labours,  therefore,  com- 
menced the  building,  and  in  this  sense  he  might  be  the  fomidation 
of  the  church.  Or  the  statement  may  refer  to  Peter's  confession,  as 
Augustine  and  Luther  held,  and  then  the  parallel  passages  ai-e 
Gal.  I.  16:  John  6.  51:  i  John  3.  23:  4.  2,  3. 

The  most  important  rule  in  reference  to  this  order  of 
Wiat  is  oi>  parallelism  is,  that  a  passage  in  which  an  idea  is 
^"exSned  ^^P^'^ssed  bricfl}^  or  obscurely  is  explained  by 
iiy  what  is  those  in  which  it  is  fully  or  clearly  revealed  ;  and 
p  am.  ^^^^  difficult  and   figurative  expressions  are   ex- 

plained by  such  as  are  proper  and  ob\'ious. 

The  doctrine  of  justification  by  fh,ith,  for  example,  is  explamed 
briefly  m  Phil.  3.  9,  and  fully  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Komans  and  the 
Galatians. 

"A  new  creature"  is  a  figiu-ative  expression,  used  in  Gal.  6.  15, 
lUid  is  explain'jd  in  chap.  5.  6,  and  in  i  Cor.  7.  19. 


174  INTERPRETATION  :   ANALOGY   01^    FAITH. 

The  charity  spoken  of  in  i  Pet.  4.  8  is  "brotherly  love,"  and  it 
is  said  to  cover  "  a  multitude  of  sins  ;"  not  because  it  extinguit;he.s 
them  and  so  justifies  the  sinner,  but  (as  shown  in  Prov.  10.  12) 
because  it  quenches  contention  and  strife. 

304.  When  any  passage  is  explained  by  a  reference,  not  to 
raraiieiism  any  One  or  more  texts,  but  by  a  reference  to  the 
analogy-  of  general  tenor  of  Scripture,  it  is  then  said  to  be 
faith.  interpreted  according  to  the  analogy,  or  rule 

OF  FAITH.  We  have  examples  of  this  kind  of  reference  in 
Gal.  5.  14,  and  again  in  i  Cor.  15.  3-11,  where  the  apostle 
states  the  facts  and  doctrines  connected  with  the  death  and 
resurrection  of  Christ,  and  then  proceeds  to  prove  other 
facts  and  doctrines  from  them. 

This  analogy  of  faith  is  called  in  the  Bible,  "the  Scrip- 
Meaning  of  tures,"  I  Cor.  15.  3,  4  ;  "  all  the  law,"  as  in  Gal.  5. 
thistenn.  j^  .  ^nd  "the  mouth  of  all  the  prophets,"  Acts  3. 
18,  "The  analogy  of  faith"  is  the  expression  used  by  the 
apostle  Paul,  in  Rom.  12.  6,  where  he  exhorts  those  who 
expound  the  Scriptures  (or  prophesy)  to  do  it  according  to 
the  proportion  or  analogy,  the  measure  or  rule  of  faith. 

The  expression  therefore  is  identical  with  "the  whole 
tenor  of  Scripture  ;"  and  the  doctrine  which  is  founded  upon 
it  is  taken  from  all  the  texts  relating  to  one  subject,  when 
impartially  compared ;  the  expressions  of  each  being  re- 
stricted by  those  of  the  rest,  and  the  whole  explained  in 
mutual  consistency. 

(i).  God  is  set  forth  in  Scripture,  for  example,  as  a  Spirit, 

omniscient,  and  holy,  and  supreme.     All  passages, 

Examples.        .,         „  %.  ,  -^ \  ^        ,  „.  ^      .    ^-   ■, 

therefore,  which  seem  to  represent  Him  as  material, 

local,  limited  in  knowledge,  in  power,  or  in  righteousness,  are 

to  be  interpreted  agreeably  to  these  revealed  truths. 

(2).  If,  again,  any  expositor  were  to  explain  the  passages  of 
Scripture  which  speak  of  justification  by  faith  as  if  it  freed 
us  from  obligations  to  holiness,  such  an  interpretation  must 
be  rejected,  because  it  counteracts  the  main  design  and 
spirit  of  the  gospel. 

(3).  In  Prov.  16.  4,  it  is  said,  "  The  Lord  has  made  all  things 
for  himself :  yea,  even  the  wicked  for  the  day  of  evil."  The 
idea  that  the  wicked  w^cre  created  that  they  might  be  con- 
demned, which  some  have  founded  upon  this  passage,  is 
inconsistent  with  innumerable  jiarts  of  Scripture  (Psa.  145. 9  : 


INO^RPRETATION  :   PARALLEL  PASSAGES.  1 75 

Ezek.  i8.  23  :  2  Pet.  3.  9).  The  meaning  therefore  is,  as  de- 
termined by  the  analogy  of  faith,  that  all  evil  shall  contribute 
to  the  glory  of  God,  and  promote  the  accomplishment  of  his 
adora,ble  designs. 

305.  It  is  thus  that  philosophy  interprets  natural  appear- 
Genoiai  laws  ances.  When  once  a  general  law  is  established, 
appiifcdiu  particular  facts  are  placed  imder  it,  and  any  ap- 
natural  pearaucc  that  seems  contradictory  is  specially 
philosophy,  examined;  and  of  two  explanations  of  the  ai>- 
parent  anomaly,  that  one  is  selected  which  harmonizes  best 
with  the  general  law. 

306.  The  use  of  the  parallel  passages  of  Scripture  in  deter- 
Paraiieiisms  mining  whether  language  is  figurative  or  literal  is 
Sgmes!  ^^  of  g^sat  moment.  God,  for  example,  often  repre- 
Exanipies.  sents  himself  as  giving  men  to  drink  of  a  cuxd 
which  he  holds  in  his  hand :  they  take  it,  and  fall  prostrate 
on  the  ground  in  fearful  intoxication.  The  figure  is  used 
with  much  brevity,  and  without  explanation,  in  some  of  the 
prophets.''  In  Isa.  51.  17-23,  it  is  fully  explained,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  image  becomes  clear.  The  intoxication  is 
desolation  and  helplessness,  more  than  can  be  borne  ;  and 
the  cup  is  the  fury  (or  righteous  indignation)  of  Jehovah. 

In  reading  Acts  2.  21,  we  find  it  said,  that  "  whosoever  shall 
call  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  shall  be  saved  ;"  and  the  question 
may  be  asked,  What  is  meant  by  calling  upon  the  name  of 
the  Lord  1  jMatthew  tells  us,  that  "  not  every  one  that  saith 
Lord !  Lord !  shaU  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven :"  so 
that  the  passage  is  not  to  be  understood  in  its  hteral  and 
restricted  sense.  On  referring  to  Rom.  10.  11-14,  and  i  Cor. 
I.  2,  we  find  that  this  language,  which  is  quoted  from  the 
prophet  Joel,  implied  an  admission  of  the  Messiahship  of 
Christ,  and  reUance  on  the  doctrines  which  he  revealed. 

307.  It  is  obvious  that,  while  the  figurative  meaning  of  a 
„.  ,     word  has  generally  some  reference  to  its  literal 

Figures  r.ot  .         .  °  '^ 

to  be  applied  meaning,  it  must  not  be  supposed  to  include  in 
ioo  uir.  ^-^^  figurative  use  all  that  is  included  in  the  literal ; 

simihtude  in  some  one  respect,  or  more,  being  sufficient  to 
justify  the  metaphor. 

Christ  calls  his  disciples  his  sheep,  and  the  points  of  com- 
parison are,  clearly,  his  affection  for  them,  his  care  over  them, 
and  their  confidence  and  attachment  to  him.     Common  sense 
'  Nahura  3.  11:  Hab.  2.  16:  Psa.  75.  8,  elc. 


176  INTERPRETATION:   SUMMARY. 

discovers  and  limits  the  application  of  the  terms.  Christ 
himself  is  called,  with  smaller  limits,  the  Lamb,  with  special 
relation  to  his  character  and  sacrifice.  So  sin  is  called  in 
Scripture  a  debt ;  atonement,  the  payment  of  a  debt ;  par- 
don, the  forgiveness  of  a  debt.  But  we  must  not  hold  these 
terms  so  rigidly  as  to  maintain  that,  because  Christ  died 
for  man's  sin,  therefore  all  will  be  finally  saved ;  or  that, 
oecause  he  has  obeyed  the  law,  therefore  sinners  are  free  to 
live  in  sin.  Men  are  dead  in  sin,  but  not  so  dead  as  to  be 
free  from  the  duty  of  repentance ;  nor  are  they  guiltless  if 
they  disregard  the  Divine  call.  These  principles  are  suffi- 
ciently obvious  when  applied  to  passages  which  contain 
figures  founded  upon  material  objects.  They  are  even  more 
important,  though  less  easy,  when  applied  to  passages  which 
contain  figures  taken  from  human  nature  or  common  life. 
More  errors,  probably,  have  arisen  from  pushing  analogical 
expressions  to  an  extreme  than  from  any  other  single  cause  ; 
and  against  this  tendency  the  sober,  earnest  student  of  the 
Bible  neecls  to  be  specially  upon  his  guard. 

308.  To  ascertain,  therefore,  the  meaning  of  any  passage  of 
Summary  of  Scripture,  whether  the  words  be  employed  figu- 
these  rules,  ratively  or  hterally,  we  must  ask  the  following 
questions  :  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  terms  ?  If  they  have 
but  one  meaning,  that  is  the  sense.  If  they  have  several,  we 
then  ask,  Which  of  those  meanings  is  required  by  other  parts 
of  the  sentence  1  If  two  or  more  meanings  remain,  then, 
What  is  the  meaning  required  by  the  context,  so  as  to  make 
a  consistent  sense  of  the  whole  1  If,  still,  more  than  one 
meaning  remains,  What  then  is  required  by  the  general 
scope  ?  And,  if  this  question  fail  to  ehcit  but  one  reply, 
What  then  is  required  by  other  passages  of  Scripture  1  If,  in 
answer  to  aU  these  questions,  it  is  found  that  more  than  one 
meaning  may  still  be  given  to  the  passage,  then  both  inter- 
pretations are  true ;  and  we  must  fix  on  the  one  which  best 
fulfils  most  of  the  conditions,  or  must  look  elsewhere  for 
some  further  guide. 

309.  It  is  important  to  observe  that,  whether  the  language 
These  rules  we  examine  be  figurative  or  hteral,  and  whether  it 
iutei^reting  be  used  in  history  or  in  prophecy— in  allegory  or 
the  words  of    j^  plain  discourse — these  rules  are  equally  appli- 

all  parts  of  \  .  1       /.        I  -i 

Scripture.  cable.  There  is  not  one  rule  tor  tropes,  ana 
another  for  words  in  their  ])roper  sense  :  nor  is  there  one 


APPLICATION   OF  RULES.  177 

rule  for  interpreting  tiie  words  of  the  parables  of  Scripture, 
and  another  for  interpreting  the  words  of  its  historical 
statements.  It  is  true  that  in  history  or  narrative  we 
expect  to  find  words  used  in  their  hteral  sense  ;  while  in 
poetry  or  allegory  the  figurative  may  be  expected  to  pre- 
dominate. We  apply,  however,  the  same  rules,  needing  some, 
indeed,  more  in  one  case  than  in  the  other;  but  still* taking 
the  sense  which  the  words  express,  as  that  sense  is  defined 
and  limited  (if  it  be  so)  by  the  whole  of  the  sentence,  by  the 
context,  by  the  scope  of  the  wi'iter,  and  by  other  parts  of  the 
Bible. 

Nor  is  it  less  important  to  observe  that  theSe  rules  are 
And  of  com-  required  not  only  in  interpreting  Scripture,  but  in 
mon  life.  interpreting  all  language  that  is  used  in  the  inter- 
course of  life. 


Sec.  4.   Of  the  Utility  and  Application  of  Rules  in 
Interpretation. 

It  must  have  occurred  to  the  reader  that,  imderneath  the 
rules  of  interpretation  which  we  have  given,  there  are  some 
general  principles  common  to  all  language,  which  regulate  the 
apphcation  of  them.  Those  principles  it  is  important  to 
state,  as  they  both  justify  the  rules  we  have  given  and  aid 
us  in  applying  them. 

310.  To  perceive  the  meaning  of  most  parts  of  the  Bible 
which  teach  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  gospel, 

*^cripturG  ox/ 

generally        it  is  only  necessary  to  know  the  subject  and  the 

P^'^"^*  language  employed.     If  the  Bible  be  in  our  own 

tongue,  and  we  understand  what  the  topic  is  of  which  it 

treats,  the  meaning  will  generally  be  plain.    !No  instance  can 

be  given  in  Scripture  of  an  obscure  passage,  concerning  which 

a  man  may  rationally  suppose  that  there  is  any  doctrinal 

tnith  contained  in  it,  which  is  not  elsewhere  explained. 

The  great  advantage  of  iiiles  of  interpretation  is  not  to 

,    ,       discover  the  meaning  of  plain  passages  of  Scrip- 
Use  of  rules.  .    •     XI.  -ex 

ture,  but  to  ascertain  the  meanmg  of  such  as  are 

ambiguous  or  obscure. 

Yet,  as  on  many  points  of  importance  we  need  to  comj^are 

Scripture,  in  order  to  ascertain  and  x>rove  its  meaning,  and  as 

such  comparison  is  itself  part  of  our  disciphne,  promotes  our 


178  APPLICATION   OF   RULES. 

holiness,  and  is  adapted  to  unfold  the  treasures  of  Diviue 
truth,  it  is  of  great  moment  that  the  humblest  Christian 
should  understand  these  rules,  and  appty  them.  Eevelatioii 
is  to  be  the  study  of  our  lives,  and  it  is  plainly  the  will  of 
God,  that  all  the  resources  of  learning,  industry,  and  prayer, 
should  be  employed  in  the  search. 

So  dependent  is  man  for  his  knowledge  of  the  Divine 
A  devout  "^^illj  upon  the  motive  and  temper  of  his  inquiries, 
spirit.  Q^T^^  the  teaching  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  that  ^  prayer- 

ftd  and  humble  Christian  with  few  advantages,  will  often  gain 
a  more  accurate  and  extensive  acquaintance  with  Scripture, 
than  one  of  higher  mental  attainments,  but  of  feeble  piety. 
The  exercise  of  a  teachable  and  prayerful  spirit,  therefore,  is 
among  the  most  important  principles  of  Biblical  interpreta- 
tion. 

The  true  meaning  of  any  passage  of  Scripture  is  not 
True  Kean-  every  sense  which  the  Vv'ords  will  bear,  nor  is  it 
ing  of  words,  every  sense  which  is  true  in  itself,  but  that  which 
is  intended  by  the  inspired  writers,  or  in  some  cases  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  though  imperfectly  understood  by  the  writers 
themselves. 

The  sense  of  Scripture  is  to  be  determined  by  the  words  : 

a  true  knowledge  of  the  words  is  the  knowledge  of 
Is  the  sense.     , , 

the  sense. 

The  meaning  of  words  is  fixed  by  the  usage  of  language. 
Fixed  by  Usage  must  be  ascertained  whenever  possible  from 
usage.  Scripture  itself. 

The  words  of  Scripture  must  be  taken  in  their  common 

meaning,  unless  such  meaning  is  shown  to  be  in- 

meauiiig  to     consistent  with  other  wor-ds  in  the  sentence,  with 

be  preferred.   ^^^  argument  or  context,  or  with  other  parts  of 

Scripture. 

Of  two  meanings,  that  one  is  generally  to  be  preferred, 
which  was  most  obvious  to  the  comprehension  of  the  hearers 
or  original  readers  of  the  inspired  passage,  allowing  for  those 
figurative  expressions  which  were  so  familiar  as  to  be  no  ex- 
ception to  this  general  rule. 

The  meaning  attached  to  the  words  of  Scripture,  must 
always  agree  with  the  context.  When  the  corn- 
must  agree  mon  meaning  is  inconsistent  with  the  context 
vitiicomext.  ^^  must  be  abandoned,  and  such  other  meaning 


APPLICATION   OF   RULES.  179 

adopted  as  fulfils  the  requirements  and  conditions  of  the  pas- 
sage, and  can  be  proved  to  be  sanctioned  by  usage,  either  in 
common  writers,  or  in  the  Bible. 

The  scope  of  a  passage,  or  the  reasoning  of  the  writer, 
Scope  useful  can  be  employed  to  determine,  which  of  two  senses 
T\'^  th^^  ^^  ^^  *^  ^®  adopted  only,  as  the  scope  or  reasoning  is 
meaning.  clear  ;  nor  will  the  scope  fix  the  meaning,  unless  a 
particular  meaning  is  required  by  the  scope. 

The  parallel  passage  that  fixes  the  meaning  of  words, 
Parallel  must  either  contain  the  same  words  used   in  a 

passages.  somewhat  similar  sense,  or  it  must  evidently  speak 
of  the  same  thing,  or  of  something  so  similar,  as  to  afford 
occasion  for  comparison. 

No  doctrine  founded  upon  a  single  text,  belongs  to  thft 
analog}'  of  faith.  The  analogy  of  faith  is  chiefly 
fauii  requires  of  use  in  teaching  us  to  reject  an  interpretation 
several  texts,  -^jj^jch  is  not  Scriptural.  If  both  the  supposed 
meanings  of  a  passage  are  consistent  with  this  analogy,  the 
Is  useful  in  rule  cannot  be  appHed,  so  as  to  decide  the  meaning, 
rejecting  a  j-^  controversial  reasoning,  this  rule  is  only  appU- 
pretation.  cable  on  the  supposition,  that  the  doctrine  to  be 
applied  for  the  purpose  of  interpretation,  is  admitted  to  be 
vScriptural.  If  it  is  not  admitted,  we  cannot  apply  it  in  the 
intei-pretation  of  a  disputed  text. 

311.  Theology  is  the  whole  meaning  of  Scripture,  or  it  is 
The  sense  of  the  sense  taught  in  the  whole  of  Scripture,  as  that 
th^oi'^^^^^  *°^  sense  is  modified,  limited,  and  explained  by  Scrip- 
thing,  ture  itself.  Scriptural  theology  is  not  one  thing, 
and  the  meaning  of  Scripture  another.  It  is  a  consistently 
interpreted  representation  of  the  statements  of  the  Bible,  on 
the  various  facts,  doctrines,  and  precepts,  which  the  book  of 
God  reveaJ3. 


180  STUDY   OF   ORIGINAL  SCRIPTURES. 


'^  Sec.  5-  Application  of  these  Rules  to  the  Study  of  the 
Original  Scriptures. 

"  As  I  shiU  not  exact  the  study  of  the  original  Scriptures,  from  those  whose 
want  of  parts  or  leisure  dispenseth  them  from  it ;  so  I  cannot  but  discommend  thor;e, 
who  wanting  neither  abilities,  nor  time,  to  range  through  I  know  not  how  many 
other  studies,  can  yet  decline  this :  and  who,  sparing  no  toil  nor  watches  to  put  it 
out  of  the  power  of  the.  most  celebrated  i>hilosophers  to  deceive  them  in  another 
doctrine,  leave  themselves  obnoxious  to  the  ignorance,  fraud,  and  partiality  of  an 
interpreter,  in  that  of  salvation ;  and  thereby  seem  more  shy  of  taking  any  opinions 
upon  trust,  than  those,  in  whose  truth  or  falseness,  no  less  than  God's  glory,  and 
peradventm-e  their  own  eternal  condition  is  concerned.  Methinks,  those  who  learn 
other  languages,  should  not  grudge  those  that  God  hath  honoured  with  spcakhig  to 
us,  and  employed  to  bless  us  with  that  heavenly  doctrine  that  comes  from  huu,  and 
leads  to  him." — Boyle. 

"  The  habit  of  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  original,  throws  a  new  light  and 
sense  over  numberless  passages  " — Cecil,  liemains,  p.  199. 

312.  The  rules  of  interpretation  which  have  been  apphed 
Previous  ^^^  ^^^  previous  section  to  the  Enghsh  version,  are 
rules  appii-  equally  applicable  to  the  study  of  the  original 
of  orig*inar  ^  Scriptures.  The  importance  of  such  study  is 
Scriptures.  obvious,  from  the  fact,  that  all  versions  are  more 
or  less  accurate  as  guides  to  the  meaning  of  the  inspired 
writings.  On  referring  to  Sec.  6,  Chap,  i.,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  meaning  of  particular  words,  the  connection  of  arguments, 
and  the  significance  of  parallel  passages,  are  all  hable  to  be 
obscured  in  even  the  best  translations. 

,    313.  In  studying  and  explaining  a  living  language,  we  de- 
termine the  usage  by  a  reference  to  our  expres- 

But  others  .  .  °  1     ^    ■      ^^  *  4.1       i 

needed,  be-  sions  in  common  life,  but  in  the  case  of  the  lan- 
languaS  o?  g^^S^^  ^^  ^^^  Original  Scriptures,  we  are  dependent 
Scripture  not  for  a  knowledge  of  their  meaning  almost  entirely 
spoken.  ,       ,  ,      .  ,  . 

uj)on  books :  grammars,  lexicons,  and  versions,  are 

our  authority,  and  for  most  purposes,  their  authority  is 
sufficient. 

314,  But  in  saying  that  our  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of 
We  depend  dead  languages  rests  upon  authority,  an  expression 
^°^  ™fh"-"^  ^^  employed,  which  it  is  important  to  explain  ;  we 
ties.  speak  of  the  authority  of  law,  and  of  the  authority 

of  a  witness,  or  of  a  manuscript,  but  the  word  is  used  in  these 
two  cases,  in  very  different  senses.  By  the  authority  of  laiu, 
Authority  is  IS  meant  its  rightful  power  ;  by  the  authority  of  a 
testimony.  loitness  is  meant  his  testimony,  which  we  deem  to 
be  more  or  less  credible  in  relation  to  the  question  in  hand, 

*  See  Preface. 


ORIGINAL  SCRIITURES  :    GRA.'\DIARS.  ISl 

Now,  it  is  in  the  socond  sense  only,  that  we  speak  of  the  au- 
thority of  lexicons.  A  good  lexicon  has  great  weight  attached 
to  it,  because  it  professes  to  give  both  carefully  examined 
meanings  of  the  words  it  contains,  and  also  a  summary  of  the 
evidence  upon  which  those  meanings  rest.  If  we  doubt  its 
explanation,  we  either  examine  other  lexicons,  from  the  days 
of  Hcsychius  (a.  d.  400,)  downwards  if  the  word  be  Greek,  or 
examine  the  passages  where  the  word  is  found,  and  then 
weigh  for  ourselves  the  evidence  they  supply.  Whenever, 
therefore,  we  have  to  interpret  a  Divine  precept  addressed  to 
us  in  a  dead  tongue,  tve  ascertai,i  the  meaning  of  the  precept 
through  the  medium  of  human  authority,  /.  c,  testimony ; 
u-e  ohey  the  precept  because  it  has  the  authority  of  God.  This 
diflference  of  the  two  meanings  of  the  word  is  important. 

If  then,  there  be  reason  to  question  the  meaning  given  to 
a  word  or  phrase,  in  any  lexicon  or  grammar,  we  proceed  to 
investigate  that  meaning  for  ourselves,  and  various  plans  may 
be  adopted. 

315.  i.  We  may  consult   other   authorities,  grammars  or 

lexicons.  We  may  turn  (if  the  phrase  be  Jlebrew\ 
Lexicons  and  to  the  grammar  and  lexicon  of  the  earlier  Hebrew 
Grammars,  writers,  Juda  Chajug  (1040,)  and  Jona  ben  Gan- 
nach  (1121),  preserved  in  manuscript,  in  the  Bodleian 
library ;  to  the  grammar  of  Moses  Ki;.iichi  (12th  century),  or 
to  the  grammars  and  lexicons  of  his  brother,  D.  Kimchi,  or 
of  Elias  Levita,  all  of  which  have  been  published.  We  may 
examine  the  grammar  and  lexicon  of  Gesenius,  the  founder  of 
the  modern  empirical  school  of  Hebrew,  or  the  grammar  of 
Ewald,  the  founder  of  the  scientific  school,  or  the  concordance 
of  Furst,  and  the  Hebrew  works  of  his  pupil,  Dehtisch,  the 
founder  of  the  historical  school ;  the  first,  making  great  use 
of  examples,  and  a  moderate  use  of  the  Arabic  and  cognate 
tongues,  the  second,  investigating  too  exclusively  the  j)hiio- 
sophy  of  the  language,  and  the  third,  the  founder  of  historical 
investigation,  and  applying  Sanscrit  to  the  interpretation  of 
Hebrew.  For  a  knowledge  of  cocjnate  dialects,  we  may  turn 
to  the  Pentaglot  of  Schindler  (Ham.  161 2),  the  Heptaglot  of 
Castel  (Lon.  1669),  to  Hottinger's  grammar  of  Heb.,  Chald., 
Syr.,  and  Arab.,  (1649),  or  to  the  Hebrew  grammars  (Institu- 
tiones,  1737,  Origines  HebrreEe,  1723),  of  Schultens. 

316.  In  the  case  of  the  Greek  language,  we  may  use  cither 


182  ORIGINAL  SCRIPTURES  I   VERSIONS. 

ci  general  Greek  grammar,  that,  for  example,  of 

Lexicons  and  Biittman,  or  of  Matthise,  or  of  Jelf,  and  a  general 

Grammars,     lexicon,  Stephens'  Thesaurus,  for  example,  or  the 

hand-lexicon  of  Liddell  and  Scott,  or  we  may  use  a  Hellenistic 

or  New  Testament  grammar  and  lexicon.     Winer's  gr£immar 

is  rich  in  the  illustration    of  New  Testament  idiom  ;   and 

Schleusner's  lexicon  is  invaluable  from  the  light  it  throws  ou 

the  New  Testament,  from   the  version  of  the  LXX.     Th& 

lexicons  of  Brotschneider,  and   of  Eobinson,   are   also  well 

known,  and  highly  useful. 

317.  ii.  We  may  examine  the  versions  of  the  Bible.     They 

,,    .  give  the  translator's  views  of  the  meaning  of  the 

Versions.  i        /?  o     •    j. 

words  of  Scripture. 

The  first  in  value  for  purposes  of  interpretation,  are  the 
Origenand  fragments  of  Origen  and  Jerome,  both  of  whom 
Jerome.  ^qq]^  great  pains  to  ascertain  the  exact  meaning  of 
the  original  Scriptures. 

Next  to  these  are  the  Greek  versions.  The  LXX,  however, 
alone  remains  in  a  perfect  state:  it  is  of  great 
value,  but  often  fails  to  be  of  service  in  difficult 
passages,  from  the  freeness  of  the  translation,''  the  careless- 
ness or  ignorance  of  the  translators,''  and  the  want  of  fixed 
rules  of  translation. 

Next  in  value  are  the  Targums,  (See  Part  ii.),  and  inferior 
^  to  these,  the  Comments  of  the  Talmud,  and  the 

Targums.  ' 

Notes  of  the  Masorets. 
Ainsworth  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  Gill's  Commentary,  through- 
out, generally  give  the  interpretations  of  the  Targums,  etc.,  when- 
ever they  are  important. 

Last  of  all  among  the  ancient  versions,  are  the  Peschito 
Pesciiito  and  and  the  Vulgate.  The  former,  is  on  the  whole, 
Vulgate.  ^gij  translated,  but  not  unfrequently  disfigured  by 
additions  and  omissions.  The  latter  is  lessened  in  value, 
from  the  fact  (which  Jerome  acknowledges,)  that  it  was  trans- 
lated hastily,  that  he  retained  many  of  the  old  renderings, 

*  Isa.  I.  21 :  4.  4:  42.  i:  Exod.  6.  12,  30:  Deut.  32.  8:  33.  2: 
Numb.  12.  8:  Exod.  18.  7. 

^  Esth.  7.  4:  Lev.  19.  26:  Psa.  78.  69:  Exod.  14.  2.  Compare 
Numb.  33.  7:  Isa.  23.  i,  10,  14:  Ezek.  27.  12:  38.  13:  compared 
with  Isa.  2.  16:  60.  9:  (See  further  illustrations  in  Carpzov's  Critica 
Sacra,  New  Testament,  p.  513.) 


ORIGINAL  SCRIPTURES  ;   VERSIONS.  183 

though  deemmg  them  inaccurate,  from  a  desire  not  to  offend 
the  popular  ear  (Preface  to  Pent.,  and  Commentary  on  EccL), 
from  the  very  free  use  -^hich  has  been  made  of  the  LXX^ 
and  also  from  the  general  inaccuracy  of  the  modern  Vulgate 
text. 

Tlie  portions  of  the  Vulgate  translated  by  Jerome,  are  bet- 
ter helps  to  interpretation  than  the  other  books  :  but  for  the 
settlement  of  the  Hebrew  text,  the  other  books  (which  belonged 
to  the  Old  ItaUc  versions,)  are  the  more  important. 

Of  modern  versions  the  merits  are  very  various.  Latia 
Modem  versions   made    by   Ilomanists    are    generally   ex- 

Laun  %  cr-  tremely  literal,  and  often  obscure :  such  are  the 
Romanist.  yersions  of  Pagninus  (1528),  Arias  Montanus 
(1584),  Cajetan  (1639),  and  Malvenda  (1650).  Some  (as  the 
version  of  Clarius)  are  founded  on  the  Vulgate,  which  they 
merely  correct.  Houbigant  (1753)  gives  an  elegant  version 
of  his  emended  Hebrew  text.  The  New  Testament  has  been 
translated  by  Erasmus  and  Sebastiani. 

Among  Protestants,  Munster   (1534)   gives   an  intelligible 
version  from  the  Hebrew,  preferable  to  the  ver- 
sions   of  Pagninus  and  Montanus.      He   follows, 
however,  the  same  text,  and  does  not  widely  differ  in  prin- 
ciples of  translation  from  those  authors. 

Leo  Juda  (1543-4)  began  another  version  of  the  Hebrew 
and  LXX,  which  was  published  by  Bibhander,  the  New 
Testament  being  added  by  others.  This  version  is  both  free 
and  faithful. 

Castalio  (1573)  gives  a  version  from  the  original,  in  which 
he  studied  to  give  the  sense  in  elegant  classical  Latin.  It  is 
wanting,  however,  in  simplicity  and  force. 

The  version  of  Junius  and  TremeUius  (1590)  is  deemed  by 
M.  Poole  among  the  best.  They  expressed  the  article  by  the 
demonstrative  pronoun.  The  version  of  the  Osianders,  hke 
that  of  Clarius,  is  founded  upon  the  Vulgate.  The  version  of 
Schmidt  (1696)  is  extremely  hteral,  and  that  of  Dathe  (1773- 
99)  remarkable  for  fidehty  and  elegance.  The  Neiu  Testament 
of  Beza  is  highly  esteemed. 

Among  modem  versions  into  vernacular  tongues,  that  of 

Vernacular     Luther  is  one  of  the  best  (1517-30).     It  is  the^ 

versions.        basis  of  the  Swedish  (1541),  the  Danish  (1550),. 

ers.e  c.  ^^^  Icelandic  (1584),  an  early  Dutch  version  (1560)^ 


184  ORIGIi^AL  SCRIPTURES  :   YKKSIOXS. 

and  the  Finnish,  with  its  cognate  dialects  (1642,  etc.).  A 
German-Swiss  translation  was  also  made  by  Leo  Juda  (1525- 
29),  and,  in  1667,  a  new  or  revised  version  for  the  same 
church  was  published  at  Zurich.  Luther's  version  was  also 
revised  and  published  by  the  Zuinglians  in  1679. 

The   Scriptures   were    translated    into   French    by  R.   P. 
Olivetan   (i^?,^),  with  a  considerable  number  of 

rrencli  ^^fj/' 

references  from  the  LXX  placed  in  the  margin. 

This  version  was  corrected,  chiefly  as  to  the  language,   by 

Calvin  (1540) ;  again,  by  Bertram,  Beza,  and  others  (Geneva, 

1588)  ;  and  has  since,  from  time  to  time,  undergone  other 

alterations  of  the  same  sort :  the  revision  by  Ostervald  is  best 

known.      A  French  version    by  Beausobre    and    L'Enfant 

(17 1 8)  was  pubhshed  at  Amsterdam,  and  is  highly  esteemed 

for  its  accuracy. 

By  order  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  a  version  was  made  into 

the  Dutch  language,  in  place  of  a  version  made 

from  Luther's,  which  had  been  used  till  then. 

This  version  was  printed  in  1637,  and  is  highly  valued  for  its 

fidelity. 

There  are  two  versions  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Spanish  ; 
the  one  made  by  a  Romanist  (Reyna),  Basil,  1569, 
and  the  other  by  a  Protestant  (Valera),  Amsterdam, 
1602.  They  are  founded  chiefly  on  the  Latin  version  of 
Pagninus,  and  the  second  partly  on  the  Genevan -French 
Bibles.  There  are  also  three  Spanish  versions  made  from  the 
Vulgate  (1478,  1793-4,  1824). 

The  best   Italian  version  is  that  of  Diodati  (afterwards 

translated  into  French),  1607.    It  follows  both  the 

LXX  and  the  Hebrew,  and  is  free,  accurate,  and  clear. 

In  opposition  to  the  vernacular  versions  of  Protestants, 

Popish  versions  have  been  made  into  nearly  all  the  preceding 

languages,  generally  from  the  Vulgate. 

318.  All  these  versions,  however,  and  especially  the  earliest 
Their  value  ®^  them,  are  inferior  to  a  good  modern  lexicon, 
lor  inter-  Most  of  them  were  made  under  peculiar  influences 
pretation.  ^^^^  amidst  many  difficulties.  A  modern  lexico- 
grapher has  larger  helps,  a  more  certain  text,  and  the  very 
apparatus  which  these  versions  themselves  supply.  So  that, 
not  to  excel  with  all  these  advantages  on  his  side  would  prove 
him  to  be  incompetent  or  careless. 


ORIGINAL   scriptures:   ETYMOLOGY.  185 

319.  iii.  In   further  investigating   the   meaning,   we    may 

Help  from        ^^^^    ^^^   ^^^P    ^^^^   ^^®    WORDS  THEilSELVES,  their 

the  words       etymology,  the  analogy  of  speech,  and  the  meaning 
of  similar  words  in  cognate  dialects. 

320.  (i).  Etymology  traces  the  progress  of  the  meaning  of 

words,  the  changes  of  form  which  they  undergo, 
'  i^°  °sy-  ^^^  points  out  the  significance  of  their  several 
parts.  It  often  gives  the  true  meaning,  explains  the  allusions 
of  the  context,  and  accounts  for  the  rendering  of  ancient 


In  Genesis^  the  "firmaincnt"  should  be  translated  " expatise,** 
contraiy  to  the  Septuagint,  Vulgate,  and  English ;  the  root 
meaning  to  beat  or  spi-ead  out. 

The  Hebrew  phrase  for  "  making  a  covenant,"  refers  to  the  stroke 
that  smote  the  victim,  whose  death  confirmed  it 

Upm,  a  priest,  is  so  called,  from  the  fact  tliat  he  attends  to 
sacred  things,  or  because  he  sacrifices  to  God,  lipa'/i^uyf  in  the  sense 
of  Buiiv.  So  facere,  for  sacrificare,  Virgil  Ec,  iii.,  77,  and  "by. 
asa,  for  "offer,"  Lev.  9.  6,  16:  Numb.  28.  24. 

The  original  word  for  "minister,"  in  Heb.  8.  2,  means,  in  classic 
Greek,  one  who  performs  a  public  work  at  his  own  cost;  or,  re- 
garding the  whole  phi*ase  as  a  Latinism  (Antistes  Sacrorum),  it 
indicates  that  our  Lord  presides  over  the  worship  of  the  church, 
and  pi-esents  it  acceptably  through  his  intercession. 

The  Hebrew  woi'd  for  *'to  make  atonement "  ("133,  kipper)  means, 
properly,  to  ''cover  over"  sin,  or  expiate;  and,  secondarily,  to  pro- 
pitiate, i.  e.,  to  remove  the  displeasure  of  another  in  relation  to  it. 
The  corresponding  word  in  the  LXX  and  New  Testament  (h.dirxofieti) 
means,  first,  to  propitiate,  and,  secondarily,  to  atone  for.  Both 
ideas  are  involved  in  each  word,  and  are  sometimes  fully  expressed. 

The  Greek  word  for  "to  sacrifice"  (Buetv)  means,  in  Homer,  to 
bum  wine  or  food  in  the  fire  as  an  offering,  and  in  later  writei'S,  to 
sacrifice,  properly  so  called.  From  this  double  meaning  we  have 
two  sets  of  Greek  words,  the  one  referring  to  the  slaying  of  victims. 
Sum,  Bvirici,  and  the  other  to  the  sweet  odours,  or  incense,  which 
were  offered  to  God  {Buf/ZiufAa,  thus),  and  sometimes  both  ideas  ai-e 
combined.  Lev.  4.  31:  Eph.  5.  2.  Hence,  also.  Bum  is  used  to 
translate  two  different  Hebrew  words,  meaning,  respectively,  to 
sacrifice  and  to  burn  sweet  incense,  i  Sam.  3.  14:  2  Chron.  25.  14: 
28.  3 :  Jer.  i.  16:  44.  5. 

Nearly  all  the  names  in  Hebrew  are  significant,  and  a  knowledge 
of  their  meaning  throws  light  upon  the  context.  The  prophecies  of 
Jacob  concerning  his  sons  refer  in  a  great  degree  to  their  names. 


18G  ORIGINAL  SCRIPTURES  :    ANALOGY. 

chap.  49  compared  with  chaps.  29,  30.  See  also  Ruth  i.  20:  Gen. 
4.  16. 

So  the  meaning  of  Piov.  25.  21,  22^  and  Eom.  12.  20,  "heap 
coals  of  fire,"  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that  Hn,  chatha,  means,  ety- 
mologically,  to  apply  fire,  and  thence  to  soften. 

The  rendering  of  the  LXX  and  Vulgate  in  Psa.  7.  14,  etc.,  is 
owing  to  their  translating  etymologically  ;  and  so  elsewhere, 
iveoTl^ojicai  is  an  etymological  translation  of  the  Hebrew  word 
]'»T^?^,  heezin.  Lev.  14,  52,  as,  rpif^ipnTs,  E^?K^,  shillesh,  Deut.  19.  3. 
"To  stir  up,"  in  2  Tim.  i.  6,  means,  in  the  Greek,  to  blow  fire  into 
a  flame,  dvaZiCoTvpuv. 

In  the  use  of  the  English  version,  of  course,  etymology  is 
allowable  as  a  guide  to  the  sense  only  when  the  etymology  of 
the  English  corresponds  with  the  etymology  of  the  original : 
gospel,  for  example,  =  evayyiXiov ;  crucify  =  <=;avp6u) ;  pre- 
determine =  Trpoopil^u)  ;  mediator  =  fxeaiTt]Q  =  intercessor, 
one  who  acts  for  another  especially  to  produce  harmony  be- 
tween parties.  It  is  an  important  principle,  that  etymology 
does  not  of  itself  fix  the  meaning,  except  where  usage  is 
either  doubtful  or  silent ;  and  it  is  always,  from  the  changes 
of  meaning  which  words  undergo,  an  uncertain  guide. 

321.  (2).  Analogy  fixes  the  meaning  of  one  form  of  a 
word  from  the  known  meaning  of  the  similar  form 
ua  ogy.  ^^  another  word,  or  of  one  word  from  the  meaning 
of  some  opposite  or  corresponding  one. 

If,  in  reading  Hebrew,  for  example,  we  meet  with  a  noun  ending 
in  C),  we  may  conclude,  from  the  general  meaning  of  that  ending, 
that  it  is  probably  an  ordinal  number  or  a  patronymic :  if  we  meet 
with  a  verbal  noun  beginning  with  (D),  it  indicates  probably  an  act, 
or  the  place  where  some  act  is  performed;  such  being,  for  the  most 
part,  the  meaning  of  this  preformative. 

Commonly,  the  Hiphil  forms  of  verbs  are  causative  of  the  Kal,  as 
J^y^,  yatsa,   "to  go  out,"  and  in  Hiphil,    "to  bring  out;"  12i\ 
abhad,  "to  perish,"  and  in  Hiphil,  "to  destroy."    If,  therefore,  we 
meet  with  a  verb  in  Hiphil,  it  has  probably  a  causative  meaning; 
though  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

The  Hiphil  forms  of  the  OU  Testament  the  LXX  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  translate  without  a  paraphrase,  and  hence  that  version 
sometimes  uses  a  neuter  verb  in  an  active  sense,  Gen.  2.  9:  4.  11: 
ig,  24:  Numb.  6.  25:  34.  17;  and  the  New  Testament,  as  may  bo 
suppo.sp.d,  often  employs  the  same  form  for  the  same  piu-pose. 


ORIGIN' AL  SCKIPTDRES  :   COGNATE  LANGUAGES.  187 

Matt.  5.  45,  literally,  ''he  rises/'  "he  rains;"  i.e.,  ''he  causes 
to  rise,"  and  "  causes  to  rain,  i  Cor.  3.  6,  "increased;"  i.  e.,  "gave 
the  increase."  Luke  n.  53,  not  "they  began  to  speak  off  hand," 
or  "to  silence,"  but  rather,  "they  caused  Christ  to  speak  offhand;" 
i.e.,  "they  provoked  him  to  speak."  2  Cor.  2.  14,  literally,  "to 
triumph,"  or  "to  lead  captive,"  as  in  Col.  2.  15;  rather,  as  in  the 
English,  "to  cause  to  triumph." 

That  "folly"  means  sin  in  Gen.  34.  7:  Deut.  21.  21 :  Josh,  7.  15  : 
2  Sam.  13.  15,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact,  that  "wisdom" 
means,  in  various  parts  of  Scripture,  "uprightness"  or  "piety." 

Matt.  6.  2,  5,  16,  a.'Tix^ai  Tov  fji.tff6ov  has  been  translated,  "they 
hinder,  or  fail  of  their  reward "  (Gerard),  and  a.Tiz'f^ai  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  abstaining  from;  aTax'/J,  however,  the  noun,  means  a 
receipt  in  full,  and  hence  the  phrase  may  be  taken  to  mean,  "they 
have  their  reward;"  that  is,  all  they  will  ever  get. 

In  Matt.  6.  11,  Wiiaiov  has  been  variously  rendered;  it  does  not 
occur  in  the  LXX,  and  is  a  very  rare  word.  It  has  been  translated, 
"necessary  for  our  subsistence"  (Vulgate),  "smtable  for  our  sub- 
sistence" (Macknight),  "sufficient  for  the  morrow,  or  for  future 
life"  (Grotius):  the  meaning,  however,  is  fixed  by  an  analogous 
expression :  Tipt^irtov  means  more  than  enough,  and  as  lir/  often  indi- 
cates equality  or  adaptedness,  \-rii(nov  means  just  enough;  a  transla- 
tion which  agrees  with  the  context. 

322.  (3).  We  may  compare  the  words  in  Scripture  with 
„       .  the  same  words  in  cognate  languages.     The  value 

L  sage  ;n  cog-  °  °      ° 

nate  Ian-  of  cognate  languages,  though  sometimes  underrated, 
fiiages.  -j^^^  j^gg^  exaggerated.     By  modern  lexicographers, 

they  are  applied  within  proper  limits,  and  are  of  use  chiefly 
when  ancient  versions  differ,  and  where  we  have  not,  in 
Hebrew,  materials  sufficient  for  defining  the  meaning  of 
terms. 

(a).  They  give  the  roots  of  words,  the  derivatives  of  which  alone 
are  found  in  Scripture,  and  thus  aid  to  a  consistent  meaning. 

jn^X,  aithan,  for  example,  is  a  somewhat  rare  word,  translated 
"  mighty  stream  "  {i.  e.,  ever-flowing),  Amo35.  24;  "mighty  waters" 
(ever-flowing),  Psa.  74.  15;  "strength"  (constant  flowing),  Exod.  14. 
27;  "strong"  (durable),  Micah  6.  2 ;  "mighty"  (prosperous),  Job  12. 
19;  so  Xumb.  24.  21:  Jer.  49.  19.  The  Arabic  root  means  "to 
continue  running;"  then,  "to  continue"  generally,  i.e.,  "to  en- 
diu-e;"  then,  "to  be  inexhaustibly  rich:"  hence  the  appai-ently 
contradictory  meanings  of  the  texts  in  which  the  derivative  is 
found. 


168  ORIGINAL  SCRIPTURES  :   CLASSICAL  USAGE. 

(b).  They  fix  meanings  whicli  might  otherwise  have  been  only 
conjectural. 

j^S,  balag,  for  example,  occurs  four  times  in  Hiphil :  Job  9.  2  7, 
** comfort  myself;"  10.  20,  "take  rest;"  Psa.  39,  13,  "recover 
strength;"  Amos  5.  9,  "that  strengtheneth :"  the  versions  are 
altogether  uncertain.  The  Arabic  root  means  "to  shine  like  the 
dawn;"  "to  be,  or  to  render,  clear  and  serene;"  and  that  sense 
meets  the  requirements  of  all  the  passages.  In  the  same  way, 
many  of  the  plants  and  minerals  mentioned  in  Scripture  are 
identified. 

(c).  They  discover  the  primary  meaning  of  roots  whose  secondary 
senses  only  are  found  in  Scripture,  though  the  primary  throws 
light  on  some  texts. 

71JI,  gadhal,  for  example,  means  "to  be  great,"  but,  in  Arabic, 
**  to  twist,"  and  so  "to  make  great  or  strong;"  hence  a  noun  formed 
from  it  means  "fringes,"  Deut.  22.  12  ;  "twisted  thread,"  or 
"chain  work,"  i  Kings  7.  17.  Another  noun,  similarly  formed, 
means  "brawniness,"  Exod.  15.  16;  and  the  verb  is  jused  in  its 
primitive  sense  in  Job  7.  17,  "to  struggle,"  or  "wi'estle;"  English, 
"magnif3^"  So  plV,  Tsadak,  means  "to  be  just;"  in  Ai-abic,  to 
be  "stifi","  "inexorable,"  "unbending:"  hence,  in  Isa.  49.  24, 
"the  lawful  captive"  ought  to  be  "the  captive  of  the  inexorable 
ones;"  see  verse  25. 

((f).  They  explain  idiomatic  phrases,  the  time  sense  of  which  can- 
not otherwise  be  determined. 

See  on  all  this  paragraph  Gerard's  '  Institutes.'  These  last 
examples  are  taken  chiefly  from  Schultens.  A  large  number 
may  be  found  also  in  the  Lexicon  of  Gesenius. 

In  applying  these  principles  to  the  New  Testament,  there 
are  modifications  of  them  which  are  rendered  necessary  by 
the  nature  of  the  Greek  tongue,  the  large  critical  apparatus 
we  already  possess  in  classic  authors,  and  the  connection 
through  the  LXX  between  the  New  Testament  and  the 
language  of  the  Old. 

323.  iv.  In  the  case  of  the  New  Testament,  we  ma}'-  seek 

the  meaning  of  its  words  and  phrases  in  classic 
Classic  usage.         ,, 

authors. 

vriffru,  which  commonly  means  "faith,"  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
proof.  Acts  1 7.  3 1 ;  so  Aristotle,  Polyb. 

\-Txyy'iWo[/.ui  means,  by  itself,  "to  announce,"  and  so  "to  pro- 
mise:" followed  by  certain  nouns,  it  means  to  "profess"  (i  Tim. 


ORIGIN.VL  SCRIPTURES  :   JOSEPHUS.  189 

2.  lo).  The  word  is  regularly  used  for  professing  an  art  or  science, 
Diog.  I,aert.,  Proem.  5,  12;  Xen.  Mem.  i.  2,  7. 

-xu-fot.,  in  composition,  often  means  in  the  Greek  Testament  "by 
the  way,"  Rom.  5.  20;  or  "secretly,"  Gal.  2.  14:  Jude  4;  a  usage 
found  in  classic  authors,  Polyb.,  Herodian,  Plut. 

TO  6ori/3«XXav  (j^'ipoi,  Luke  15.  12,  is  a  legal  phrase,  indicating  the 
share  which  fell  to  a  man  as  heir;  the  use  of  the  word  here  shows 
how  completely  the  prodigal  son  was  estranged  from  all  filial 
feelmg. 

iTi^oLXuiv  'Uxai-zv,  Mark  14.  72,  "when  he  thought  thereon,"  rather, 
*' having  rushed  out;"  and  so  it  agrees  with  Matthew  and  Luke, 
Poh'b. 

'ix"''  ''^  "^^  o.(r6ivi'a.,  John  5.  5,  is  classic  Greek  for  "to  be  ill;"  so 
that,  when  these  wordo  are  translated  "there  was  a  sick  man  thirty- 
eight  years  old  "  (Paulus),  the  rendering  is  contrary  to  Greek  tisage. 

The  apparently-incomplete  sentences  in  Luke  13.  9:  19.  42:  22. 
42  (Gr.),  are  all  good  Greek;  the  custom  being,  frequently,  to  omit 
the  apodosis  (or  conclusion)  of  a  sentence  after  u  or  lav,  when  the 
meaning  is  clear,  Raphe^ 

Bos,  Eisner,  Kypke:,  Grotius,  Wolf,  "Wetsteen,  Raphel,  have 
largely  illustrated  the  phraseology  of  the  New  Testament  from 
classic  sources  ;  Kypke  and  Raphel  from  particular  authors,  and 
the  rest  from  classic  authorities  generally. 

324.  V.  Or  we  may  turn  to  the  works  of  Josephus  and 
Philo,  wliich  in  this  respect  are  not  unimportant. 

Usage  m  '  ^  ^ 

Josephus  and      fi.iriupiZ,i<r6at  means,  etymologically,  to  hang  up  in  the 
air;  but  it  is  used  both  by  Philo  and  Josephus  for  "to 
be  of  doubtful  mind,"  as  in  the  New  Testament. 

iiTUTTioil^iiv,  literally,  to  "hit  under  the  eyes"  (Luke  18.  5  :  i  Cor. 
9.  27),  means,  generally,  "to  hai'ass,"  "to  afflict." 

i^yif/.ipict,  Luke  T.  5,  translated  "course,"  means  the  daily  service 
of  the  temple,  which  was  discharged  by  bands  of  priests  in  rotation 
(Jos.) 

ap'Kri;  (judgment),  Matt.  5.31,  was  the  name  given  to  the  court 
of  seven  magistrates,  who  had  the  power  of  punishing  small 
offences  (Jos.) 

iyKetivicc  (the  renewal),  John  10.  22,  is  the  term  used  by  Philo  as 
appropriate  to  express  the  feast  of  the  Dedication  held  on  the  2  5 
Kisleu;  as  vfiimice.  is  the  fast  connected  with  the  day  of  Atonement, 
10  Tisri.  Acts  27.  9. 

All  these  phrases,  and  many  others,  are  peculiar  to  Jewish  writers. 
For  ample  illustration,  see  Ott.  (Excerpta  ex  F.  Joseph©),  Krebsii 
(Obs.  ex  F.  Josepho),  and  Locsneri  (Ob.  ex  Philone). 


190  ORIGINAL  SCRIPTURES:   GLOSSES. 

325.  vi.  EsiDecially  useful  sliall  we  find  a  reference  to  Semitic 
Use  of  He-  languages,  including  the  Hebrew,  from  which, 
pSi!^  XeN^  indeed,  many  New  Testament  phrases  are  taken. 

Testament  .  .  . 

phrases.  Hebraisms  maybe  seen  in  Heb.  i.  2,  u\uv  =  D7iy,  olam; 

u^rivn  often  =  D?^,  shalom,  ''all  blessing,"  Mark  5.  34:  Luke  7.  50; 

"peace  to  you"  being  the  Hebrew  form  of  ''salutation,"  as  %a//)£<y  is 

the  Greek,  Jas.  i.  i :  sometimes  iifiwYt  is  used  in  the  Greek  sense  for 

jDeace,  Luke  14.  32,  and  sometimes  in  the  Christian  sense,  Eom.  2. 

10  :    Luke   19.  42  :    llofioXoyua-^ai    (ITl^n),    "to  acknoAvledge  the 

qualities  of  another;"  so  as   "to  praise,"  Matt.  11.  25:  Top-Jsirfat, 

to  indicate  a   "mode  of  life:"  £/',  after  verbs  of  swearing,  =  not, 

Mark  8. 12 :  Heb.  4. 3,  5  :  *avK'yK'/i  means  "  straits,  calamity,"  Luke  21. 

23  :  Cor.  7.  26  :  s/j  rov  atajya,^  tov;  alma,;  =  "for  ever,"  "to  taste 

death,"  Matt.  16.  28:  heaven,  for  God,  Dan.  4.  23:  see  22:  Matt. 

21.   25:  Luke.   15.   21:  *o(p£;X'/»^a  aipnvat  z=  " to  forgive  sins:"  liuv 

and  Xvuv  ("IpNI.  ^'y<^,  shere  esar),  "to  forbid  and  to  appoint;"  "to 

die  in  sin,"  John  8.  21,  24  —  "to  perish  because  of  sin"  (Lev.  5.6): 

fji.otxo;,  u^ed  spiritually  after  the  Hebrew  (T^yi,  zone),  not  literally, 

as  in  Greek,  Jas.  4.  4,  are  all  Hebraisms :  though  some  (*)  marked 

are  found  in   classic  authors,  and   are   therefore  called  imperfect 

Hebraisms.     So  Acts  19.  6:  24.  4:  2.  14:  Jas.  2.  9:  Matt.  15.  2: 

Mark  7.  22,  "evil"  is  —  envious. 

For  other  Aramaean  expressions,  see  §  3  9.     The  Hebraisms  of  the 

JN"ew  Testament  are  fully  illustrated  in  the  works  of  Lightfoot,  the 

supplementary  volumes  of  Schoetgenius,  and  in  the  Commentary  of 

Gill.     Koppe's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament  (from  Acts  to 

Rev.)  is  very  valuable  for  giving  the  results  of  the  inquiries  of  his 

predecessors  in  tliis  department. 

326.  vii.  Nor  is  it  unimportant,  in  ascertaining  the 
meaning  of  words,  to  consult  ancient  scholiasts  and  glosses, 
and  the  writings  of  the  early  fathers.  The  first  two  give  the 
meaning  generally,  without  supplying  evidence  or  proof  pas- 
sages, and  the  second  give  professed  interpretations  of 
Scripture  language. 

Hesychius,  for  example,  explains  the  "tittles"  of  the  law,  by 
calling  them  the  marks  made  in  beginning  to  write  letters  {a.px^ 
ypa.iJi,fjt.a.roi),  Matt.  5.  18;  and  Suidas  explains  ^u.rroXoyuvhj  "word- 
iness," or  " much  speaking "  (^^oXvXoy'tiA),  6.  7. 

fiv^rifiov  is  explained  by  Clem.  Eom.  (r  Cor.)  as  a  revealed  secret. 

cth^ivTt7v  oiv^oos,  I  Tim.  2.  12,  means,  etymological ly,  to  kill  her 
husband;  but  Theophylact  explains  it,  "to  usurp  authority  over:" 


ORIGINAL  SCRIPT  CUES  :   GLOSSES  AXD   THE   LXX.  191 

SO  the  English  version.  ilrpm.'TriXlx,  which  means,  pi-operly,  ''lively 
•discom'se,"  is  explained  by  Chrysostom  in  his  oration  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  by  Jerome,  as  something  said  (generally  foolish  and  sinful) 
to  provoke  a  laugh;  ''foolish  jesting"  gives,  therefore,  the  precise 
meaning.  That  ccva.Xr,y^i;,  Luke  9.  5 1,  refers  to  om-  Lord's  ascension 
may  be  gathered  from  Acts  i.  2,  and  it  is  proved  by  a  similar  use 
of  this  phrase  in  the  Fathers. 

These  are  verbal  illustrations;  doctrinal  illustrations  maybe  seen 
in  a  subsequent  Section. 

The  chief  Greek  glossaiies  are  the  lexicons  of  Hesychius  (400), 
Suidas  (9B0),  and  Phavorinus  (1523);  the  Etymologicum  Magmmi 
(loth  century),  ^^'ith  the  works  of  Zonaras  (1118)  and  Photius  (850). 
The  glosses,  or  explanations  of  the  first  four,  so  far  as  the  New 
Testament  is  concerned,  were  edited  by  C.  G.  Ernesti,  1785-6,  and. 
those  of  Zonaras,  in  1618.  Matthaei  (Mosc.  1774-5,  Lips.  1779)  and 
Alberti  (Lug.  Bat.  1735)  have  also  pubHshed  glosses,  selected  from 
the  max'gin  of  ancient  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament. 

For  a  view  of  the  explanations,  given  in  the  Fathers,  of  New 
Testament  terms,  see  by  far  the  completest  book  on  this  subject, 
'Suiceri  Thes.  Eccl,'  ii  tom,  1728,  or  indexes  of  good  editions  of  the 
Fathers  themselves.  For  the  teaching  of  the  Fathers  on  books  or 
parts  of  Scripture,  see  the  compendious  collections  pubhshed  under 
the  name  of  Catenas :  some  of  their  comments  are  good,  many  trifling. 

327.  viii.  The  chief  help  to  the  study  of  the  New  Testa- 
Versiou  of  ment,  however,  remains  :  the  version  of  the  LXX  : 
the  LXX.  words  and  phrases,  being  often  taken  from  that 
version,  and  used  in  an  altogether  peculiar  sense. 

lioc.6Yix.r,,  for  example,  means  in  classic  Greek,  "  a  disposition  of 
property,"  or  "a  will,"  but  in  the  LXX,  it  is  frequently  used  to 
translate  (rT'lS,  Berith),  in  the  sense  of  "  covenant"  or  "  agreement 
between  parties,"  which  classic  authors  express  by  cw^ix-A,  Gen,  17. 
9,  10.  It  is  applied  to  the  agreement  between  Abraham  and 
Abimelech,  21.  27-32:  between  Laban  and  Jacob,  31.  44:  compare 
Deut.  7.  9:  17.  2:  29.  9:  Psa.  131.  12:  Christ  is  given  lU  hcc£^K7}v, 
Isa.  42.  6:  53.  3, 

dXilhici,  "  truth,"  is  Tised  for,  and  means,  "  all  probity  or  holi- 
ness," Psa.  26.  3:  86.  II,  and  also  "substance,"  as  opposed  to 
"  type  or  shadow,"  John  i.  17:  Heb.  8.  2. 

vofAos  =  min,  the  whole  Mosaic  economy,  Deut.  4.  8,  44:  Matt. 
5.  17:  7.  12:  John  I.  17. 

ff'jyKp'tvuv  means  in  classic  Greek,  "to  confoimd,  or  mix;"  in  the 
LXX,   it  is  "to  interpret,    or  explam,"   Gen.  40.   8,  and  hence 


192  ORIGINAL  SCRIFTURES  :   THE  LXX. 

1  Cor.  2.   13,    "  expounding  spiritual   things  by  spiritual,   or  to 
spii'itual." 

i-r)  TO  uure  =  nn^,  yacMav,  "together,"  Matt.  22.  34:  Acts  i.  15  : 

2  Sam.  2.  13:  19.  10. 

^ccffce.  ffdpl »  =  "no  flesh  shall,"  =  N?  •  ?3,  kol  lo,  Exod.  12.  15 .43 : 
sometimes  the  LXX  use  the  classic  phrase,  »x  aSs/j,  Exod.  10.  15, 

The  LXX  translate  HNtSn,  in  the  sense  of  "sin  offering,"  ro  Tr,i 
aftaprlui,  Lev.  1 8.  25:  "TO  ^tpi  a,fj(.a.^r'iu.;,  Lev.  5>  8:  TO  i/Tip  a/napriaf, 
Lev.  8.  2:  Ixda-fio;,  Ezek.  44.  27,  and  hence  the  use  of  these  phrases 
in  the  New  Testament.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  noticed,  that 
ni^Dn,  chatath,  means  both  "an  act  of  sin"  and  "a  sinful  dispo- 
sition," as  does  a/xapTiu.  The  New  Testament  has  no  distinct 
phrase,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  "vitium,"  which  is  the  act, 
and  "  vitiositas,"  which  is  the  disposition.  Compai^e  "a  sin"  and 
*'  depravity." 

*0  'ip;^9fiiyo;,  "  the  coming  one,"  is  the  LXX  translation  of  various 
passages,  which  refer  to  our  Lord,  and  hence  it  is  applied  frequently 
in  the  New  Testament  to  him,  Luke  3.  19:  Heb.  10.  37:  not  "shall 
come,"  but  "  is  coming,"  or  "  is  to  come,"  Eev.  i.  8. 

The  New  Testament  also  abounds  in  Hellenistic  constructions: 
Nouns  absolute  for  example,  Eev.  i.  4,  5:  2.  20:  3.  12:  unusual 
governments,  adj.  with  gen.  cases,  where  good  Greek  requires  no 
prep.,  John  6.  45,  and  the  contrary.  Matt.  27.  24:  a^o  in  the  sense 
of  "by"  or  "because,"  |D,  min,  Matt.  11.  19:  18.  7:  Gal.  i.  i: 
2  Cor.  3.  18:  Acts  22.  II. 

328.  The  reference  to  Hellenistic  usage,  may,  however,  be 
carried  to  an  extreme  :  ciKaioavrr),  for  example,  has  been 
translated  "  mercy  "  in  Rom.  3.  25,  26  ;  and  the  rendering  is 
defended  by  an  appeal  to  the  LXX,  where  it  is  used  for  ^Dn^ 
chesedh.  The  LXX,  however,  itself  corrects  this  translation. 
Nine  times  in  the  Old  Testament,  it  is  so  used  :  but  seven  of 
these  are  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  many  hundred  times,  -i.  e., 
nearly  always,  it  translates  righteousness  (ptJV,  Tsedek). 

329.  Perhaps  we  may  best  illustrate  the  connection  between 
Rules  ap-  the  Hebrew,  the  LXX,  and  the  New  Testament, 
plied  to  ex-  ■|3y  explaining  the  meaningr  of  the  various  Greek 
ciiiation,  etc.  words  apphed  in  Scripture  to  the  work  of  our  Lord  ; 
reconcih'ation,  propitiation,  expiation,  atonement,  redemption, 
satisfaction,  substitution,  and  salvation. 

(a.)  Looking  into  the  English  New  Testament,  we  find  ' '  recon- 
ciUation  "  and  "  reconcile  "  in  several  passages,  in  all  of  which  (ex- 
cept one,)  the  Greek  word  is  some  form  of  «xxa<ro-«,  "  to  produce 
a  change  between  parties  "  (when  for  example,  they  have  been  :\t 


THE   LXX  :    ATOXEMENT,   ETC.  193 

variance) :  in  turning  to  tlie  LXX,  we  find  this  -word  never  used  in 
this  sense  at  all,  nor  have  the  many  passages  in  the  Old  Testament, 
which  speak  of  "  making  reconciliation,"  any  verbal  reference  to 
these  passages  in  the  New  Testament :  The  idea  is  involved  in  several 
pas^ges,  but  it  Ls  never  expressed  by  this  word,  nor  by  any  single 
Avord.  "To  turn  away  anger,"  "to  restore  to  favour,"  "to  accept,"  are 
the  common  expressions;  generally  forms  of  HV^,  ratsa,  and  h.y.-ov, 
Isa.  56.  7:  60.  7:  Jer.  6.  20:  Lev.  19.  7.  Hence  the  important  con- 
clusion, that  in  the  word  of  the  New  Testament  translated  '■'r'^con- 
cile,"  there  is  reference  only  to  the  change  or  effect  produced  by 
some  measure  of  mercy,  and  not  to  the  nature  of  that  measm-e  itself: 
it  describes  merely  the  change  produced  in  our  relation  to  God,  his 
moral  sentiment  of  displeasure  against  sin  (called  his  "wrath,"')  is 
appeased,  and  the  sinner's  enmity  and  misgivings  are  removed.  That 
there  is  thLs  double  change,  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  pas- 
sages, Heb.  10.  26,  27:  Rom.  5.  9:  Heb.  9.  26,  28:  2  Cor.  5.  18-20: 
Eph.  2.  16:  I  Cor.  7.  11:  Col.  I,  20,  21. 

(6.)  In  one  passage,  howevei',  Heb.  2.  17,  we  have  in  Gi-eek 
another  word  iXcc.<rK'cfjt.ot.t,  translated  also  "make  reconciliation."  Its 
meaning  may  be  gathered  from  an  examination  of  the  passages  in  the 
Old  Testament,  in  which  it  occurs.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  constant  ren- 
dering of  a  word  translated  in  the  English  version,  "  to  make  re- 
conciliation," or  "to  atone  for,"  Lev,  6.  30:  8.  15:  Ezek.  45.  20: 
Dan.  9.  24,  etc. 

(c.)  But  it  would  excite  surprise,  if  this  were  the  only  passage  in 
the  New  Testament,  where  this  phrase  is  found.  It  occurs  again, 
in  fact,  in  Rom.  3.  25  :  i  John  2.2:  ^1.  10,  but  in  each  of  these  pas- 
sages it  is  translated  propitiation,  a  word  which  does  not  occur  m 
the  Old  Testament.  Expiation,  again,  does  not  occur  in  the  New, 
and  but  once  in  the  Old,  Numb.  33,  35;  it  is  the  same  word,  how- 
ever, as  is  translated  elsewhere,  "  to  make  reconciliation,"  or  "  to 
atone  for."'  Atonement,  itself,  does  not  occin*  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, except  in  Rom.  5 .  2,  and  there  it  has  no  connection  with  the 
Old  Testament  phrase,  but  is  the  same  word  as  is  translated  "  re- 
conciliation" in  the  first  sense  above  indicated,  a  change,  that  is.  of 
state,  between  parties  previously  at  variance. 

(d.)  Thus  far,  therefore,  the  result  is  clear.  Reconciliation  and 
atonement  are,  in  all  the  New  Testament,  except  Heb.  2. 17,  translations 
of  the  same  word,  and  mean  the  state  of  friendship  and  acceptance 
into  which  the  gospel  introduces  us.  "  Reconciliation,"  in  the  sense 
in  which  it  is  used  in  Heb.  2.  17,  and  "  atonement,"  in  the  uniform 
sense  of  the  Old  Testament,  "  propitiation"  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  "  expiation  "  in  the  Old,  are  all  different  renderings  of  one  and 
the  same  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  "13"?,  kipper,  and  tlikoiiry.iuxi,  in 

K 


194  THE  LXX  :   ATONEMENT,   ETC. 

some  of  their  forms.  These  words,  which  may  be  regarded  as  one, 
have  two  senses,  each  involving  the  other.  They  mean  to  appease, 
pacify,  or  propitiate.  Gen.  33.  20:  Prov.  16. 14:  Ezek.  16.  63 ;  and  also 
to  clear  from  guilt,  i  Sam.  3.  14:  Psa.  65.  3 :  Prov.  16.  6:  Isa.  6.  7, 
etc.  In  propitiation,  we  have  prominence  given  to  the  first  idea,  in 
expiation,  to  the  second;  in  atonement,  we  have  a  distinct  reference 
to  both. 

(e.)  The  thing  which  atones,  propitiates,  or  expiates,  is  called  in 
Greek,  iXeca-fios,  iliXdff/aos,  and  Xu^pov,  ail  translations  of  two  derivates 
of  the  Hebrew  word  "iSlS  (D"'na3,  kephurim,  and  123,  kopher),  i.  e., 
price  or  covering. 

(/.)  The  use  of  Xvrpov  for  "123,  introduces  another  form  of  ex- 
pression, "  redemption."  This  word,  as  a  noun,  always  represents 
in  the  New  Testament,  Xvrpuirr,  or  a.'ffoXvrpuan.  Both  are  descriptive 
of  the  act  of  procuiing  the  liberation  of  another,  by  paying  some 
XvTpov  or  oiToiva.,  i.  €.,  "  ransom,"  or  ''forfeit,"  and  hence  always  in 
the  New  Testament,  of  the  state  of  being  ransomed  in  this  way. 

These  words  mean  (i,)  to  buy  back,  by  paying  the  price,  what 
has  been  sold.  Lev.  25.  25,  and  (2,)  to  redeem  what  has  been  de- 
voted, by  substituting  something  else  in  its  place.  Lev.  27.  27: 
Exod.  13.  13:  Psa.  72.  14:  Psa.  130.  8:  Isa.  63.  9. 

The  price  paid  is  called  Xv^pov,  (Matt.  20.  28:  Mark  10.  45,) 
dvriXvTpov,  (i  Tim.  2.  6,)  the  Hebrew  terms  being  TVp^p,  Geulla, 
and  jinS,  Phidyon,  answering  precisely  to  Xurpov  and  12)3,  which 
again  answers  to  Jxao-^o;.  In  i  Tim.  2.  6,  this  ransom  is  said  to  be 
Christ  himself. 

"  Redemption,"  therefore,  is  generally  a  state  of  deliverance,  by 
means  of  ransom.  Hence  it  is  used  to  indicate  deliverance  from 
punishment  or  guilt,  Eph.  i.  7:  Col.  1. 14;  sanctification,  which  is  de- 
liverance from  the  dominion  of  sin,  i  Pet.  i.  18;  the  resurrection, 
which  is  the  actual  deliverance  of  the  body  from  the  grave,  the  con- 
sequence of  sin,  Rom.  8.  23;  completed  salvation,  which  is  actual 
deliverance  from  all  evil,  Eph.  i.  14:  4.  3°:  i  Cor.  i.  30:  Tit.  2. 14. 

Once  it  is  used  without  reference  to  sin,  Heb.  11.  35,  and  perhaps 
in  Luke  21.  28. 

(g.)  Another  word,  translated  "redemption"  {a.yopaX,u),  Gal.  3. 
13:  4.  5  :  Rev.  5.9:  14.  I,  4,  means,  as  it  is  everywhere  else  trans- 
lated, to  buy,  referring  to  a  ptn-chase  made  in  the  market.  What  is 
paid  in  this  case,  is  called  t/^jj  (price,)  and  this  price  is  said  to  be 
Christ,  Gal,  3.  13;  or  his  blood,  Rom.  5.  9.  In  Acts  20.  28,  the 
word  rendered  "purchase"  {^ipt-TronlffSKi),  has  no  reference  to  re- 
demption, or  to  price,  but  means  simply  "  acquired  for  himself:" 
the  following  words,  however,  indicate  that  the  sense  is  not  ma- 
terially different  from  purchasing,  as  that  term  is  used  elsewhere. 


THE  LXX:    THE  ATONEMENT,  ETC.  195 

(A.)  The  word  "  satisfaction,"  is  not  found  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  it  occurs  twice  in  the  Old,  Numb.  35.  31,  32.  It  is  there  a 
translation  of  1QD  or  Xvrpa,  ''that  which  expiates,"  or  ''ransoms." 
The  use  of  these  terms  in  reference  to  the  New  Testament  doctrine, 
implies,  that  what  was  done  and  paid  in  the  death  of  oiir  Lord,  was 
in  every  respect,  sufficient:  it  accomplished  our  pardon,  and 
answered  all  the  moral  purposes  which  God  deemed  necessaiy, 
under  a  system  of  holy  law. 

(«.)  The  word  "  substiiution,"  is  not  found  in  either  Testament, 
but  the  idea  is  frequently  expressed  in  both:  "  it  shall  be  accepted 
FOR  him,"  Lev.  r.  4:  7.  18,  is  the  Old  Testament  phrase,  and  the 
New  corresponds.  There  we  find  in  frequent  use,  tiTtp  and  avri,  the 
former  meaning  "  on  behalf  of,"  "  for,"  and  "instead,"  and  the 
latter,  meaning  tmdoubtedly,  "instead  of."  Much  stress  ought 
not  to  be  laid  upon  the  first  of  these  terms,  as  it  is  frequently  used 
where  it  may  mean  "  for  the  advantage  of,"  Eom.  8.  26,  31 :  2  Cor. 
I.  2:  yet  in  John  15.  13,  and  i  John  3.  16,  it  seems  to  mean,  "in- 
stead of:"  and  this  is  certainly  the  meaning  of  alv-/.  Matt.  20.  28: 
Mark  10.  45:  see  Matt.  2.  22,  "in  the  room  of."  Apart,  however, 
from  particular  prepositions,  three  sets  of  phrases  clearly  teach  this 
doctrine. 

(i.)  Christ -was  made  a  curse  for  its,  Gal.  3.  13;  so  a  similar  phrase, 
2  Cor.  5.  21. 

(2,)  He  gave  himself  as  a  sacrifice  for  our  sins,  i  Cor,  15.  3 :  Eph. 
5=  2:  Gal.  I.  4:  r  Tim.  2.  6,  14:  Heb.  7.  27:  5.  i,  3:  10.  12:  Kom. 
5,  6,  7,  8:  I  Cor.  i.  13:  5.  7:  11.  24:  i  Pet.  3.  18:  4.  i. 

(3.)  Christ  gave  his  life  for  our  life,  or  we  live  by  his  death. 
Gal.  2.  20:  Kom.  14.  15:  2  Cor.  5.  15.  Compare  Rom.  16.  4:  Isa. 
53,  45.  The  idea  of  substitution  is  in  all  these  passages,  and  the 
phrase,  though  not  Scriptm-al,  is  a  convenient  summary  of  them  all. 
Cj.)  " Sidvation"  is  everywhere  in  the  New  Testament,  the  repre- 
sentative of  (TUTtipta  or  ffuTTi^iov.  truTTjpta,  is  always  translated  "salva- 
tion," except  in  three  passages  (Acts  7.  25:  27.  34,  and  Heb.  11.  7, 
where  it  refers  to  temporal  deliverance,)  and  the  idea  included  in 
the  term,  is  whatever  blessings  redemption  includes, — but  without 
any  reference  to  Xvrpov^  or  anything  else  as  the  groxmd  of  them.  It 
includes  j5rese«^  deliverance,  Luke  19.9,  ov  future,  Phil.  i.  19:  Rom. 
13.  II.  "  Salvation,"  therefore,  is  the  state  into  which  the  gospel 
introduces  all  who  believe,  and  without  reference  to  the  means 
used,  a  price  paid.  Such  is  the  conclusion  to  which  etymology  and 
New  Testament  usage  leads. 

On  turning  to  the  LXX,  however,  we  find  that  the  idea  of  propi- 
tiation is  involved  even  here.  a-uT^pioy  is  very  frequently  the  trans- 
lation of  D?5^*,  shelem  (HIT,  zebhach),  pence-o^avrag,  Bvffia.  cu'vr.piv, 

K  2 


196  THE   LXX  :   THE    ATONEMENT,   ETC. 

Lev.  3. 1-3 :  4. 10 :  7.  20:  II.  4.  Judg.  20.  26 :  21.  4.  D?^  (shelem), 
is  the  sacrifice  or  retribution,  restoring  peace ;  and  thus  the  meaning 
of  ffury,piov,  touches  upon  the  meaning  of  propitiation. 

(k.')  From  this  comparison,  therefore,  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
LXX,  and  the  Hebrew,  we  gather  the  following  con- 
clusions. 

Propitiation,  giving  prominence  to  the  secondary  meaning  of 
"123  Kippei%  and  the  primary  meaning  of  iliXa.irx.ofji.ui,  is  an  act 
prompting  to  the  exercise  of  mercy,  and  providing  for  its  exercise 
in  a  way  consistent  with  justice : 

Expiation,  giving  prominence  to  the  primary  meaning  of  "IS3, 
and  the  secondary  meaning  of  Vii'kdffKof^a.i,  is  an  act  which  provides 
for  the  i-emoval  of  sin,  and  cancels  the  obligation  to  punishment : 

Atonement,  giving  prominence  to  both,  and  meaning  expiation  and 
propitiation  combined. 

Christ's  atonement  is  said  to  be  by  substitution,  for  he  suffered 
in  our  stead,  and  he  bea7'S  our  sin;  and  it  is  by  satisfaction,  for  the 
broken  law  is  vindicated,  all  the  purposes  of  punishment  are 
answered  with  honour  to  the  Lawgiver,  and  eventual  holiness  to  the 
Christian.  Its  result  is  reconciliation  (xuruXXay^) ;  the  moral  senti- 
ment of  justice  in  God  is  reconciled  to  the  sinner,  and  provision  is 
made  for  the  removal  of  our  enmity ;  and  it  is  redemption,  or  actual 
deliverance,  for  a  price,  from  sin  in  its  guilt  and  dominion,  from  all 
misery,  and  from  death.  Salvation  is  also  actual  deliverance,  but 
without  a  distinct  reference  to  a  price  paid.  Atonement,  there- 
fore, is  something  offered  to  God;  7-edemption  or  salvation  is  some- 
thino-  bestowed  upon  man :  atonement  is  the  ground  of  redemption, 
and  redemption  is  the  result  of  atonement  (Isa.  53.  4-9,  10,  12).  The 
design  of  the  first  is  to  satisfy  God's  justice,  the  design  of  the  second 
to  make  man  blessed;  the  first  was  finished  upon  the  cross,  the 
second  is  in  daily  operation,  and  will  not  be  completed  in  the  case 
of  the  whole  church,  till  the  consummation  of  all  things,  Dan.  9. 
24:  Eph.  4.  30. 

In  studying  the  Hellenisms  of  the  New  Testament,  and  tracing 
their  connection  with  the  Old,  the  Nov.  Test.  Grasc,  Editio 
Hellenistica,  Lond.,  1843,  will  be  found  of  value  :  it  consists  of 
the  New  Testament  text,  and  illustrations  from  the  LXX,  of  the 
phraseology  of  every  verse.     For  further  helps  see  below  §331. 

330.  These  illustrations  and  remarks  refer  chiefly  to  the 
meaning  of  words.  Other  rules  of  interpretation  have  been 
already  illustrated — ^the  words  in  connection  with  the  sen- 
tence, the  context,  the  scope,  and  parallel  passages — and  are  the 
same,  whether  we  be  interpreting  the  original,  or  ia  version, 


ORIGINAL  SCRIPTURES  :   CONCORDANCES.  197 

and  do  not  need  further  illustration.     They  apply  with  equal 
force  to  the  study  of  the  original  Scriptures. 

331.  In  reference  to  parallel  passages,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, that  verbal  parallels  in  a  version,  are  available  only 
when  the  version  is  strictly  accurate,  and  that  comparison 
and  investigation  of  the  original  must  be  made  through  the 
medium,  not  of  a  translation,  but  of  the  original  itself.  The 
importance  of  this  remark  may  be  seen  in  §  329,  where  the 
use  of  the  Enghsh  version,  even  on  the  important  subject  or 
the  work  of  Christ,  will  certainly  mislead,  the  New  Testament 
itself  not  translating  uniformly,  and  still  less  agreeing  in  its 
translation  with  the  corresponding  expressions  of  the  Old. 
Happily,  this  difficulty,  which  to  an  Enghsh  reader  would 
have  been  a  few  years  since  insuperable,  is  to  a  great  degree 
removed  by  the  helps  mentioned  below. 

For  the  study  of  Hebrew  verbal  parallels,  the  best  Concordance 
is  Fiirst's :  for  New  Testament  Gree/:,  Bruder's.  To  ascertain  the 
usage  of  the  version  of  the  LXX,  and  to  compare  it  with  the  New 
Testament,  consult  the  Concordance  of  Trommius,  which  gives  the 
Greek  word,  with  the  passages  in  which  it  is  found,  arranged  under 
the  different  Hebrew  words,  of  which  it  is  the  translation :  a  second 
table  in  the  same  book  gives  the  Hebrew  word  first,  with  its  different 
Greek  renderings.  The  English  student  will  obtain  very  considerable 
help  from  the  ''  Englishman's  Greek  Concordance,"  whicli  gives 
the  Greek  words  of  the  New  Testament,  -svith  their  English  ren- 
derings; and  from  the  "Englishman's  Hebrew  Concordance,"  which 
gives  the  same  information  for  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  The  second 
tables  in  each,  give  the  English  word,  and  its  various  Greek  and 
Hebrew  representatives.  Taylor's  Concordance  is  formed  on  the 
same  plan.  Wilson  makes  the  English  word  the  basis  of  his  Con- 
cordance, giving  the  Hebrew  representatives;  the  plan  of  the  Eng- 
lishman's Greek  and  Hebrew  Concordances,  however,  is  the  more 
useful.  A  comparison  of  the  New  Testament  Greek  and  the  LXX, 
can  be  made  only  through  Trommius  and  Bruder,  or  by  the  help  of 
the  Lexicon  of  Schleusner,  or  the  Thesaurus  of  Biel. 

332.  The  peculiarities  of  the  Greek  tongue,  are  nowhere 
Usage  of  more  instructive  or  beautiful,  than  in  the  use  of 
(ireek.  the  article  :  and  as  the  rules  in  reference  to  it 
afford  important  help  in  interpreting  Scripture,  it  may  be 
convenient  to  give  them. 

333.  The  Greek  language  has  but  one  article,  the  definite  ; 


198  THE  GREEK  ARTICLE. 

the  indefinite  is  expressed  in  tlie  New  Testament 

Article . 

by  TiQ,  "  a  certain  ;"  very  occasionally  by  6  and  a 
participle,  o  aTveipojv,  "a  sower;"  or  generally  by  the  omis- 
sion of  the  definite  article. 

The  general  idea  involved  in  the  use  of  the  definite 
General  idea  article,  both  in  Greek  and  in  English,  is,  that  the 
article.^  ^  object  to  which  it  is  prefixed  is  famihar ;  but  the 
Familiarity,  grounds  of  famiharity  are  difierent,  as  are,  in  some 
respects,  the  usages  of  the  two  tongues.  Famiharity  arises 
from  difierent  causes. 

(a).  When  things  are  in  themselves  well  known,  or  are  re- 
Origin  of  this  garded  as  present  to  the  senses. 

I^erent'''  ^'  "^^^  names  of  persons  well  known  generally  take 

cases.  the  article  ;    but  because  they  are  well  known,  their 

names  also  dispense  mth  it.  Hence  'l>jo-5;  and  o  'ifia-S; :  see  Matt.  i. 
1-16:  2.  16,  19.  On  the  first  mention  of  a  name  the  article  is 
generally  omitted.  The  names  of  persons  not  well  known  also  take 
the  article  when  mentioned  a  second  time. 

2.  If  the  proper  name  is  followed  by  a  description  which  has  the 
article,  the  name  is  without  it  unless  the  person  is  very  eminent. 
''John  the  Baptist"  is  the  common  form. 

3.  Objects  present  to  the  parties  concerned  have  the  ai-ticle 
attached  to  their  names,  Matt.  26.  23,  in  the  dish.  John  13.  26,  the 
sop.  Mark  11.  5,  loosing  the  colt,  i  Thess.  5.  27,  this  epistle. 
Matt.  13.  27,  these  tares.  Hence  the  nominative,  with  the  article, 
to  express  the  vocative,  Eph.  5.  22:  Heb.  i.  8. 

4.  The  possessive  pronoun,  in  Greek,  with  a  noun,  takes  the 
article;  not  my  will — the  will  of  me — ^but  "  the  thy  will"  be  done. 

The  second  and  third  of  these  rules  are  in  accordance  with 
English  usage,  the  others  are  not.  We  can  say,  indeed,  the  Christ; 
but  then  Christ  is  not  a  name,  but  a  description,  and  means  "the 
anointed." 

(h).  Familiarity  may  arise  from  something  in  the  context, 
as  from 

1.  Previous  mention.  Luke  2.  16,  the  child:  in  verse  12,  a  child. 
John  4.  43,  after  the  two  days:  verse  40,  two  days.  The  English 
adopts  this  rule  whenever  it  can  be  adopted  without  violating 
another. 

2.  Implication  in  some  preceding  expression,  Mark  2.  4,  the  roof, 
verse  i.  Luke  15.  4,  the  ninety  and  nine;  one  out  of  a  hundred 
being  lost.     Luke  11.38,  before  the  dinner  or  meal :  verse  3  7,  to  dine 


THE  GREEK  ARTICLK  199 

with  him.  Matt.  i.  24,  from  the  sleep,  in  which  he  had  a  di-eam, 
verse  20.  Matt.  10.  12,  into  the  house,  i.e.,  where  they  receive 
you,  verse  11 :  Acts  20.  13:  2  Thess.  2.  11:  see  9.  10. 

3.  Association,  when  the  noun,  Tsdthout  being  implied  in  any- 
thing previously  expressed,  is  connected  with  it.  John  21.  8,  came 
in  the  small  boat,  i.e.,  of  the  fishing  vessel:  see  verse  3.  So  Acts 
27.  16:  Luke  II.  7:  John  13.  5:  Mark  4.  38:  Acts  20.  9,  the  win- 
dow, the  only  one  of  the  chamber;  Acts  21.  26,  27,  until  the  offering, 
and  so  throughout  referring  to  the  law  on  vows.  The  article  thus 
rendered  necessaiy  by  the  context  is  often  to  be  expressed  by  the 
possessive  pronoun,  ''putting  his  (Gr.  the)  hands  upon  him,"  Acts 
9.  17. 

The  difference  between  Greek  and  English  rules  will  be  seen 
from  the  examples. 

(c).  Familiarity  arises  from  something  neither  mentioned 
nor  suggested,  of  which  there  are  several  kinds. 

1.  Abstract  nouns  generally  take  the  article,  and  always  when 
they  are  personified,  i  Cor.  15.  26,  death  (a  S.)  John  7.  22,  23, 
circumcision,  i  Cor.  11.  14,  nature,  Matt.  11.  19 :  Phil.  3.  3. 
Numbers  in  the  abstract  (to  h,  unity,  the  state  of  being  one),  and 
the  infinitive  used  as  a  noun,  belong  to  this  class,  to  Tna-n-juv  = 
believing.     This  usage  is  not  frequent  in  English. 

2.  Nouns  representing  objects  in  natiu'e  which  exist  singly,  and 
entire  natural  substances,  generally  take  the  article.  Matt.  5.  18, 
heaven  and  earth:  24.  29,  the  sun.  Mark  13.  28,  summer  (^=  the 
hot  season);  hght;  salt;  water.  Generally,  we  omit  the  article  in 
these  cases,  whenever,  at  least,  the  use  of  it  wotdd  indicate  some 
particular  thing,  I'ather  than  the  imiversal  substance. 

3.  Words  indicating  entire  species,  either  of  animals  or  objects, 
generally  take  the  article.  Matt.  6.  i,  men,  as  men:  7,  6,  dogs,  as 
dogs.  Matt.  10.  16,  serpents.  Luke  21.  29,  fig-tree.  James  3.  4 
(the)  ships.  The  omission  of  the  article  would  indicate  that  the 
statement  made  is  true  only  of  some,  and  not  of  the  class  as  a 
whole.     The  English  generally  omits  the  article  in  these  cases. 

4.  Whole  classes  of  agents  generally  take  it.  Matt.  10.  10,  the 
labourer.  Matt.  18.  17,  the  publican.  Matt.  25.  32,  the  shep- 
herd. 

5 .  Many  words  in  all  languages  express  ideas  familiar  to  classes 
of  readers,  and  properly  take  the  article;  and  generally  it  is  best  to 
retain  it,  even  in  a  translation,  though  the  translation  be  not  quite 
clear.  Matt.  17.  24,  to.  Vit^a^^fjt.oe,,  ^Ae  half-shekel  temple-tax :  2x,  12, 
the  doves  used,  viz.,  in  the  temple  service.  John  18.  3,  -h  ff-TTBipa.,  the 
detachment  on  duty.     John  i.  21,  art  thou  the  prophet.     Luke  21.8, 


200  THE   GREEK  ARTICLE. 

0  xcitoos,  the  time  (so  long  expected),  i  Cor.  3.  13,  the  day  shall 
show  it,  Heb.  10.  25.  in  rov  oLiuva.  =  for  ever,  to  eternity,  Matt.  21. 
19:  Mark  .11.  14:  John  4.  14.  So  -h  hVo;,  that  way,  i.  c,  the  gospel. 
Acts  9.  2:  19.  9,  23:  24.  22:  so  in  proverbial  expressions,  Matt,  23. 
24,  the  camel,  the  gnat :  so  tI  0^0;  =  the  mountain  district  of  Galilee, 
or  of  Palestine,  Matt.  14.  23,  Mark  3.  13.  0  K^-AfAvo;,  ^/ie  precipice 
(surrounding  the  lake).  Matt.  8.  32.  to  ^Xowv,  Matt.  13.  2,  Mark  4. 
I,  the  vessel  generally  used  by  ovu*  Lord  and  his  apostles,  w  otKia, 
the  house  to  which  he  resorted  when  at  Capernaum,  Matt.  13.  i,  36 : 
Mark  9.  33. 

For  obvious  reasons,  Luke  and  John,  the  former  writing  for  those 
who  knew  nothing  of  Palestine,  and  the  latter  writing  after  the 
whole  aspect  of  the  country  had  been  changed,  never  use  these 
latter  expressions. 

Exceptions  334-  The  excex3tions  to  these  rules  are  numerous, 
classified.        ]3^t  easily  classified. 

(a).  Generally,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  often 
trinsicmean-  dispensed  With  where  the  intrinsic  meaning  is  so 
mg  IS  clear,  ^lear  that  perspicuity  is  not  affected  by  the  omis- 
sion. 

Proper  names  are  often  without  it,  i  Cor.  3.  22.  Abstract  nouns 
are  often  without  it.  Certain  principal  objects  of  nature  are  without 
it,  Matt.  13.  6:  i  Cor.  15.  41:  2  Pet.  3. 10:  James  i.  6.  Superlatives 
and  ordinal  numbers  take  it  or  are  without  it,  Mark  15.  33 :  Matt. 
14.  25 :  22.  38.     So  to  a  certain  extent  in  English. 

(b).  Nouns  not  in  themselves  definite  are  often  without  it, 
\Vhere  it  is  especially  if  in  very  common  use.  In  these  cases, 
uS'Vor^on-  ^^^y  ^^®  made  definite  by  the  context,  or  usage, 
text.  and  are  unambiguous, 

(scca-tXfj;  means,  in  classic  Greek,  a  king;  0  (hccfftXiv;  alone,  the 
Persian  king;  and  in  later  Greek,  (hxiriXvji  itself  has  that  meaning. 
So,  in  the  New  Testament,  hi;  is  applied,  without  the  article,  to 
God,  and  y.v^io;  to  Jehovah,  both  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  the 
LXX,  I  Thess.  2.  5:  see  verse  10:  see  Matt.  10.  28,  37. 

(c).  Nouns  used  adverbially,  i.e.,  with  prepositions,  often 
Nouns  used     dispense  with  the  article, 
adverbially.         j^j^^  j    j  .  j^om.  8.  4. 

335.  An  accurate  application  of  these  rules  will  solve  many 
difiiculties,  and   is  essential  to    the  right  under- 
^^  ^^  '        standing  of  portions  of  Scripture. 

In  Mat.  I.  17,  for  example,  it  is  said  that  all  the  generations 


THE   GREEK   ARTICLE.  201 

from  Abraham  to  David  are  fourteen.     Probably  the  article  here 
refers  rather  to  the  genei'ations  just  enumerated. 

In  Rom.,  tofcoi,  ■without  the  article,  refers  to  any  revelation  or 
written  rule  of  moral  duty;  'O  v«^«,-,  either  to  the  Mosaic  law,  or  to 
some  law  just  named. 

336.  A  very  striking  use  of  the  omission  of  the  article  is 
Omission  of  "to  Call  attention  to  the  idea  in  the  anarthrous — 
article.  unarticled— word. 

Heb.  I.  T,  2,  of  old,  God  spake  by  the  prophets,  now  by  one  who 
is  Son,  Iv  v\u:  so  7.  28.  i  Cor.  14.  4,  one  man — a  church.  John  3.  6, 
that  which  is  bom  of  the  flesh  (article)  is  flesh  (no  article).  Rom. 
II.  6,  grace  (article)  is  no  longer  r/race  (no  article),  7.  43. 

337.  In  the  collocation  of  words,  the  following  i-ules  are 
Rules  on  the    i^Portant. 

coUccation  of      (a).  When  two  or  more  words   are  connected, 
and  are  descriptive  of  a  single  object,  or  of  objects 
regarded  as  single,  the  article  is  prefixed  (as  in  English)  to 
the  first  only. 

Matt.  12.  22,  the  blind  and  dumb.  Luke  11.  28,  he  that  heareth 
and  keepeth.     John  6.  40:  Rom.  2.  3  :  i  John  2.  4:  Eph.  5.  20. 

(h).  Nor  is  the  article  repeated,  when  a  single  class  of 
things  or  qualities  is  described,  by  an  enumeration  of  its 
parts. 

Eph.  3.  18,  what  is  the  breadth  and  length,  etc.,  describing  the 
extent.  Matt.  20.  19,  to  mock  (article),  and  scourge,  and  crucify — 
the  sufferings.     So  Acts  8.  6:  i  Cor.  11.  22. 

(c).  Nor  when  the  w^ords  used  express  one  idea,  though  a 
complex  one. 

Phil.  2.  17,  upon  the  sacrifice  and  service  of  your  faith.  2  Cor. 
13.  II,  the  God  of  love  and  peace  (not  and  6/ peace),  2  Pet.  i.  10. 

{d).  Nor  when  two  or  more  persons  make  one  agency,  or  a 
single  act  is  directed  against  two  or  more  objects. 

Matt.  17.  I,  Peter  (ai'ticle),  and  John,  and  James,  Luke  19.  11: 
Acts  3.  11:  17.  15. 

(e).  On  the  contrary,  the  article  is  repeated  when  distinct- 
ness is  given  to  each  of  the  things  named. 

Matt.  23.  23 :  Tit.  3.  4,  the  goodness  and  the  philanthropy  of  God 
our  Saviour  appeared. 

K  3 


202  EXTERNAL  HELPS  :   THEIR   VALUE. 

(/).  And  when  tlie  words  employed  are  not  descriptive  of  a 
single  object,  or  of  what  is  regarded  as  such. 

Heb.  II.  20,  Isaac  blessed  tov  lay.ufi  and  tov  'H.ffo.v.  2  Thess.  i  8, 
to  those  who  know  not  .  .  ,  and  to  those  who  do  not  obey. 

((/).  Apply  these  rules  to  explain  the  following. 

Tit.  *.  13:  2  Thess.  i.  12:  Eph.  5.  5:  i  Tim.  5.  21: 
Examples.  -r,  ■  t    j 

2  Pet.  1.  11:  Jude  4. 

338.  The  doctrine  of  the  Greek  article  was  first  fornaally 
Literatme  of  ^^^^^6^.  in  modem  times  by  Granville  Sharp  ; 
the  Greek       afterwards,  at  greater  length,  and  with  more  accu- 

facy,  by  Dr.  Middleton,  some  of  whose  conclusions, 
however,  have  been  overthrown  by  more  recent  investiga- 
tion. The  above  rules  are  in  harmony  with  such  of  Middle- 
ton's  as  have  stood  the  test,  and  are  most  of  them  taken  sub- 
stantially from  Winer's  "  Idioms,"  and  from  Green's  "  Gram- 
mar of  the  New  Testament  Dialect,"  1842. 

Sec.  6.   Of  the  use  of  External  Helps  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  Bible. 

"  The  Bible  resembles  au  extensive  garden,  where  there  is  a  vast  variety  and 
profusion  of  fruits  and  flowers,  some  of  which  are  more  essential  or  more  splendid 
than  others ;  but  there  is  not  a  blade  suffered  to  grow  in  it,  which  has  not  its  use 
and  beauty  in  the  system.  Salvation  for  sinners  is  the  grand  truth  presented  every- 
where, and  in  all  points  of  light :  but  the  pure  in  heart  sees  a  thousand  traits  of  the 
Divine  character,  of  himself,  and  of  the  world ;  some  striking  and  bold,  others  cast 
as  it  were  into  the  shade,  and  designed  to  be  searched  for  and  exammed."— Cecil, 
Remains,  (p.  198). 

339.  Thoroughly  to  understand  the  Scriptures,  to  har- 
monize apparent  contradictions,  to  gather  up  all  the  truth  it 
contains,  and  sometimes  even  to  enable  us  to  select  out  of 
several  meanings,  the  one  which  is  most  consistent  with  the 
Divine  wiU,  it  is  often  necessary  to  seek  some  external  or  col- 
lateral help.  We  need  to  know  the  opinions  and  ideas  preva- 
lent among  the  people  to  whom  the  various  parts  of  Scripture 
were  addressed ;  facts  of  general  history,  of  chronology,  of 
natural  history,  of  geography,  and  especially  the  manners  and 
customs  of  eastern  nations. 

340.  The  estimation  in  which  these  external  helps  have 
Estimation  been  held,  has  been  singularly  subject  to  deprecia- 
P^^i^^*^^  tions    in    some   cases,    and   to   excess  in   others. 

helps  are  ' 

boki.  With  many  they  are  the  chief  study,  and  it  is 


EXTERNAL  HELPS:   OPINIONS  AMONG  THE  JEWS.  203 

thought  that  no  one  is  quahfied  to  understand  the  Bible  until 
he  is  in  a  position  to  use  them.  By  others  they  are  despised. 
The  first  class  forget  that  these  helps  are  of  value  chiefly  in 
confirming  a  sense,  which  is  already  discovered,  or  in  expound- 
ing less  important  texts  ;  the  statements  of  Scripture  on  all 
knowledge  essential  to  salvation,  being,  when  compared  with 
one  another,  abundantly  plain.  The  second  forget,  that  these 
helps  are  often  needful  to  determine  the  sense  when  it  re- 
mains doubtful,  and  that  if  we  neglect  them,  much  of  the 
significance  of  Scripture  in  particular  passages,  many  of  them 
impressive,  is  concealed. 

341.  (i.)  Some  knowledge  of  the  ideas  and  opinions  pre- 
valent among  the  people  to  whom  the  inspired  writings  were 
addressed,  or  among  surrounding  nations,  is  often  important. 

At  the  time,  for  example,  when  our  Lord  appeared,  there  was  a 
Ivingdom  of  general  expectation  among  the  Jews  of  the  coming  of 
Heaven.  the  Messiah,  and  his  reign  was  called,  ''  the  world  to 

come,"  '*  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,"*  "  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  or 
"  of  God,"^  To  enter  that  kingdom  was  to  become  his  disciple. 
The  Jews  had  very  erroneous  conceptions  of  its  nature :  and  it  was 
necessary  that  our  Lord  should  correct  them.  This  he  does  in  the 
teaching  of  himself,  and  his  apostles.  The  nature  of  the  kingdom 
of  God  must  be  learned,  therefore,  from  the  New  Testament :  and  the 
fact  (which  we  learn  from  external  som-ces,)  that  the  name  was 
given  by  the  Jews  to  the  reign  of  the  Messiah  completes  our  know- 
ledge, and  confirms  the  interpretation. 

"He  is  born  again,"  was  the  Jewish  description  of  a  proselyte; 
and  this  use  of  the  expression  confirms  the  common  interpretation 
of  the  language  of  our  Lord,  John  3 . 

"  To  bind  and  loose,"  meant  among  the  Jews,  as  Lightfoot  has 
shown,  to  forbid  as  unlawful,  and  to  allow  as  lawful:  (as  ''bound 
not  to"  is  still  used  among  us).  Hence  the  true  explanation  of 
Matt.  18.  8:  (Wetstein). 

The  precepts  of  the  sermon  on  the  Mount,  become  more  impres- 
sive from  the  following  facts.  The  Pharisees  held  that  the  thoughts 
of  the  heart  are  never  sinful  (See  Matt.  5.  28);  the  Scribes,  that  the 
gifts  which  Jewish  worshippers  were  required  to  place  upon  the 
altar,  expiated  all  offences  which  were  not  amenable  to  the  Judge, 
fver.  24).     All  maintained,  says  Maimonides,  that  oaths  by  heaven 

*  Schoetgenii,  Horse  Heb.  i..  Diss,  v.,  Chap.  vi. 
*>  See  Lyall's  Propaedia  Prophetica,  p.  270. 


204  OPINIONS  AMONG  THE   HEATHENS. 

or  by  earth,  might  be  taken  collusively,  and  had  not  the  eoleuin 
obligation  of  oaths  in  which  the  name  of  God  occurred  (v.  34).  It 
was  also  maintained  (Buxtorf,)  that  the  prayer  wliich  is  long  shall 
not  return  empty  (6,  7). 

342.  The  chief  sources  of  information  on  the  opinions  of 
the  ancient  Jews,  are  the  Targums  and  the  Talmud.  Next 
in  importance,  is  the  Sohar  of  R.  Simeon  ben  Joshai,  who 
flourished  early  in  the  second  century.  This  book  is  held  in 
the  highest  veneration,  and  is  the  foundation  of  the  Cabbala, 
See  Part  ii.,  ''Intro,  to  the  Gospels."  Its  subject  is  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  events  foretold  concerning 
his  reign.  It  illustrates  both  the  meaning  of  Scripture,  and 
the  unbelief  of  the  Jews,  that  the  sense  which  was  put  upon 
the  several  prophecies  quoted  by  the  apostles  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  the  same  (with  two  or  three  remarkable  excep- 
tions,) as  had  been  put  upon  them  by  the  Jews  generally? 
All  the  Psalms  for  example,  and  all  the  predictions  of  Isaiah 
quoted  in  the  New  Testament,  are  applied  by  the  authorities 
just  named  to  the  Messiah.  And  yet  in  a  Messiah,  who  so 
remarkably  fulfilled  them,  they  do  not  beheve. 

The  student  Avill  find  the  views  of  Jewish  authors  lai'gelj''  quoted 
in  the  Horas  Hebraicas  of  Lightfoot  and  Schoetgenius ;  in  the  com- 
mentaries of  Dr.  Gill  and  Koppe,  and  in  the  notes  of  Wetstein's 
Greek  Testament. 

343.  It  is  important  to  observe,   however,  that  while  a 

knowledge  of  the  opinions  held  in  early  times  may 

Caution.  .,  .    .  1,  •    •      1  .  i  .1  1 

oiten  suggest  the  original  meaning  01  the  words 
employed  in  Scripture,  that  meaning  is  only  an  auxiliary  help 
in  ascertaining  their  Scripture  use.  "  A  regenerate  man  " 
meant  to  a  Jew,  a  proselyte  ;  one  made  a  Jew  by  circumcision 
or  baptism.  But  it  is  plain  that  though  this  use  of  the  term 
accounts  for  the  adojDtion  of  it  by  our  Lord,  and  to  a  great 
extent  even  explains  its  meaning,  yet  the  true  and  complete 
meaning  can  be  gathered  only  from  Scripture  itself. 

344.  A  knowledge  of  the  rehgious  opinions  of  the  nations 
by  whom  the  Israelites  were  surrounded,  is  also  often  useful. 

Among  the  Egyptians,  for  example,  a  lamb  or  kid,  was  an  object 
of  veneration,  and  the  male,  as  the  representative  of  Ammon,  Avas 
worshipped. 

The  plagues  of  Egypt  were  all  inflicted  on  objects  of  Egyptian 


EXTERNAL   HELPS  :   HISTORY.  20-3 

worship,  and  thus  they  became  a  rebuke  to  idolatry,  as  well  as  an 
evidence  of  Divine  power. 

At  solemn  festivals,  the  Fliocnicians  ate  of  the  raw  flesh  of  their 
oflferings;  part  of  it  they  roasted  in  the  sun,  and  part  was  sodden  for 
magical  purposes,  the  intestines  being  used  for  divination,  and  the 
fragments  for  charms  and  enchantments.  All  these  practices  were 
forbidden  to  the  Jews,  and  though  no  doubt  other  solemn  lessons 
were  taught  by  the  burning  of  the  victim  in  the  fire,  it  was  alsc» 
intended  to  teach  them  to  avoid  the  rites  of  the  heathen. 

See  also  Lev.  19.  28:  Lev.  11.  ii:  Psa.  16.  4:  Jer.  44.  17,  26. 

Among  the  ancient  Persiaiis  it  was  held  that  there  were  two 
deities,  of  equal  power,  Ormuzd  and  Ahrihman.  Jehovah  in  his 
address  to  Cyrus,  claims  authority  over  them  both.  "  /form  light 
and  darkness — peace  and  evil,"  Isa.  45.  7. 

Many  who  had  embraced  the  oriental  philosophy,  became  Chris- 
tians, and  attempted  to  blend  then-  former  tenets  with  the  doctrines 
of  Chi-ist.  Some  of  them  (the  Gnostics  for  example,)  held  the 
opinion  that  there  were  several  emanations  of  the  Godhead,  called 
the  Word,  the  Life,  the  Light,  etc, :  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
apostle  John  refers  to  their  opinions  in  John  i.  i-i3,  where  he 
claims  all  those  titles  for  our  Lord. 

From  their  principles,  many  of  them  deduced  a  loose  morality, 
and  others  jxistified  the  imposition  of  um-easonable  austeiuties.  To 
the  speculative  opinions  of  those  sects,  are  opposed  such  passages  as 
these,  I  John  i.  i,  2,  7:  2.  22,  23:  4.  2,  3,  9,  14,  15:  5.  1-5,  9-20; 
and  to  their  practice,  i  John  i.  5,  6:  2.  2,  6:  3.  4-10:  5.  18,  21. 
The  deeds  of  the  Xicolaitanes  were  probably  of  the  same  order, 
Kev.  2.  6. 

In  Europe,  the  Greek  philosophy  was  most  prevalen  land  the 
Greek  character  showed  its  tendency  in  subtle  disquisition.  Two 
only  of  the  Grecian  sects  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  the  Epicureans 
and  the  Stoics.  The  first  held  that  God  took  no  concern  in  the 
affairs  of  the  universe,  but  dwelt  in  some  distant  region:  and  the 
second  held  that  he  was  the  soul  of  the  world.  They  agreed,  how- 
ever, in  maintaining  that  the  Greeks  were  superior  to  all  other 
nations.  The  apostle  Paul  rebuked  both,  Acts  17.  18-32,  alter- 
nately correcting  their  errors,  and  revealing  to  them  the  great  doc- 
trines of  the  resurrection,  and  the  atonement  of  Christ.  A  know- 
ledge of  their  views  explains  his  appeal,  rebukes  "  reserve"  in  the 
exhibition  of  the  gospel,  and  illustrates  the  simplicity  and  dignity 
of  truth. 

The  Divinity  of  our  Lord,  and  the  inutility  of  the  ceremonial  law, 
are  both  taught  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  It  is  a  confirmation  of  this 
view  that  the  Ehionites  who  observed  the  law,  and  maintained  the 


206  EXTERNAL   HELPS:   BlSTOll'I. 

simple  liiimanity  of  Christ,  rejected  those  Epistles,  and  received  only 
a  mutilated  copy  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.     Wilson,  p.  283, 

Many  of  the  discourses  of  our  Lord  contain  special  reference  to 
the  views  of  the  various  Jewish  sects.  The  reader  will  find  those 
views  noticed  at  length  in  the  introduction  to  the  Gospels. 

345.  Here,  again,  a  caution  is  needed.     The  errors  referred 

to  in  the  passages  which  are  thus  made  clear  by 
this  knowledge  were  often  local  and  temporary. 
They  generally  sprang,  however,*  from  some  deep-seated 
tendency  of  human  nature,  and  are  apt  to  show  themselves 
under  different  forms;  and  the  refutation  of  them,  given 
in  Scripture,  always  embodies  truths  of  permanent  and  uni- 
versal apphcation. 

346.  (ii.)  A  knowledge  of  ancient  profane  history,  often  aids 
in  the  study  of  the  Bible. 

In  Gen.  46,  it  is  said,  "  every  shepherd  is  an  abomination  to  the 
Egyptians."  This  fact  explains  the  assignment  of  the  land  of 
Goshen  (on  the  extreme  border  of  Egypt,)  to  the  Israelites;  an 
ari'angement  which  preserved  them  from  too  intimate  a  connection 
with  the  Egyptians :  and  it  is  itself  explained  by  the  investigations 
of  Dr.  Hales,  and  IMr.  Faber.  They  tell  us,  from  a  fragment  of 
Manetho's,  that  about  the  year  2159,  b.  c,  'Egypt  was  invaded  by  a 
band  of  Cushite  shepherds  from  Arabia,  who  after  many  years  of 
cruel  domination,  were  expelled  by  the  general  revolt  of  the  princes 
of  Upper  Egypt,  and  then  withdrew  to  Palestine  (the  land  of  shep- 
herds,) and  are  known  in  Scripture  as  the  Philistines.  This  event, 
which  occurred  some  time  befoi-e  the  commencement  of  Joseph's 
administration,  accounts  for  the  suspicion  with  which  the  Israelites, 
coming  from  the  same  quarter,  were  received,  and  for  the  abhor- 
rence in  which  their  occupation  as  nomade  or  wandering  shepherds, 
was  held. 

It  may  be  added,  that  while  Egyptian  archgeologists,  Champollion, 
Rosellini,  and  Wilkinson,  agree  in  this  view  of  a  shepherd  invasion, 
Hengstenberg  has  thrown  doubts  upon  the  whole  of  this  part  of 
Manetho's  narrative,  though  without  su£S.cient  reason.  See  Tables 
of  Egyptian  Chronology  (Part  ii). 

It  is  instructive  to  remark,  that  the  history  of  Assyria  and  the 
antiquities  of  Egypt,  which  were  once  the  favourite  resort  of  infi- 
delity, now  supply  some  of  the  most  decisive  external  evidences  of 
the  truth  of  Scripture. 

So  again,  the  best  commentary  on  Deut.  28,  and  on  our  Lord's 
prophecy  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  is  found  in  the  history  of 


EXTERNAL   HELPS  :    HISTORY.  207 

the  Jewisli  wai:s  by  Josephus,  He  was  himself  a  Jew  by  bu'th,  born 
at  Jerusalem,  about  A.  D.  37,  and  was  an  eye  witness  of  the  siege  of 
that  city.  The  truth  of  his  nan-ative  is  confirmed  both  by  contem- 
porary writers,  and  by  the  testimony  of  the  emperor  Titus. 

Matt.  2.  2,  3,  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that  there  was  a  general  im- 
pression at  that  time  throughout  the  East,  that  a  great  prince  was 
about  to  appear  and  govern  the  world,  Tac.  Hist.  1.5:  Suet.  Vit. 
Vesp.  c.  4. 

In  Matt.  24.  15,  16,  our  Saviour  warns  his  disciples  to  quit  Jeini- 
salem  before  the  siege  began;  and  profane  history  tells  us  that  they 
profited  by  his  instructions,  for  before  the  city  was  surrounded  by  the 
Eomau  armies,  they  retu-ed  to  Pella,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan. 

The  rest  spoken  of  in  Acts  9.  31,  is  explained  in  contemporary 
histoiy.  It  must  not  be  ascribed  to  the  conversion  of  Saul,  for  the 
persecution  continued  three  years  after;  but  to  the  circumstance, 
that  at  that  time  (a.  d.  40,)  Caligula  attempted  to  set  up  his  statue 
in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  The  consternation  of  the  Jews  at  this 
threatened  profanation,  diverted  their  attention  from  the  Christians, 
and  so  "  the  churches  had  rest." 

In  Acts  17.  16,  Athens  is  said  to  be  "full  of  idols"  (margin), 
-^lian  (a.  d.  140,)  calls  it  the  altar  of  Greece,  and  Pausanias,  another 
historian  (a.  d.  170,)  tells  us  that  this  city  had  more  images  than 
all  Greece  besides.  All  antiquity  agrees  in  representing  it  as  the 
seat  of  Grecian  learning,  and  as  the  school  of  the  world.  How 
instructive  is  this  combination  of  secular  enlightenment  and  gross 
idolatry ! 

The  nobleness  of  Paul's  conduct  in  his  addi'ess  to  Felix  (Acts  24. 
2  5  ),  is  evident  even  upon  the  surface  of  the  narrative.  Josephus  tells 
us  that  Felix  was  notorious  for  oppression,  and  that  he  had  been 
liring  in  adultery  with  Drusilla,  the  wife  of  the  late  king  of  Edessa. 
Paul  neither  defended  liimself,  nor  attacked  the  vices  with  which 
Felix  was  chargeable;  but  with  admirable  tact  he  reasoned  on  the 
virtues  of  righteousness  and  temperance,  and  on  the  solemn  truth 
of  future  judgment.  Felix  had  no  excuse  for  interrupting  him,  and 
yet  it  is  evident  that  he  felt  his  appeals. 

347.  (ill.)  Ecclesiastical  history  is  also  of  value  in  interpret- 
ing Scripture :  sometimes  by  supplying  facts  on  which  the 
sacred  writers  are  silent ;  sometimes  by  giving  the  history  of 
opinion  in  the  church  itself. 

We  learn,  for  instance,  that  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
Labours  of  ^-^^  within  thirty  years  of  the  death  of  our  Lord,  the 
the  apostles,    gospel  had  been  preached  in  Macedonia  and  Syria,  by 


208  EXTERNAL  HELPS  :   HISTORY. 

Jude;  iu  Egj^t  and  pai-ts  of  Africa,  by  Mark,  Simon,  and  Jude;  in 
Ethiopia,  by  the  Eunuch  of  Candace,  and  by  Matthias;  in  Pontus, 
by  Peter;  in  the  territories  of  the  seven  churches,  by  John;  in 
Parthia,  by  Matthew;  in  Scythia,  by  Philip  and  Andrew;  in  Pei'sia, 
by  Simon  and  Jude ;  in  Media,  by  Thomas ;  in  Ital}*  and  Gi'eece,  by 
Paul,  In  most  of  these  regions,  churches  were  formed  about  the 
same  time.  So  rapidly  did  the  seed  of  the  kingdom  spring  up  and 
fill  the  earth,  Mark  i6.   15-20. 

348.  The  history  of  the  sound  opinions  of  good  men,  and 
of  the  origin  of  erroneous  ones,  is  also  of  great  moment. 

In  a  letter  still  extant,  drawn  up  by  the  Christians  of  Smyrna, 
and  giving  an  account  of  the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  they  say,  in 
reply  to  an  accusation  of  the  Jews  that  they  were  ready  to  worship 
Polycarp  instead  of  Christ,  "  This  is  impossible,  for  Christ  only  is, 
or  can  be  the  object  of  worship:  to  him  alone  we  offer  adoration: 
and  the  martyrs  (they  add,)  are  objects  only  of  gratitude  and  love." 
The  Fathers  of  the  first  three  centuries  all  deliver  the  same  doctrine 
:n  relation  to  our  Lord;  and  "'hence  (adds  Eusebius,")  the  hymns 
and  psalms  written  from  the  beginning  by  the  faithful,  celebrate  the 
praises  of  Christ,  and  attribute  Divinity  to  him,"  Eccl.  Hist.  v.  c. 
27,  28:  Matt.  28.  17. 

The  duty  of  all  classes  to  search  the  Scriptures,  is  clearly  implied 
in  various  passages  of  the  Bible  :'^  and  it  is  interesting  to  know  that 
the  early  writers  of  the  church  enforce  this  duty  in  the  strongest 
terms.  Chrysostom  and  Jerome,  and  Origen  and  Augustine,  all 
agree  on  this  question.  They  even  affirm,  that  the  cause  of  the 
evils  of  their  times,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  "  that  the  Scriptiires 
are  not  known."     (See  §  144). 

349.  These  opinions  are  not  autliority,  but  they  are  evidence. 
These  They  prove  that  the  interpretation  now  attached 
authorit^  °°^  to  the  jDassages  of  Scripture,  which  speak  of  these 
but  evidence,  truths,  is  sucli  as  commended  itself  to  the  judg- 
ment of  good  men,  who  had  peculiar  facilities  for  ascertaining 
the  meaning  of  the  inspired  volume. 

350.  Nor  less  important  is  the  history  of  erroneous  opinions 
on  questions  of  truth. 

We  first  read,  for  example,  of  the  title  of  universal  Bishop  (at 
Eome,)  A.  D.  606;  of  the  canonical  authority  of  the  Apocrj'pha,  and 
Vulgate,    and  traditions   as  articles   of  faith,    at  the  Council   of 

^  2  Tim.  3.  15:  John  5.  39:  Acts  17.  11,  12:  Luke  16.  29:  Matt. 
22.  29:  John  21.  30,  31:   2  Pet.  I.  19:   I  Thess.  5.  27:  Kev.  r.  3. 


EXTERNAL  KELPS:   CHRONOLOGY.  209 

Trent,  in  the  i6th  century;  of  the  vise  of  the  Latin  tongue  in  wor- 
ship, to  the  exclusion  of  the  vernacular  in  the  7th  century  (666). 
Transubstantiation  was  first  taught  in  the  8th  century.  In  the  i  ith, 
the  Lord's  supper  was  mutilated  by  the  establishment  of  comm union 
of  one  kind.  In  the  12th,  the  doctrine  of  Seven  Sacraments  was 
fii-st  taught.  The  doctrines  of  the  meritorious  virtue  of  penance, 
of  purgatory,  and  prayers  for  the  dead,  date  no  earlier  than  the  7th 
century,  and  were  not  positively  affirmed  till  the  year  1140.  The 
power  of  granting  indulgences,  was  not  claimed  by  the  popes  till 
the  12th  century.  Auricular  confession  was  first  enjoined  by  the 
4th  Lateran  Council,  in  the  13th  century.  The  celibacy  of  the 
clergy  as  universal  and  compulsory,  was  ordained  at  the  end  of  the 
4th,  and  was  confirmed  by  Gregory  vii.  at  the  end  of  the  nth. 
Col.  2.  23:  2  Thess.  2.  7-12. 

351.  The  comparatively  recent  origin  of  all  these  errors  is 
not  authoritative  against  them,  but  it  is  evidence  of  the 
meaning  of  the  Bible.  It  proves  that  Popery  is  a  novelty,  and 
that  its  dogmas  were  not  taught  by  those  who  lived  nearest 
to  the  times  of  our  Lord,  and  who  had  most  facility  for  as- 
certaining the  meaning  of  Scripture. 

352.  It  is  an  important  canon  in  reference  to  the  help  which 
c   ,  ,-•  .        "^e  thus  receive  from  history,  that  the  historical 

Such  history  i  ■   i     • 

no  part  of  fact  which  IS  gathered  only  from  profane  or  eccle- 
cnpture.  siastical  writers,  is  not  part  of  the  Bible.  It  may 
embody  a  truth  which  is  taught  in  Scripture,  and  then  we 
believe  that  truth,  because  it  is  found  there :  or  it  may  ex- 
plain a  Scripture  statement,  but  without  being  itself  anywhere 
revealed.  In  that  case,  we  believe  it  according  to  its  evidence 
but  never  as  a  truth  taught  of  God. 

3.53-  (i^'-)  A  knowledge  of  the  order  of  events,  and  of  tho 
intervals  between  them,  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of 
parts  of  Scripture  :  and  such  knowledge  is  supplied  by  chrono- 
logy, the  science  of  computing  and  adjusting  the  epochs  and 
periods  of  time. 

It  illustrates  the  depravity  of  human  nature,  for  example,  to  know- 
that  in  the  second  generation  from  Adam,  all  flesh  had  so  corrupted 
its  way,  that  it  repented  the  Lord  that  he  had  made  man. 

It  is  an  aggravation  of  the  guilt  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  that 
when  they  became  so  utterly  wicked,  their  progenitor  Xoah  had  not 
been  dead  a  hundred  years. 

The  judgment  against  the  house  of  Eli,  in  Shiloh,  was  first  exe- 


210  EXTERNAL  HELPS  :  CHRONOLOGY. 

cuted  in  the  death  of  his  sons,  but  it  was  not  completed  till  eighty 
years  afterwards,  in  the  forfeiture  of  office  by  Abiathar,  (i  Kings 
2.  26,  27).     God  visits  surely  though  slowly. 

The  sin  that  most  dishonoured  David's  character  was  committed 
when  he  was  fifty  years  of  age.  An  instructive  illustration  of  the 
power  of  temptation,  and  the  inefficiency  of  even  long  religious  ex- 
perience to  preserve  the  Christian. 

From  2  Kings  23.  13,  we  learn  that  the  places  built  to  Ashtaroth, 
remained  till  the  days  of  Josiah,  or  for  350  years:  Solomon  pro- 
bably died  penitent,  and  yet  the  consequences  of  his  sin  were  felt 
for  several  generations. 

The  earliest  of  the  apostolical  epistles,  is  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians,  and  it  contains  a  special  direction  that  the  Epistle 
should  be  read  to  the  churches.  This  direction,  given  at  such  a 
time,  shows  that  this  class  of  writings,  is  part  of  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

The  date  of  the  Epistle  to  Timothy,  A.  D.  64,  nearly  thirty  years 
after  the  conversion  of  St,  Paul,  adds  great  weight  to  his  declaration, 
that  he  was  the  chief  of  sinners.  He  never  ceased,  it  is  plain,  to 
cherish  a  deep  sense  of  his  sinfulness.  We  may  measure  our  pro- 
gress in  holiness  by  the  degree  of  our  humility,  i  Tim.  i.  15, 

Some  commentators  have  supposed  that  2  Cor.  11.  25,  refers  to 
the  events  recorded  in  Acts  2  7,  but  in  fact,  the  Epistle  was  written 
before  those  events  took  place. 

The  man  of  sin  mentioned  in  2  Thess.  2.  3,  has  been  referred  by 
Grotius  and  others,  to  Caligula;  but  the  Epistle  was  not  written 
till  twelve  years  after  his  death. 

The  precept  of  Peter,  i  Pet.  2.  17,  "Honour  the  king,"  derives 
additional  force  from  the  fact,  that  the  tyrant  Nero  was  then  em- 
peror of  the  Roman  world. 

An  examination  of  the  5th  chapter  of  Genesis,  will  show  that 
Noah  might  have  received  the  account  of  the  Creation  from  Adam, 
through  Enos  only,  or  from  Lamech,  his  own  father.  Lamech  was 
56  years  contemporary  with  Adam,  and  100  years  with  Shem. 
Shem  was  contemporary  for  several  years  with  Abraham  and  Isaac. 
The  communication  from  Adam  to  Isaac  may  only  have  been 
through  Lamech  and  Shem.  So  easy  is  it  to  account  for  the  trans- 
mission of  Divine  truth  from  the  earliest  times. 

More  than  4000  years  elapsed  between  the  time'  of  the  first  pro- 
mise and  its  fulfilment:  more  than  400  between  the  promise  given 
to  Abraham,  and  its  accomplishment  under  Joshua:  and  not  less  than 
400  between  the  prophecy  of  Malachi,  and  its  fulfilment  in  John  the 
Baptist.  ' '  A  thousand  years  are  with  the  Lord  as  one  day :"  though 
the  promise  tarry  long,  we  are  to  wait  for  it. 


CHRONOLOGY  :   ERAS.  211 

This  knowledge  is  especially  important  in  interpreting  pro- 
phecy, both  to  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  event 

rop  ecy.       foretold,  and  to  perceive  the  accomphshment. 

The  meaning  of  Isa.  37.2  2-34,  is  fixed,  for  example,  by  a  reference 
to  chapter  36.  The  former  is  a  prediction  of  a  remarkable  dehver- 
ance  from  impending  danger,  and  the  latter  points  to  Hezekiah  and 
Sennacherib,  as  the  persons  in  whom  the  prediction  was  fulfilled. 

354.  In  the  chronology  of  all  nations  some  remarkable  date 
Chronological  is  filled  upon,  from  which  they  begin  their  compu- 
epochs.  tations.    Christians  reckon  from  the  birth  of  Christ, 

A.  D.  The  Eomans  reckoned  from  the  foundation  of  their  city, 
A.  u.  c.  The  Greeks  by  Olympiads,  the  first  of  which  dates 
776  years  before  Christ,  about  55  years  before  the  captivity, 
in  the  days  of  Uzziah.  These  points  are  called  epochs  or 
eras,  though  the  former  is  the  more  usual  term.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  chief : 

The  Grecian  year  of  the  world  from  - 

The   era    of    Constantinople,    ecclesi- 
astical and  civil         _       _       _       _ 

The    Jewish    era,    ecclesiastical    and 
civil,  A.  M.  - 

The  era  of  Abraham,  or  Eusebian  era 

The  era  of  the  destruction  of  Troy    - 

The  era  of  Solomon's  temple 

The  Olympiads,  01.      -       -       -       - 


Sept.  I,  B.C.  5598. 

Apr.  I,  Sept.  I,  B.  c.  5508. 

Apr.  Sept.  B.  c.  37&1. 

Oct.  I,  B.C.  2015. 

Jime  12,  or  24,  B.C.  1184. 

May,  B.  c.  10 15. 

New  Moon  of  Midsummer, 

B.C.  776. 

Apr.  21,  B.C.  753. 

Feb.  26,  B.  c.  747. 

Sept.  I,  B.C.  312. 

Jan.  I,  Sept.  i,  B.  c.  3. 

Jan.  I,  A.  D.  I. 

July  16,  A.  D.  622. 

The  Roman   era   (the   Consular  year 
from  Jan.  i),  A.  u.  c. 

The  era  of  Xabonassar  -       -       -       - 

The  era  of  the  Seleucidse     -       -       - 

The  Pontifical  and  Constantinopolitan 
era       _______ 

The  common  Christian  era,  a.  d. 

The  Hegira,  the  Mohammedan  era     - 

The  Persian  era     -----    June  16,  A.  D.  632. 

355.  As  several  remarkable  events  are  recorded  in  Scripture, 
each  of  general  or  of  national  importance,  there  are  various 
divisions  of  sacred  chronology.  The  Jews  reckon  from  the 
Creation  (a.m.),  from  the  Flood,  from  the  Exode,  Numb. 
33.  38  :  I  Kings  6.  i  ;  or  from  the  building  of  the  temple, 
?  Chron.  8.  i. 

The  first  epoch  begins  with  the  Creation,  and  ends  at  the 


212 


CHRONOLOGY  ;  PERIODS. 


Flood.  Its  duration  can  be  gathered  only  from  Scripture,  by 
summing  up  the  ages  of  the  patriarchs  on  the  birth  of  the  son 
whose  name  is  placed  on  the  record  (not  always  the  eldest,) 
See  Gen.  5.  This  number  amounts  according  to  the  common 
Hebrew  Text  to  1656  years  :  according  to  the  Samaritan  text 
to  1307,  and  according  to  the  Septuagint,  to  2262,  or  to  2256 
years. 

In  the  Enghsh  version,  the  dates  ascertained  from  the  He- 
brew text  are  generally  used,  and  the  adjustment  of  them 
which  is  adopted,  is  the  one  which  was  completed  by  Arch- 
bishop Usher,  slightly  modified  by  Bishop  Lloyd. 


Whence 
taken. 

Period. 

Usher. 

Septu- 
agint. 

Josephus, 
by  Hales. 

Gen.  5      .       . 
Gen.  II.IO-J2: 

12.4. 
Gen.  21.5:  25. 

26:  47-9,28. 
I  Kings  6.  I     . 

1.  From  the  creation  to  the  flood    . 

2.  From  the  flood  to  the  call  of  Abraham 

3.  From  the  call  of  Abraham  to  the 

Exode 

4.  From  the  Exode  to  the  foundation  of 

Solomon's  temple        .... 

5.  From  the   fomidation  of  Solomon's 

temple  to  the  restoration  of  Cyrus. 

6.  From  the  restoration  of  the  Jews  to 

the  birth  of  our  Lord  .... 

1.656 

427 

4J0 

479 
476 
5J6 

2,262 
1.207 

425 
601 

476 
537 

2,256 
1,062 

445 
621 
49J 
5H 

4,ccH 

5,508 

5,411 

The  modern  Jews  reckon  the  age  of  the  world  at  the  coming 
of  Christ,  3760  ;  244  years  less  than  Usher. 

356.  The  difference  between  the  LXX  and  the  Hebrew  in 
these  chronological  statements,  wiU  bo  seen  in  part  from  the 
following  tables  ;  the  origin  of  the  differences  being  easily 
explained. 

To  six  of  the  patriarchs  he/ore  the  Flood,  the  LXX  gives 
an  additional  hundred  years,  on  the  birth  of  his  son.  It  also 
adds  six  years  to  Lamech,  though  in  the  corrected  text  of 
Josephus,  those  six  years  are  taken  off.  Immediately  after 
the  Flood,  the  LXX  adds  100  years  to  the  ages  of  the  six  first 
patriarchs.  It  inserts  also,  as  does  Luke  3.  36,  the  name  of 
Cainan,  making  him  130  years  old  on  the  birth  of  Salah ; 
and  it  calls  Serug  eighty  years  old  instead  of  thirty.     The  total 

difference,  therefore,  in  the  second  period  is  780  years 

The  Samaritan  text  agrees  with  the  LXX  in  this  period, 
except  that  it  omits  Cainan.  Before  the  Flood  it  reckons 
1307  years. 


CHHOXOLOGY  :   DIFFERENT  SYSTEilS. 


213 


The  difference  in  the  date  of  the  third  period  arises  from  the 
fact,  that  the  chronology  founded  on  the  LXX  reckons 
Abraham's  call  as  given  in  Haran,  while  Usher  and  the  Eng- 
lish version  regard  it  as  given  five  years  before  in  Ur  (Gen. 
12.  I.     See  also  Acts  7.  2,  3.) 

I.  From  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge. 


Pi-oof. 


Geu.  5. 


Gea.  7, 


21  I 
25  I 
28  i 
II 


H*--.         1    ^^- 

Sam. 

Years 

i     ITears. 

Y^ears. 

Adam  lived 

i;o  and  begat     ;        230 

130 

Seth  lived     .     . 

105 

i        205 

105 

P:nosUved    .     . 

90 

190 

90 

Cainan  i.  lived  . 

"P         > 

170 

70 

Jlahalaleel  lived 

65 

165 

65 

Jared  lived  .     . 

162 

i6i 

62 

JJiioch  lived .     . 

6? 

165 

65 

Jletbuselah  lived 

187 

1      T87* 

67 

Lamech  lived    . 

182 

1         i88t 

53 

Noah  at  the  Deluge 

600  years 

1         600 

(L 

1656 

j       2262 

IJ07 

Josephus  makes  the  total  2256,  agreeing  in  Lamech  -with  the  Hebrew,  and  else 
■where  with  the  LXX. 

*  Some  copies,   167.  f  Jos.  182. 

II.  and  III.   From  the  Delucre  to  the  Exode. 


Proof. 

Hebrew. 

Septuagint. 

Sam. 

Years. 

Y'ears. 

Y'ears. 

Gen.  II.  10  j 

Shem     after    the  7 
Flood,  lived     .      / 

2 

and  begat 

2 

2 

12 

Arphaxed  lived 

?? 

„ 

135 

135 

LXX,    and| 
Liike  3.  363 

Cainan  11.  lived 

. 

130  and  begat 

Gen.  II.  14 

Salah  lived  .     .     . 

?o 

and  begat 

IJO 

130 

Heber  lived .     .     . 

H 

„ 

134 

134 

18 

Peleg  lived  .     .     . 

?o 

„ 

130 

130 

„        20 

Eeu  lived     .     .     . 

?2 

132 

132 

22 

Serug  lived  .     .     . 

30 

„ 

130 

130 

n     "       }'^ 

Nahor  lived  .     .     . 

29 

„ 

79 

79 

Gen.  11.26, 7 
32:  12.4.  ]■ 

Gen.    12.   4 

Terah  lived .     .     . 

IJO 

„ 

130 

130 

Abraham  lived .     . 

2? 

and  had  the  \ 
promise.      3 
and  begat 

75 

75 

„      21.    5 

„    after  that  lived 

20 

20 

»      25.  26 

Isaac  lived   .     .     . 

60 

„ 

60 

60 

.,      47-    9 

Jacob  aged  .     .     . 

{"° 

aTid  went  to  \ 
Egypt.         j" 

130 

130 

Exod.      \z.\ 

40,41:  Sep- 

tuagint,        f 
Gal.  ^  17: 

Israelites  in  Egypt. 

215 

years. 

215 

215  (?) 

See  Nimib. 
26. 59-         ; 

857 

1637 

1502 

The  Exode  therefore  occurred  a.  >r. 

251J 

3899 

2749 

or  B.C. 

1491 

214  CHRONOLOGY  :   TIMES   OP  THE  JUDGES. 

The  differences  in  the  fourth  period  are  not  owing  so  much 
to  various  readings,  as  to  the  authenticity  of  one  passage, 
and  the  meaning  of  others.  Nor  is  the  subject  free  from 
grave  difficulties. 

Usher  makes  the  fourth  period  480  years  (479  years  16  days,) 
taking  as  his  guide  i  Kings  6.  i.  If  the  reading  of  that  passage  is 
correct,  the  question  is  decided.  But  there  are  strong  doubts 
concerning  it.  The  LXX  indicates  by  various  readings  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  text.  In  2  Chron.  3.  2,  (the  parallel  passage,)  there 
is  no  date.  Josephus,  Theophilus,  and  others  who  have  left  systems 
of  chronology,  seem  to  have  been  ignorant  of  this  computation, 
which  is  first  mentioned  in  the  4th  century  by  Eusebius,  and  he 
does  not  adopt  it.  St.  Paul,  again,  seems  to  assign  450  years  as  the 
time  from  the  division  of  Canaan  'Hill  Samuel,"  (Acts  13.  20,)  and 
if  so,  the  whole  period  must  have  been  5  79  years  at  least.*  Usher, 
howevei',  supposes  the  45  o  years  to  refer  to  the  time  between  the 
birth  of  Isaac,  and  the  entry  upon  Canaan:  a  somewhat  forced 
construction,  Josephus  mentions  for  the  whole  period  592  years 
(Ant.  8.  3,  i):  632  (10.  8,  5):  and  612  (20.  10,  i):  and  Dr.  Hales 
supposes  his  true  reckoning  to  be,  after  obvious  corrections,  621 
years.  Petavius  reckons  519  years;  Greswell,  549  years;  Jackson, 
579  years;  Clinton  and  Cuningham,  612  years. 

In  turning  to  the  history  in  Judges,  and  reckoning  up  the  periods 
named,  the  questions  raised  by  these  different  views  are  not  solved. 
Six.  servitudes  ai'e  mentioned,  extending  over  11 1  years;  and  four- 
teen Judges  (not  including  Joshua,  Eli,  or  Samuel,)  extending  over 
279  years,  or  390  in  all:  adding  to  this  number  46  and  83  as  in  the 
note  %  we  have  an  entire  period  of  519  years.  But  here  are 
various  elements  of  tmcertainty.  Are  these  servitudes  and  judge- 
ships to  any  extent  contemporaneous?  Usher  thinks  they  ere. 
Hales,  supposing  that  Judges  2.  18,  applies  to  all,  concludes  that 
they  are  not.  Again,  nothing  is  told  us  of  the  length  of  Joshua's 
govei-nment,  or  of  the  government  of  the  Elders,  who  survived  him, 
except  in  the  case  of  Othniel,  his  son-in-law.  Nor  further,  is  it 
clear  whether  Eh  was  a  political  ruler,  or  simply  a  civil  judge,  as 
Usher  describes  him.  If  the  latter,  he  is  not  to  be  reckoned 
cnronologically  among  the  judges.     And  lastly,  we  cannot  gather 

*  VIZ.     In  the  wilderness,  and  till  the  land  was  divided    46  years. 
Judges  to  Samuel  -  -  -  -    450      ,, 

Saul  40:  David  40:  3rd  Sol.  ;;  -  -  -      83      ,, 

579 


chronology:  the  lxx.  215 

from  Scripture,  what  time  elapsed  between  the  death  of  Samson 
and  Saul.  Eli  judged  Israel  forty  years,  but  Usher  makes  him  a 
contemporary  of  Samson,  and  not  his  successor.  He  reckons  be- 
tween Eli's  death  and  Saul's  election,  twenty-one  years:  though 
Samuel  could  hardly  have  been  in  that  case,  "  old  and  gray-headed," 
(i  Sam.  12.  2).  Eusebius  reckons  Eli  at  forty,  and  includes  Samuel 
in  Said's  reign,  while  Josephus  reckons  fifty -two  years  for  Eli  and 
Samuel;  Hales  allowing  for  them  seventy- two.  Clinton  supposes 
St.  Paul's  reckoning  to  end  with  the  beginning  of  Samuel's  judge- 
ship, and  adds  for  that  thirty-two  yeai's.  On  the  whole,  therefore, 
it  may  be  said,  that  if  we  set  aside  the  reading  in  i  Kings  6.  i,  and 
are  tmcertain  of  the  precise  meaning  of  Acts  13.  20,  we  have  not 
materials  for  solving  the  difficulties  which  this  fourth  period  in- 
volves. 

The  dates  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  periods  nearly  agree,  and 
are  gathered,  the  first  from  Scripture,  and  the  second  almost 
wholly  from  profane  authors. 

357.  The  comparative  claims  of  these  systems  are  not  easily 
settled.  The  longer  chronology,  is  by  many,  considered  to  be 
best  entitled  to  confidence  ;  and  among  other  reasons,  for  the 
following  : — 

1.  The  Hebrew  is  deemed  the  more  hkely  to  have  been  altei-ed, 
as,  for  some  time  after  the  Christian  era,  its  use  was  very  much 
confined  to  the  Jews  (and  chiefly  to  the  more  learned  amongst 
them),  who  had  a  motive  for  shortening  the  period  between  the 
creation  and  the  bu-th  of  Jesus,  in  order  to  make  it  appear  that  the 
time  which  their  expositors  had  fixed  for  the  appearance  of  the 
Messiah  was  not  yet  passed;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  no  motive 
so  strong  can  be  supposed  to  have  existed  on  the  part  of  the  Jewish 
translators  of  the  Septuagint :  nor  could  there  have  been  an  oppor- 
tunity to  alter  the  Greek  version  after  it  was  made;  for  it  was  in 
extensive  circulation,  and  in  constant  pubhc  use,  both  among  Jews 
and  Christians. 

2.  The  length  of  time  assigned  by  the  Septuagint,  the  Samaritan 
text,  and  Josephus,  to  the  period  between  the  deluge  and  the  bh*th 
of  Abraham  (about  iioo  years),  is  deemed  more  consistent  with 
historical  facts  than  the  shorter  time  assigned  by  the  Hebrew  (about 
350  years),  which  appears  insufficient  for  the  great  multiphcatiou 
and  extended  dispersion  of  iS"oah's  descendants  over  immense  tracts 
of  country,  extending  from  India  and  Assyria  to  Ethiopia,  Egypt, 
and  Greece;  and  for  the  establishment  of  the  organized  and  pow- 
erful monarchies  of  Babylon,   Nineveh,   and  Egypt ;  besides  the 


216  CHRONOLOGY:  LXX  AND  HEBREW. 

lesser  chieftaincies  of  Canaan,  widch  seem  to  have  been  founded  by 
descendants  of  Ham,  after  the  expulsion  of  earlier  settlers. 

3.  The  longer  chronology  appears  to  bi'ing  the  age  of  each  pa- 
triarch, on  the  birth  of  his  eldest  son,  into  better  proportion  to  the 
gi-adually  diminished  length  of  human  life. 

Those  who  adhere  to  the  shorter  computation  urge,  principally, 
the  following  considerations : — 

1.  The  general  accuracy  of  the  original  Hebrew  text,  which  was 
preserved  by  the  Jews  with  most  jealous  care. 

2.  The  facilities  afforded  by  the  shorter  chronology  for  the  safe 
and  rapid  transmission  of  revealed  truth  in  the  earliest  ages; 
Lamech  being  contemporary  both  with  Adam  and  with  Shem, 
whilst  Shem  was  contemporary  with  Abraham. 

3.  The  coincidence  (at  least,  within  a  few  years)  of  the  date  fixed 
for  the  creation  -with  a  remarkable  astronomical  epoch,  ■w'hen  the 
major  axis  of  the  earth's  orbit  coincided  with  the  line  of  the 
equinoxes, 

4.  The  objection  dra-\vn  from  the  shortness  of  the  interval  between 
the  deluge  and  the  birth  of  Abraham,  compared  with  the  apparent 
populousness  of  the  earth,  is  more  than  met  by  the  increase  of  man- 
kind in  newly-peopled  districts  in  modern  times,  and  by  the  fact,  that 
the  Hebrew  text  gives  at  least  as  many  generations  as  the  LXX; 
while,  on  the  supposition  that  men  generally  married  as  early  as  the 
ages  assigned  in  the  Hebrew  text,  it  implies  a  larger  population. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  the  longer  chronology  is  not  established; 
and,  without  accepting  all  the  reckonings  of  Usher,  we  may  safely 
deem  it  to  be  as  probable  as  any  opposite  system. 

358.  In  addition  to  all  the  difficulties  created  by  facility  of 
mistake  in  copying  figures,  and  consequent  diflferent  readings, 
there  are  difficulties  in  chronology  which  arise  from  different 
modes  of  reckoning. 

The  principal  eras  begin,  as  we  have  seen,  in  different 
months.  Many  nations  have  two  or  more  modes 
these  discre-  of  reckoning  the  beginning  of  the  year  itself,  civil, 
pancies.  ecclesiastical ;  civil,  consular  ;  and  above  aU,  the 
year  of  chronology  does  not  agree  with  the  year  of  actual  time. 
The  Julian  year,  for  instance,  consisted  of  365  days,  6  hours, 
which  was  1 1  minutes,  9  seconds,  too  much.  From  A.  D.  i, 
to  A.  D.  1836,  therefore,  the  Juhan  year  would  be  14^  days  in 
advance.  The  Council  of  Nice,  however,  struck  out  2^  days, 
and  in  1582,  Gregory  xiii  corrected  the  Calender,  by  ordering 
the  5th  of  October  to  be  called  the   15th,  thus  disposing  of 


CHRONOLOGY  :   DISCREPANCIES.  217 

lo  days  more.  In  England,  the  3rd  of  September,  1751,  was 
reckoned  as  the  14th,  and  in  1800,  the  usual  29th  of  February- 
was  omitted.  We  therefore  have  corrected  accurately  the 
overreckoning  of  the  Juhan  era,  so  that  from  a.  d.  30,  to  a.  d. 
1836,  is,  within  a  few  hours,  exactly  1806  years. 

Other  eras  are  more  erroneous  than  the  Juhac,  and  it  is 
Different  obvious  that  the  absence  of  the  necessary  correc- 
eras.  tions  in  each,  must  give  rise  to  many  errors. 

Other  peculiarities  of  reckoning  add  further  to  our  diffi- 
culties. 

(a).  Jemsh  historians,  for  example,  speak  of  the  reign  of  a  king 
Different  which  is  continued  through  one  whole  year  and  parts  of 
-  modes  of  two  others  as  a  three  years'  reign.  It  may  be  two  yeai's 
rec  omng.       ^^^  ^^^  months,  or  it  may  be  one  year  and  two  monthg. 

(6).  They  sometimes  set  do'^\Ti  the  principal  number,  the  odd,  or 
smaller  number,  being  omitted;  as  in  Judges  20.  35  :  see  ver.  46. 

(c).  As  sons  freqviently  reigned  with  their  fathers  in  ancient 
monarchies,  the  time  of  the  reign  of  each  is  sometimes  made  to 
include  the  time  of  the  other,  and  sometimes  to  exclude  it. 

Thus  Jotham  is  said  to  have  reigned  sixteen  years,  2  Kings  15. 
33  ;  and  yet,  in  ver.  30,  mention  is  made  of  his  twentieth  year.  For 
foiu"  years  he  seems  to  have  reigned  with  Uzziah,  w^ho  was  a  leper. 
So  2  Kings  13.  I,  10:  2  Kings  24.  8,  compared  with  2  Chron.  36.  9. 

A  similar  principle  explains  Dan.  i.  i:  Jer.  25.  i:  Nebuchad- 
nezzar being  king  with  his  father  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged. 

This  peculiarity  of  reckoning  has  been  applied,  with  great  advan- 
tage, to  explain  the  chronological  tables  of  Egypt  and  other  eastern 
countries. 

{d).  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  different  modes  of  reckonmg 
are  adopted  in  reference  to  the  same  transaction. 

See  Gen.  15,  13  and  Gal.  3,  17;  Moses  speaking  of  400  years 
from  the  birth  of  Isaac  to  the  Exode;  Paul,  of  430  years  from  the 
call  of  Abram  to  the  giving  of  the  law,  which  occurred  three  months 
after  the  Exode.     See  Exod.  12.  40. 

The  same  remark  apphes  to  other  numbers. 

In  Gen.  46.  26,  27,  it  is  said  that  all  the  souls  that  went  mth 
Jacob  into  Egypt  (not  including  his  sons'  wives)  were  sixty-six,  or 
(adduag  Jacob,  Joseph,  and  his  two  sons)  seventy.  In  Acts  7.  14,  it 
is  said  that  Joseph  sent  and  called  Jacob,  and  all  his  kindred, 
seventy-five  persons.  This  last  includes  the  nine  wives  of  Jacob's 
sons  (for  Judah's  and  Simeon's  wives  were  dead,  and  Joseph's  was 
abeady  in  Egypt).  These  nine,  added  to  the  sixty-six,  make  the 
seventy-five  mentioned  in  the  Acts.  These  passages  were  long 
supposed  to  involve  a  contradiction. 

L 


218  HOW  TO  FEAME  A  STSTEM. 

Comparing  Ezra  2.  and  ISTeh.  7.,  we  find  that  42,360  persons  i-e- 
turned  from  Babylon,  of  whom  the  numbers  of  the  tribes  of  Ben- 
jamin and  Judah,  and  of  the  priests,  are  given.  The  numbers  in 
Nehemiah  amount  to  31,089;  in  Ezra,  to  29,818.  Add  to  Nehe- 
naiah's  number  494  names,  mentioned  only  in  Ezra;  and  to  Ezra's, 
1,765  names,  mentioned  only  in  Nehemiah,  the  results  agree — 
31,583.  The  difference,  10,777,  represents  the  number  of  persons 
belonging  to  other  tribes.  This  apparent  discrepancy  was  long 
I'egarded  as  an  objection  to  the  narrative. 

In  reference,  generally,  to  these  apparent  contradictions,  it  be- 
comes us  rather  to  suspect  om-  own  ignorance  than  the  writei-'s  accu- 
racy. No  passage  can  appear  more  contradictory  than  Ezek.  12.  13, 
and  yet  it  was  literally  fulfilled:  Zedekiah  did  not  see  Babylon, 
though  he  died  there. 

In  framing  a  chronological  system,  two  rules  are  of  great 
value. 

1.  Ascertain  important  epochs,  and  reckon  onwards  or  up- 
Pvuies  for  wards  from  them.  The  epoch  of  the  birth  of  our 
svs?em°of  ^ord  is  of  course  the  centre  point  of  all  modern 
Chronology,  chronology,  and  of  much  of  ancient.  The  year  of 
the. Council  at  Jerusalem,  or  of  the  death  of  Herod,  is  the  key 
to  the  chronology  of  the  Acts  :  as  the  date  of  Paul's  conversion 
is  the  key  to  his  Epistles.  The  return  from  the  captivity,  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  building 
of  the  first  temple,  are  all  (reckoning  upwards  from  a.  d.  i,) 
epochs  of  Old  Testament  History.  Chnton  in  different  parts 
of  his  Fasti,  has  well  illustrated  this  rule, 

2.  Wherever  practicable,  test  chronological  conclusions  by- 
astronomical  facts. 

The  Jewish  Passover,  for  example,  was  commenced  on  the 
day  j)receding  that  on  which  the  moon  was  full,  between  the 
1 8th  of  March,  and  the  i6tli  of  April.  As  the  moon  can  be 
echpsed  only  at  the  full,  the  day  of  the  Passover  for  any  year, 
will  be  the  day  preceding  any  eclipse  that  occurs  between 
those  dates.  The  Passover  day,  was  the  I4tli  of  Nisan,  and 
reckoning  backwards,  we  ascertain  the  first  day  of  each  year. 
Fifty  clear  days  after  the  14th  of  Nisan  came  Pentecost :  and 
177  clear  days  from  the  full  of  the  moon  of  Nisan — six  luna- 
tions that  is— came  the  feast  of  Tabernacles.  The  Great  Day 
of  Atonement  was  five  days  earlier,  the  loth  of  Tisri. 

Mr.  Greswell  applies  this  rule  to  confirm  his  chronology. 
Supposing  the  date  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion  to  be  April  5th, 


EXTERNAL  HELPS:   NATURAL   HISTORY.  219 

30,  A.D.,  he  reckons  that  an  edipse  mentioned  by  Dion  must 
have  occurred  August  ist,  45,  a.  d.,  and  another  by  Phny, 
April  30th,  59,  a.  d."  Pingre's  tables,  based  on  astronomical 
calculations  show  that  echpses  did,  in  fact,  take  place  on  these 
days. 

Eecorded  eclipses  may  be  found  in  Pingre's  tables,  and  in 
Play  fair's  Chronology.     See  also  Hales'  Chronology,  i.,  p.  74. 

Tables  have  also  been  framed  for  correcting  errors  conse- 
quent upon  the  difference  between  the  chronological  and 
astronomical  year. 

359.  V.  Many  of  the  allusions  and  expressions  of  Scripture 
can  be  explained  only  by  the  aid  of  knowledge  of  natural 
history. 

In  Psa.  92.  12,  for  example,  it  is  said  that  "the  righteous  shall 
flom-ish  like  the  palm,"  and  the  habits  of  this  tree  beautifully  illus- 
trate the  character  of  the  righteous.  The  palm  grows  not  in  the 
depths  of  the  forest,  or  in  a  fertile  loam,  but  iu  the  desert.  Its 
verdure  often  springs  apparently  from  the  scorching  dust.  ''It  is 
in  this  respect,"  says  Laborde,  "as  a  friendly  lighthouse,  guiding 
the  traveller  to  the  spot  where  water  is  to  be  found."  The  tree  is 
remarkable  for  its  beauty,  its  erect  aspiring  growth,  its  leafy  canopy, 
its  waving  plumes,  the  emblem  of  praise  in  all  ages.  Its  very 
fohage  is  the  symbol  of  joy  and  exultation.  It  never  fades,  and 
the  dust  never  settles  upon  it.  It  was  therefore  twisted  into  the 
booths  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (Lev.  23.  40),  was  borne  aloft  by 
the  multitude  that  accompanied  the  Messiah  to  Jerusalem  (John 
12.  13),  and  it  is  represented  as  in  the  hands  of  the  redeemed  in 
heaven  (Rev.  7.  9),  For  usefulness,  the  tree  is  vmrivalled.  Gibbon 
says  that  the  natives  of  Syria  speak  of  360  uses  to  which  the  palm 
is  applied.  Its  shade  refreshes  the  traveller.  Its  fruit  restores  his 
strength.  When  his  soul  fails  for  thirst,  it  announces  water.  Its 
stones  are  ground  for  his  camels.  Its  leaves  are  made  into  couches, 
its  boughs  into  fences  and  walls,  and  its  fibres  into  ropes  or  rigging. 
Its  best  fruit,  moreover,  is  borne  in  old  age;  the  finest  dates  being 
often  gathered  when  the  tree  has  reached  a  hundred  years.  It 
sends,  too,  from  the  same  root  a  large  number  of  suckers,  which,  in 
time,  form  a  forest  by  their  grovrth  (Judges  4.  5).  What  an  emblem 
of  the  righteous  in  the  desert  of  a  guilty  world !  It  is  not  unin- 
structive  to  a,dd  that  this  tree,  once  the  symbol  of  Palestine,  is  now 
rarely  seen  in  that  cotmtry. 

^  Mr.  Greswell's  reasonings  on  these  facts,  however,  are  not  very 
complete.  He  fails  to  supply  the  links  which  connect  the  dates  of 
the  eclipses  with  the  date  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord. 

l2 


220  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Another  beautiful  tree  found  in  Palestine,  and  also  an  emblem  of 
the  Christian,  is  the  cedar.-  ''The  righteous  shall  grow  like  the 
cedar,"  This  tree  strikes  its  roots  into  the  cloven  rock.  Like  the 
palm,  it  loves  the  water;  and  if  the  wells  near  which  it  grows  are 
diied,  it  withers,  or  ceases  to  grow.  As  its  roots  stretch  away  into 
the  mountain,  its  boughs  are  spread  abroad.  Like  the  palm,  it  is 
an  evergreen;  though  used  to  wintry  weather,  it  is  always  covered 
with  leaves.  Its  bark  and  leaves  are  highly  aromatic,  and  the 
"  smell  of  Lebanon"  has  become  a  proverb  for  fragrance.  The  cedar 
is  sound  to  the  very  core.  It  adorns  the  mountain's  brow,  and 
then  does  service  in  the  temple.  After  living  a  thousand  years, 
it  preserves  all  it  touches,  and  gives  beauty  to  the  lintels  and  ceiling 
of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  Such  is  the  character  and  influence  of  a 
resolute  and  consisfent  Christian ! 

In  Deut.  32.  II,  God  is  said  to  have  taught  Israel  as  the  eagle 
trains  her  young.  When  the  eaglets  are  old  enough  to  fly,  she  stirs 
up  her  nest,  separates  its  parts,  and  compels  the  young  birds  to  fly 
to  some  neighbouring  crag;  she  then  flutters  over  them,  teaching 
them  to  move  their  wings  and  to  sustain  and  guide  themselves  by 
their  movements.  Finding  them  weary  or  unwilling,  she  spreads 
her  wings,  takes  her  brood  upon  her  back,  and  soai's  with  them 
aloft.  In  order  to  exercise  then'  strength,  she  then  shakes  them 
off";  and  when  she  perceives  that  their  pinions  flag,  or  that  an 
enemy  is  near,  she  darts  beneath  them  with  sm-prising  skill,  and  at 
once  restores  their  strength,  or  places  her  own  body  between  her 
young  and  the  danger  that  threatens  them.  The  eagle  is  the  only 
bird  endowed  with  this  instinct,  and  the  whole  of  her  procedure  is 
suggestive  of  instructive  lessons  in  relation  to  the  dealings  of  God. 
In  the  history  of  ancient  Israel,  and  in  the  history  of  the  church,  it 
is  found  that  He  weans  his  people  from  their  resting-place— in 
Egypt,  in  the  world,  and  in  their  own  righteousness — by  means  of 
affliction :  He  stirs  up  the  nest.  By  the  example  of  good  men,  by 
the  exhibition  of  his  perfections,  by  the  life  and  character  of  his 
Son,  he  flutters  over  them;  while  }iis  promise  and  spirit  sustain 
their  hearts,  and  make  their  happiness  and  safety  as  sure  and  un- 
changing as  his  own. 

In  mountainous  coimtx'ies  like  Palestine,  the  ass,  or  mule,  was 
often  preferred  for  domestic  uses  even  to  the  horse.  Asses  are  con- 
sequently enumerated  among  the  riches  of  Abraham  and  Job,  Gen. 
12.  16  :  Job  42.  12.  Mephibosheth,  the  grandson  of  Saul,  rode 
upon  an  ass;  as  did  Ahithophel,  the  prime  minister  of  David;  and 
as  late  as  the  reign  of  Jehoram,  the  son  of  Ahab,  the  services  of  this 
animal  were  required  by  the  wealthy.  The  Shunammite,  for  example, 
a  person  of  high  rank,  saddled  her  ass  and  rode  to  Carmel,  the 


EXTERNAL  HELPS  :   NATURAL  HISTORY.  221 

residence  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  4.  8,  24.  In  later  times,  howerer,  and 
even  from  the  reign  of  Solomon,  the  paces  of  the  horse  began  to  be 
regarded  as  more  stately  and  noble.  Solomon  himself  introduced  a 
numerous  stud  of  the  finest  horses — horses  of  Arabia;  and  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon,  their  great  men  rode  for  the  most 
part  on  horses  or  mules.  It  soon  became,  therefore,  a  mark  of 
poverty  or  of  humility  to  appear  in  public  on  an  ass,  and  this  was 
the  impression  generally  prevalent  in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  (Com- 
pare Zech.  9.  9  -VA^th  Matt.  21.  45). 

The  Hebrews  employed  both  the  ox  and  the  ass  in  ploughing  the 
gi'ovmd,  Isa.  ^o.  24;  32.  20;  but  they  were  forbidden  to  yoke  them 
to  the  same  plough,  partly  because  of  their  unequal  step,  and  partly 
because  the  animals  never  associated  happily  together.  This  prohi- 
bition was  perhaps  intended  to  suggest  the  impropriety  of  an  inter- 
course between  Chi-istians  and  idolaters  in  social  and  religious  life ; 
but  it  was  also  intended  in  the  first  instance,  and  chiefly,  to  protect 
the  animals  from  cruel  treatment. 

Issachar  is  compared  to  an  ass;  and  vigour  and  bodily  strength 
are  suggested  by  the  comparison.  It  is  said  also  that  he  should 
bow  his  shoulder  to  bear,  and  prefer  the  yoke  of  bondage  to  the 
difficult  issues  of  war,  and  inglorious  ease  to  just  freedom,  Gen.  49. 
14:  a  prophecy  fulfilled  in  the  history  of  that  tribe,  who  submitted 
successively  to  the  Phoenicians  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the 
Canaanites  on  the  othei . 

The  tail  of  the  Syrian  sheep  is  much  larger  than  in  other  breeds. 
In  a  sheep  weighing  seventy  pounds,  the  tail  will  often  weigh 
fifteen ;  and  it  is  deemed  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  animal. 
Hence,  in  the  religious  ritual  of  the  Hebrews,  the  priest  is  com- 
manded to  take  the  ram  and  the  tail  (or  the  rump,  as  it  is  called  in 
our  version,  Lev.  3.  9),  and  present  them  in  sacrifice  to  Jehovah. 
Both  were  to  be  placed  on  the  altar,  to  indicate  the  completeness 
and  the  value  of  the  offering  .  .  .  In  its  domesticated  state,  the  sheep 
is  a  weak  and  defenceless  animal.  It  is  therefore  dependent  upon 
the  shepherd  both  for  protection  and  support.  To  the  disposition 
of  these  animals  to  wander  from  the  fold,  and  thus  to  abandon 
themselves  (in  a  country  like  Judsea)  to  destruction,  there  are  many 
touching  allusions  in  Scripture,  Psa.  119.  176  :  Isa.  53.  6.  .  .  .  The 
eastern  shepherd  calls  his  sheep,  and  they  recognise  his  voice  and 
follow  him.  His  care  of  them,  and  their  security  under  his  pro- 
tection, are  beautifully  set  forth  in  John  10.  it.  It  is  plain  that  a 
knowledge  of  their  habits  is  essential  to  a  right  appreciation  of  the 
imagery  of  Scripture. 

The  lioji  is  remarkable  for  courage  and  strength.  If  he  retreats 
from  an  enemy,  he  retreats  with  his  face  towards  him.     After  he 


222  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

has  killed  liis  victim,  lie  tears  it  in  pieces,  and,  devours  it  with  the 
utmost  greediness,  Psa,  17.  12:  Hos.  13.  8.  The  young  lion  sub- 
sists according  to  ancient  naturalists,  by  hunting,  and  seldom  qtiits 
the  deserts;  but  when  he  has  grown  old  he  visits  more  frequented 
places,  and  becomes  more  dangerous  to  man.  This  fact  explains  the 
language  of  God  by  Hosea.  ''  I  will  be  unto  Ephraim  (or  the  ten 
tribes,)  as  a  great  (or  old)  lion,"  most  therefore  to  be  dreaded; 
''  and  to  the  house  of  Judah  as  a  young  lion,"  Chap,  5.  14.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  prophecy,  Ephraim  was  diiven  into  a  distant 
land,  where  this  tribe  suffered  a  protracted  exile,  while  Judah  re- 
tained its  position  for  133  years  longer,  and  was  then  carried  into 
captivity  for  the  shorter  term  of  seventy  years.  .  .  .  One  of  the 
-coverts  of  this  animal  was  in  the  low  ground  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Jordan,  which,  like  the  Nile,  overflows  its  banks  every  spring. 
At  that  season,  therefore,  the  coverts  were  laid  under  water,  and 
the  wild  beasts  were  all  driven  to  the  hills,  where  they  often  com- 
mitted great  ravages,  Jer.  49.  19.  ''  Like  a  lion  from  the  swellings 
of  Jordan,"  thus  became  a  proverb  in  Judaja,  which  comparatively 
recent  discovery  has  enabled  us  to  understand.  The  energy  of  the 
gospel  in  striking  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  impenitent,  and  in 
imparting  comfort  to  the  church,  is  compared  to  the  roaring  of  the 
lion,  Joel  3.  16.  The  savage  disposition  of  the  lion  is  sometimes 
referred  to,  and  then  always  in  a  bad  sense.  In  i  Pet.  5 .  8,  Satan 
is  compared  to  a  lion,  and  the  enemies  of  the  chiu'ch  generally  are 
represented  under  the  same  name,  Isa.  5.  29. 

Many  other  expressiens  and  figiu^es  are  borrowed  from  natm-al 
history.  The  "  oil  "  of  the  olive  berry  soothes  pain,  and  by  closing 
the  pores  of  the  body  against  noxious  exhalations,  promotes  health. 
It  was  thought  peculiarly  successful  in  coimteracting  the  effect  of 
poison,  and  hence  it  is  often  iised  to  desci-ibe  the  power  of  the 
gospel.  Its  medicinal  properties  (See  James  5.)  made  it  of  great 
commercial  value  :  hence  it  is  said,  that  ''he  that  loveth  oil,  shall 
not  be  rich." 

The  "  myrrh  "  and  ''  balm"  (or  balsam)  of  the  East  are  strongly 
aromatic  gums,  which  flow  spontaneously,  or  by  means  of  incision 
from  the  trees,  and  wex'e  in  great  request  as  articles  of  commerce. 
The  balm  of  Gilead,  Jer.  8.  22,  was  deemed  a  very  valuable  medi- 
cine, and  the  expression  is  often  used  figuratively  to  indicate  any 
gi'eat  remedy  or  restorative. 

The  habits  of  the  ant,  of  the  locust,  of  the  camel,  of  the  dove, 
are  all  interesting,  but  they  are  generally  sufficiently  known,  or  are 
refeiTed  to  with  sufficient  minuteness  in  the  Scriptures  themselves. 

360.  Since  the  English  Bible  was  completed,  our  knowledge 


BOTANY  OF  SCRIPTURE.  223 

of  eastern  botany,  especially,  has  largely  increased,  and  as  the 
force  of  the  imagery  of  Scripture  frequently  depends  upon  a 
knowledge  of  the  plants  which  are  named,  we  append  a  table 
of  all  the  plants  referred  to  in  the  Bible,  with  such  a  descrip- 
tion *as  will  enable  the  reader  to  identify  them.  .  In  some 
instances,  the  results  are  rather  conjectural  than  certainly  ac- 
curate, but  these  are  few,  and  even  in  these,  there  is  no  doubt 
as  to  the  general  accuracy  of  the  renderings  proposed.  The 
table  is  drawn  up  from  various  documents,  and  chiefly  from 
the  very  elaborate  articles  on  this  subject,  prepared  by  Dr. 
Eoyle,  for  Kitto's  Bibhcal  Cyclopeedia. 

Almond  is  the  name  of  two  trees  mentioned  in  Scripture;  the  one,  Luz, 
translated  ''hazel/'  Gen.  30.  37,  is  the  wild  almond  (Boch. 
Jer.  Rosenm.),  and  the  other,  Shaked,  the  cultivated  almond. 
The  flowers  are  like  the  bloom  of  the  apple-tree,  at  first  rose- 
coloured,  and  then  white.  It  is  hence  a  symbol  of  old  age, 
Eccl.  12.  5,  and  from  its  early  blossoming,  of  any  sudden 
interposition,  Jer.  i.  11:  Numb.  17.  8:  Gen.  43.  ir. 
Almug,  or  -Algum,  is  not  known.  Sandal  wood,  which  is  yellow  or 
white,  and  fragrant,  answers  the  description  given  in  1  Kings 
ID.  II,  12.  The  name  given  in  2  Chron.  2.  8,  is  probably  an 
error  of  the  transcribers,  see  i  Kings  10.  ii,  and  2  Chron.  9. 
10,  II. 
Aloes,  properly  hgn-aloes,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  aloe,  which  emits  no  agreeable  odour,  see  Psa.  45.  8: 
Numb.  24.  6.  This  tree  is  still  known  in  India  by  the  name  of 
Aghil,  and  in  Europe  as  the  Eagle-tree  (Aquilarid).  The  wood 
is  highly  odoriferous,  and  the  tree  is  said  in  Eastern  tradition 
to  have  been  one  of  the  trees  of  Paradise.  The  wood  was  very 
costly,  and  was  used  to  impart  fragrance  to  the  linen  in  which 
dead  bodies  were  wrapped,  John  19.  40.  Heb.  Ahalim. 
Anise,  or  Dill,  occurs  only  in  Matt.  23  {Hvvidov).  It  is  an  herb  of 
small  value.  Its  seeds  are  aromatic  and  carminative,  yielding 
an  oil  much  used  in  flatulency. 
Apple  of  Scripture,  is  probably  the  quince,  which  is  in  the  East 
more  highly  scented,  and  much  sweeter  than  in  Europe  (Cels. 
Ray,)  or  it  may  be  the  citron,  a  rich  golden-coloured  fruit, 
Prov.  25.  11:  Joel  I.  12:  Cant.  2.  3,  5 :  7.  8.  Heb.  Tappuach. 
Bay-tree  occurs  only  in  Psa.  37,  35,  and  is  the  laurus  nobihs,  an 

evergreen  with  an  agreeable  spicy  odour.     Heb.  Ezrach. 
Bean  occurs  in  2  Sam.  17.  28:  Eze.  4.  9,  and  is  rightly  translated. 
There  are  various  speciss,  but  not  widely  different  from  each 
other.     Heb.  Pol. 


224  BOTANY   OP  SCRIPTURE. 

Box-tree  of  tlie  East,  is  the  same  as  that  of  Europe,  though  in  the 
East  it  grows  wild  and  large,  Isa.  41.  19 :  60. 13.  It  is  specially 
adapted  to  mountainous  districts,  and  a  calcareous  limestone 
soil,  like  Lebanon.  Heb.  Teashur. 
Briers. — The  thorny  plants  of  Palestine  are  very  numerous,  and 
Kabbinical  writers  say,  that  as  many  as  twenty-two  words  are 
used  in  Scripture  to  express  this  species.  The  particular  plants 
indicated  by  these  words  are  generally  not  known,  but  they  are 
nearly  all  thorny  and  useless. 

Brier,  D"*Jp'l!l»  Barkanim,  Judg.  8.  7,  16,  some  thorny  prickly 
plant  Eosen.  translates  "flails."  p^^,  Chedek,  Prov.  15. 
19,  "thorns,"  and  Mic.  7.  4,  ''a  brier,"  a  species  of  night- 
shade, Solanum  spinosum  (Royle). 
p'pp,  Ez.  28.  24:  nQ"lp,  Isa.  55.  13:  niD^,  Isa.  32.  13;  and 
everywhere  else  in  Isa.,  except  55.  i^-,  thorny  plants  not 
no AV  known.  Heb.  Sillon:  Sirpad:  Shamir. 
Bramble,  Judg.  9.  14,  15,  etc.,  ItOX,  properly  thorns,  which 

see  :  PI  in,  thorn  or  thistle,  which  see. 
JS^ettle,  Prov.  24.  31:  Job  30.  7:  Zeph.  2.  9,  P-lin,  Charal. 
Royle  thinks  wild  mustard.  It  is  destructive  to  other 
vegetation ;  common  to  the  East,  and  known  by  the  name 
of  Chardul,  or  in  English,  Curlock.  The  nettle  is  probably 
the  plant  mentioned  in  Isa.  34.  13 :  Hos.  9.  6 :  Prov. 
24.  3 1  (pSBp,,  Kimmosh),  where  it  is  so  translated. 
Bush  (riDp,  i3«Ttfj),  Exod.  3,  2:  Deut.  33.  16.  The  Greek 
word  means  bramble:  and  the  Rubris  sanctus  is  common 
in  Palestine.  Pococke  thinks  the  hawthorn  the  more  pro- 
bable. Heb.  Sene. 
Thistles  O'l')'!'),  Gen.  3.  18,  r^ifioXes  in  Lxx  and  New  Testa- 
ment, Matt.  7.  16:  Heb,  6.  8;  a  common  prickly  plant, 
spreading  over  the  ground.  Tribulus  (niH),  probably  a 
thorn -bush,  Job  41.  2:  Prov.  26.  9:  Isa.  34,  ij. 
Thorns,  a  general  name,  pHPI,  Plin,  }*'lp,  Y^)iV).,  fl^tJ^,  D^SL*^ 
(pricks,)  Dn"*p,  D'*3V-  Gr.  clxxv^a  in  the  lxx,  and  in 
Matt.  7.  16:  13.  7,  22:  27.  27:  John  19.  2,  5.  All  these 
words  are  translated  thorns,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the 
terms  to  lead  to  a  more  minute  knowledge  of  the  species  to 
which  they  refer:  another  name  is  ^OS,  Atad,  Judg.  9. 
14,  15:  Psa.  58.  9,  translated  "  bramble,"  probably  a  kind 
of  buckthorn.  It  puts  forth  long,  slender,  thorned  switches, 
and  is  by  many  supposed  to  be  the  thorn  with  which 
Christ  was  crowned,  Zizyphus  Spina  Christi. 
Thorns,  thistles,  and  brambles,  are  to  this  day  very  numerous 


BOTANY   OF   SCRIPTURE.  225 

in  Palestine.  The  common  bramble  and  the  holy  bramble 
(Bubris  sanctus),  abound :  and  thistles  cover  large  tracts  of 
ground,  and  grow  to  a  prodigious  size;  among  others,  travellers 
mention  the  white  Syrian  thistle,  with  the  Egyptian  or  purple 
variety,  and  the  musk-scented  thistle  (^Carduus  mollis.) 

Calamus  or  Sweet  Cane,  Exod,  30.  23:  Cant,  4.  14:  Eze.  27.  19: 
Isa.  43.  24:  Jer,  6.  20.  This  plant  is  found  in  Asia  and  Egypt, 
though  the  most  fragrant  are  said  in  Jer.  to  come  from  a  far 
country.  Dr.  Royle  thinks  that  a  species  found  in  the  Himalayas 
(and  which  he  calls  Andropogon  Calamus  aromaticus),  best 
answers  the  description  of  Scripture.  It  was  one  of  the  ingi'e- 
dients  of  the  anointing  oil  of  the  Sanctuary.     Heb.  Kana. 

Camphinc,  old  English  for  Camphor,  is  probably  the  Alhenna  (Gr. 
Kupros),  of  the  East  :  a  very  fragrant  shrub,  with  flowers 
growing  like  those  of  the  lilac.  The  leaves  form  a  powder  used 
for  dying  the  nails  and  eyebrows, — both  in  Syria  and  Egjrpt, 
Cant.  I.  14:  4.  13.     Heb.  Kopher. 

Cassia,  Exod.  30.  24:  Eze.  27.  19,  an  inferior  kind  of  cinnamon. 
The  bark  yields  an  essential  oil,  less  aromatic  than  cinnamon, 
but  in  larger  quantities,  and  of  a  more  pungent  taste.  Heb. 
Kida. 

Cedar,  the  name  probably  of  the  pine-tribe  of  trees,  and  especially 
of  the  noblest  of  the  tribe,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon.  The  Hebrew 
word  was  probably  used  with  the  same  extent  as  the  English, 
hence  we  have  the  red,  or  pencil  cedai',  which  is  a  Juniper, 
and  indeed  the  cedar  of  the  Pentateuch  (Lev.  14.  4,  6,)  was 
probably  a  Juniper,  which  tree  is  common  in  the  desert  of 
Sinai.     Heb.  Erez. 

Chesnut-trce,  Gen.  30.  37:  Eze.  31.  8,  probably  the  plane,  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  of  trees.  Those  of  Assyria  were  especially 
fine,  see  Eze.  31. 

Cinnamon,  Ex.  30.  23:  Prov.  7.  17:  Cant.  4.  14:  Eev.  18.  13,  the 
bark  of  the  laurus  kinnamomum.  The  plant  is  found  in  India 
and  China;  but  the  best  kind  is  from  Malabar  and  Ceylon. 

Cockle,  Job  31.  40,  perhaps  the  English  plant  so  called:  but  more 
probably  a  species  of  night-shade  (Solanum  nigmm),  or  Aconite. 
The  plural  of  this  word  is  translated  "  wild  grapes,"  Isa. 
5.  2:  the  nightshade  referred  to  grows  largely  in  the  East,' 
and  the  Arabic  name  resembles  the  Hebrew.  -The  fruit  is  nar- 
cotic and  poisonous.     Heb.  Beushim. 

Coriander,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  yielding  a  fruit  (called  seed),  the 
size  of  a  pepper-corn,  globular  and  greyish.  It  is  common 
in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in  Essex.  The  fruit 
is  used  by  distillers,  etc.,  as  a  good  stomachic,  Exod.  iC.  31: 
Numb.  II.  7.     Heb.  Gad. 

L  3 


226  BOTANY   OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Cucumber,  Numb.  11,5:  Isa.  i.  8;  rightly  translated.     The  plant  is 
called  Kissa  by  the  Arabs,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  m  the 
East.    Heb.  Kishuim. 
Desire,  Eccl.  12.  5.     The  word  so  translated  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  Caper  plant  (see   2   Sam.  19.  34,  35,)  which  yields  a 
pungent  pickle,  stimulating  to  the  appetite.     The  flower-buds, 
and  in  some  species  the  unripe  pod,  in  others  the  berry,  ai'e 
used  for  this  purpose.    Heb.  Ebiyona. 
Doves-Dung,  2  Kings  6.  25,  is  probably  the  chick-pea,  a  vetch  com- 
mon in  the  East.     The  same  name  is  still  applied  in  Arabic  to 
the  dung  of  pigeons,  and  to  these  peas  (Bochart,  Taylor).     Some 
suppose  that  the  root  of  a  wild-flower,  the  star  of  Bethlehem, 
is  the  article  here  mentioned.     Heb.  Dibhyonim. 
Ebony,  Eze.  27.  15,  wood  greatly  prized  for  its  colour  and  hardness. 
It   is   the  heart-wood   of  a   date-tree,   which  grows   in  great 
abundance    in    the    East,    and    especially,  in    Ceylon.     Heb. 
Hobhnim. 
Fig-tree,   Arab,   teen:    properly  translated:  a  native  of  the  East; 
with  broad  shady  leaves  (i  Kings  4.  25),     The  fig  sprouts  at 
.  the   vernal   equinox,    and    yields  three   crops   of  fruit.     The 
first  ripening  about  the  end  of  June,  having  a  fine  flavour,  and 
generally  eatei!  green  (Jer.  24.  2).     The  others  are  often  pre- 
served in  masses  or  cakes,  i  Sam.  25.  18,  etc.     Heb.  Teena. 
Fir-tree   ip'T\'l,    Berosh),    is   frequently  mentioned   in    Scripture, 
2  Sam.  6,  5  :  Cant.    i.  17,  etc.,  and  probably  includes  varioiis 
trees  of  the  pine  tribe.     Some  regard  the  cypress  and  jvmiper  as 
the  true  representatives  of  Berosh;  others  the  cedar,  and  others 
the  common  pine.     All  are  found  in  Palestine ;  and  as  cedar  and 
fir  constantly  occur  together  in  Scripture,  they  probably  in- 
clude the  whole  genus. 
Flax  (nnEJ'S,  Pishta,  once  translated  tow,  Isa.  43.   17,   more  pro- 
perly a  wick):  the  common  plant,  so  called,  used  to  make  linen, 
cord,  and  torches;  extensively  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Syria. 
Gr.  x'tvov,  Matt.  12.  20. 

^^,  Shesh,  translated  fine  linen  and  silk,  was  probably  the 
hemp  plant,  in  Arabic  husheesh,  yielding  an  intoxicating  drink 
(whence  assassin),  now  knovvTi  as  the  bang  of  the  East.  The 
plant  is  cultivated  in  Persia,  Europe,  and  India. 

Two  other  words  are  translated  linen  in  the  English  version, 
nS,  Bad;  p3,  Butz,  the  former  is  used  in  the  Pentateuch, 
etc.,  and  is  probably  the  linen  made  from  flax;  the  latter  is 
used  only  in  Chron.  and  the  Pi'ophets,  and  is  probably  cotton 
cloth,  a  product  not  mentioned  till  after  the  captivity:  it  is 
g(inerally  translated  fine  linen,  and  was  probably  of  finer  fibre 
than  the  flax.    The  livffffos  of  the  New  Testament  was  proba- 


BOTANY  OF  SCRIPTURE.  227 

bly  linen.  In  the  lxx,  /SyVs-oj  translates  both  words.  The 
word,  cotton  does  not  occur  in  Scripture,  but  the  Hebrew  name 
(Karpas),  is  found  in  Esth.  i.  6,  where  it  is  translated  green. 
The  cotton  plant  seems  not  to  have  been  known  in  Palestine, 
before  the  captivity.  The  cotton  is  the  lining  of  the  aeed 
pods,  and  is  gathered  by  hand,  as  the  pods  ripen  and  burst. 

Flag  (translated  meadow,  in  Gen.  41.  2,  18),  Job  8.  11,  probably 
any  green  herbaceous  plants  of  luxuriant  growth.     Heb.  Achu. 

Fitches,  i.e.,  vetches,  occurs  only  in  Isa.  28.  25,  27,  and  is  probably 
a  species  of  Mgella.  The  seeds  are  black,  and  are  used  in  the 
East,  like  carraway  seeds,  for  the  pxu^pose  of  imparting  to  food 
an  aromatic,  acrid  taste.      Heb.  Ketzach. 

Galbanum,  Ex.  30.  34  only,  a  very  powerful  and  not  very  fragrant 
gum,  exuded  by  a  shrub  belonging  to  the  family  of  Umbel- 
lifei'ie  (Bubon  Galhamim).     It  was  used  in  preparing  inceq§e. 

Garlick,  ISTumb.  11.  5  only.  This  plant  is  now  known  by  the  name 
of  Eschalot,  or  Shalot,  and  is  common  in  Europe  {Allium  Esca- 
loniam,  i.e.,  of  Ascalon).  Herodotus  states,  that  it  was  supplied 
in  large  quantities  to  the  labourers  engaged  in  the  erection  of 
the  Pyramids.     Heb.  Shum. 

Gopher  is  mentioned  only  in  Gen.  6.  14.  Probably  a  tree  of  the 
pine  tribe,  perhaps  Cypress  (Bochart,  Celsius),  which  is  very 
abxmdant  in  Assyria.     Heb.  Gopher. 

Gourd,  Jonah  4.  6-10,  is  now  generally  admitted  to  be  the  Palma 
Christi,  or  Castor-oil  plant.  It  is  of  very  rapid  growth,  with 
broad  palmate  leaves,  and  giving,  especially  when  young,  an 
ample  shade.     The  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  tree. 

Gourd,  Wild,  2  Kings  4.  39.  The  wild  cucumber,  whose  leaves  are 
like  those  of  the  vine,  but  of  a  poisonous  quality  and  bitter 
taste.     Heb.  Kikayon  and  Pakvioth. 

Hemlock,  Hos.  10.  4:  Amos  6.  12,  ti-anslated  ''gall "  in  Deut.  29.  18 : 
Lam.  3.  19.  Tremellius  and  Celsius  regard  hemlock  as  the 
true  meaning :  others  think  it  a  general  name  for  any  bitter 
herb  (Royle).     Heb.  Rosh. 

Hyssop,  Exod.  12.  22,  etc.,  either  marjoram,  a  small  shrub,  its  leaves 
covered  with  soft  woolly  down,  adapted  to  retain  fluid ;  or  the 
thorny  caper  (Royle),  which  grows  wild  in  Syria,  and  is  pos- 
sessed of  detergent  properties.    Arab.  Asaf.     Heb.  Ezov. 

Husks  (xtpxTix),  Luke  15,  the  pods  (probably)  of  the  Carob-tree,  a 
tree  which  is  called  St.  John's  Tree,  Ls  of  middle  size,  the  fruit 
consisting  of  flat  pods,  six  inches  long,  and  an  inch  broad. 
The  seeds  are  hard,  bitter,  and  useless,  but  the  pods  are  used 
for  feeding  swine.  The  tree  is  common  in  Spain,  and  its  pods 
were  the  chief  food  of  the  horses  of  the  British  cavalry  there 
in   811,  1812. 


228  BOTANY   OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Juniper,  i  Kings  19.  4,  5:  Job  30.  4:  Psa.  120.  4;  is  probably  the 
Spanish  broom.  The  wood  of  this  tree  burns  with  a  remarkably 
light  flame,  giving  out  great  heat:  hence  coals  of  juniper  in 
Psa.  120.     This  fact  is  noticed  by  various  Eastern  travellers. 

Leehs  (T'Vn,  '^fatrov)^  Numb.  it.  5.  The  word  so  translated,  is  ren- 
dered grass,  I  Kings  18.  5:  herb.  Job  8.  12:  and  hay,  Prov. . 
27.  25.  It  properly  means  anything  green.  But  it  is  trans- 
lated leeks  in  these  passages  by  most  of  the  versions;  and  the 
plant  has  been  known  (and  indeed  worshipped),  in  Egypt  from 
very  early  times. 

Lentiles,  a  kind  of  pulse,  from  a  small  annual,  and  used  for  making 
soups  and  pottage.  It  is  of  the  colour  of  chocolate  (reddish- 
brown),  and  is  compared  by  Pliny  to  the  colour  of  the  reddish 
sand  around  the  pyramids.  Wilkinson  (Anct.  Egypt),  has 
gkren  a  picture  of  Lentile-pottage  making,  taken  from  an 
ancient  slab.  Gen.  25,  34:  2  Sam.  17.  28.     Heb.  Adashim. 

Lily,  this  word  is  probably  applicable  to  several  plants  common  in 
Palestine.  In  most  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  word  is 
used,  there  is  reference  to  the  lotus,  or  water-lily  of  the  Nile. 
This  species  was  eaten  as  food :  the  roots,  stalks,  and  seeds  are 
all  very  grateful,  both  fresh  and  dried.  Hence  the  allusion  to 
feeding  among  lilies.  The  *' lily  of  the  valley,"  i.e.,  of  the 
water-courses,  belongs  also  to  this  species.  Cant.  2.  2,  16:  4.  5, 
etc.  The  flower  was  worn  on  festive  occasions,  and  formed  one 
of  the  ornaments  of  the  temple,  i  Kings  7.  19.  Heb.  Shushan. 
The  lily  of  the  New  Testament  (xplvav),  is  the  scarlet  marta- 
gon  lily  (ZiL  Chalcedonimn),  a  stately  turban-like  flower.  It 
flowers  in  April  and  May,  when  the  sermon  on  the  Mount  was 
probably  delivered,  and  is  indigenous  throughout  Galilee.  It 
is  called  in  the  New  Testament  the  *'  lily  of  the  field," 
Matt.  6.  28. 

Mallows,  only  in  Job  30.  4,  is  probably  what  we  imderstand  by  the 
name.  It  is  still  used  by  the  poor  as  a  common  dish.  Others 
suppose  that  a  kind  of  salt- wort  (or ache),  is  meant;  so  Bochart 
and  Dr.  M.  Good.     Heb.  Malluach. 

Mandrakes,  Gen.  30.  14.  16:  Cant.  7.  13,  Atropa  Mandragora,  a  plant 
like  lettuce  in  size  and  shape,  but  of  dark  green  leaves.  The 
fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  small  apple,  and  ripens  in  wheat-harvest 
(May).     It  is  noted  for  its  exhilarating  and  genial  virtues. 

Melon,  Numb.  11.  5.  The  gourd  tribe,  to  which  cucumbers  and 
melons  belong,  are  great  favourites  in  the  East,  and  abound  iu 
Egypt  and  India,  There  are  different  kinds, — the  Egyptian 
(Cucumis  Chate),  the  common  water-melon,  etc.,  all  of  which 
ai-e  probably  inckided  in  the  Scripture  name.    Heb.  Abattichim. 

Millet-,  Ezo.  4.  9,  the  panicum  miliaceum  of  botanists,  a  small  grain, 


BOTANY  OF  SCRIPTURE.  229 

Eometimes  cultivated  in  England  for  feeding  poultry,  and 
grown  throughout  the  East.  It  is  used  for  food  in  Persia,  and 
in  India.  Heb.  Dochan. 
Mulberry,  in  the  New  Testament  Sycamine-tree,  Luke  17.  6,  (very 
dififerent  from  the  Sycomore,  which  is  a  kind  of  fig),  is  the 
mulberry  of  Europe^  very  common  in  Palestine.  The  word 
translated  mulberry  in  2  Sam.  5.  23,  24:  i  Chr.  14.  14,  15,  pro- 
bably means  poplar.  The  rustling  of  its  leaves  answers  the  des- 
cription given  in  these  passages.  The  same  word  occurs  in 
Psa.  84.  6,  and  is  there  regarded  as  a  proper  name  (Baca),  but 
most  of  the  versions  translate  it  "  weeping:"  Valley  of  Baca 
equalling  "vale  of  tears." 
Mustard  (2/va?r/),  is  either  a  species  of  the  plant  known  in  England 
under  this  name,  which  has  one  of  the  smallest  seeds,  and  is 
itself  among  the  tallest  of  herbaceous  plants,  or  the  Sahadora 
Persica,  a  shrub  or  tree,  whose  seeds  are  used  for  the  same 
purpose  as  mustard  (Royle,  Irby). 
Myrrh,  is  the  representative  of  two  words  in  Hebrew,  of  which  the 
first  ("lb  ffiAvpvot),  is  properly  translated,  Exod.  30.  23  :  Psa.  45. 
8,  etc.:  Mark  15.  23,  36.  It  is  a  gum  exuded  by  the  Balsamo- 
dendron  Myrrha,  and  other  plants.  It  is  highly  aromatic  and 
medicinal,  and  moderately  stimulating.  The  Greeks  used  it  to 
drug  their  wine.     The  shrub  is  foimd  in  Arabia  and  Africa. 

nVl^,  Bedolach,  Gen.  2.  12  :  Nimib.  11.  7,  is  probably  a 
gum,  still  known  as  bdellium.  The  gum  exudes  from  more 
than  one  tree,  and  is  fo\md  in  both  India  and  Africa. 

131?,  Lot,  is  properly  labdanum.  It  is  a  gum  exuded  by  the 
Cistus,  and  is  now  used  chiefly  in  fumigation.  Gen.  37,  25 : 
43.  II.     Other  similar  gums  mentioned  in  Scripture,  are 

Balm  0"))?),  Gen.  37,  25:  Jer.  8.  22.  It  is  probably  the 
balm  or  balsam  of  Gilead  (the  Hebrew  of  which  word,  however^ 
DK^S,  is  generally  translated  spice,  or  sweet  odours).  This  tree 
is  common  in  Arabia  and  Africa.  The  gum  is  obtained  in  small 
quantities,  and  is  highly  aromatic  and  medicinal. 

Frankincense  (n^ilp)^  is  a  gum  taken  from  a  species  of  Storax, 
and  is  highly  fragrant.  It  was  employed  chiefly  for  fumigation, 
and  was  largely  used  in  the  service  of  the  temple.  It  was 
regarded  as  an  emblem  of  prayer,  Lev.  2.  i:  Psa.  145.  i,  2: 
Rev.  8.  3,  4.     Heb.  Lebona. 

Spicery  {T\\2T),  Gen.  37,  25:  43.  1 1,  is  a  kind  of  gimi,  per- 
haps taken  from  the  tragacunth  tree.     Heb.  Necoth. 

Stacte  (PltDJ),  occurs  only  in  Exod.  30.  34,  and  is  another 
gum,  not  now  certainly  known.  Celsius  thinks  it  an  inferior 
kind  of  myrrh.    Heb.  Neteph. 


230  BOTANY   OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Myrtle  grows  -wild  in  Palestine,  and  reaches  the  height  of  twenty 
feet.  Its  leaves  are  dark  and  glossy,  and  its  white  flowers 
highly  aromatic.  Its  branches  were  used  at  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles, Neh.  8.  15:  Isa.  41.  17-19.  Heb.  Hadas. 
Nard,  Mark  14.  3  (11?.,  nerd,  translated  Spikenard  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment), the  plant  Nardostachys  Jatamansi,  from  which  a  deli- 
cious and  costly  perfume  is  made.  The  root  and  the  leaves 
that  glow  out  of  it  have  the  appearance  of  spikes,  hence  the 
name  (stachys  =  spike).  Cant.  i.  12:  4.  13.  14:  John  12.  3. 
J!^ut  is  the  translation  of  two  Hebrew  words. 

D0t31,  Botnim,  Gen.  43.  11,  the  pistachio-nut  tree,  well 
known  in  Syria  and  India,  but  not  in  Egypt,  and  t13J<,  Egoz, 
the  u-alnut-tree,  which  is  called  in  Pers.  and  Arab,  "gouz,'* 
Cant.  2. 
Oah  (pi'^),  Gen.  35.  8:  Isa.  2.  13:  6.  13:  44-  14:  Eze.  27.  6: 
Hos.  4.  13:  Amos  2.  9:  Zech.  11.  2.  In  other  passages  where 
the  word  ' '  oak  "  is  found,  the  word  ought  to  be  turpentine-tree 
(see  teil.)  The  oak  is  not  common  in  Palestine,  nor  is  the 
English  oak  (Q.  robur),  found  there.  Oaks  of  Bashan  are  still 
of  large  size;  but  they  are  chiefly  either  the  evergreen  oak 
(Q.  ilex),  the  prickly-cupped  oak  (Q.  Vcdonia),  or  the  Kermes 
oak  (see  Scarlet  Oak).  Heb.  Allon. 
Olive,  an  evergreen,  common  from  Italy  to  Caubul.  The  unripe 
fruit  is  preserved  in  a  solution  of  salt,  and  is  used  at  desserts; 
when  ripe,  it  is  bruised  in  mills,  and  yields  an  oil  of  peculiar 
purity  and  value.  Both  the  oil  and  the  tree  were  used  in  the 
feast  of  tabernacles.  In  Judsea  it  was  an  emblem  of  prosperity, 
Psa.  52.  8,  and  in  all  ages  it  has  been  an  emblem  of  peace. 

The  wild  olive,  (Rom.  11.  17,  24),  was  probably  a  wild 
species  of  the  Oka  Europxa.  It  was  a  common  mode  of  graft- 
ing in  Italy,  to  inseii;  a  branch  of  the  wild  olive  on  the  stock  of 
the  cultivated  plant  {Columella').  Heb.  Zaith. 
Onion,  a  plant  well  known  in  this  country  and  in  the  East.  In  hot 
climates  it  loses  its  acrid  taste,  and  is  highly  agreeable  and 
nutritious,  JSTumb.  11.  5.  Heb.  Betzal. 
Palm,  or  date-tree,  Arab,  tamr,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  eastern 
trees,  Exod.  15.  27.  It  flourished  especially  in  the  valley  of 
Jordan  (hence  Jericho,  the  City  of  Palm-trees)  and  in  the 
deserts  of  Syria  (Tamar  =  Palmyra).  It  was  considered 
characteristic  of  Judsea,  being  first  met  with  there  by  nations 
travelling  southward  from  Euj'ope.  Heb.  Taman. 
Pomegranate  ("  gi'ained-apple"),  a  tree  of  gi'eat  value  in  hot 
climates.  Its  fruit  is  globular,  and  as  large  as  a  good-sized 
apple.  The  interior  contains  a  quantity  of  purple  or  rosy  seeds, 
with  a  sweet  juice,  of  a  shghtly  acid  taste,  i  Sam.  14.  2.     The 


BOTANY  OF  SCRIPTURE.  231 

tree  is  not  tmlike  the  common  hawtliorn,  but  larger  It  ia 
cultivated  in  North  Africa  and  throughout  Asia,  Hag.  2.  19: 
Deut.  8.  3:  Cant.  8.  2:  Joel  i.  12.     Heb.  Rimmon. 

Carved  pomegranates  were  placed  on  the  capitals  of  the 
columns  of  the  temple. 

Poplar,  Gen.  10.  37:  Hos.  4.  13,  is  either  the  white  poplar  or  the 
storax-tree.  The  latter  yields  the  fragi'ant  resin  of  frankincense. 
Either  tree  answers  the  description  given  in  Genesis  and  Hosea. 
In  the  former,  the  lxx  translate  storax,  and  in  the  latter, 
poplar.  The  version  of  Genesis  is  the  more  ancient  and 
authoritative.     Heb.  Libna. 

Beed,  of  the  East,  is  a  tall,  grassy  plant,  consisting  of  a  long, 
hollow -jointed  stem,  with  shai-p- cutting  leaves.  The  plant 
grows  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  in  moist  places,  i  Kings  14. 
15:  Job  40.  21:  Isa.  19.  6,  7:  36.  6:  Ez.  40,  5:  Matt.  11.  7, 
and  was  used  for  measuring,  fishing,  walking,  etc. 

A  small  kind  was  used  for  writing,  3  John  13.  This  reed  is 
very  abundant  in  the  marshes  between  the  Tigi'is  and  the 
Euphrates.     Heb.  Kane. 

Rose,  Cant.  2.  i:  Isa.  35.  i.  Though  the  rose  was  known  in  Syria, 
and  one  species  (the  Damask  rose)  takes  its  name  from  Damascus, 
it  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  word  so  translated  being 
(as  its  name  implies)  a  bulbous-rooted  plant.  It  is  probably 
the  Xarcissus,  which  is  found  throughout  Syria,  and  is  both 
very  fragrant  and  beautiful.     Heb.  Chavatzeleth. 

Rm,  only  in  Luke  11.  42,  is  the  common  garden-plant  so  called. 
Its  leaves  emit  a  strong  and  bitter  odour,  and  were  formerly 
used  medicinally. 

Rxish,  Isa.  9.  14,  translated  also  "hook,"  Job  41.  2  :  and  bulrush, 
Isa.  58.  5,  ought  to  be  translated  reed,  or  rash,  in  all  these 
passages.  NDil,  (Gome,)  translated,  also,  bulrush,  Exod.  2.  3: 
Isa.  35-7:  18.  2,  is  the  Egyptian  j9 op ^/n/s,  which  belongs  to  the 
tribe,  not  of  rushes,  but  of  sedges.  It  grows  eight  or  ten  feet 
high.  The  stem  is  triangular,  and  without  leaves,  but  is 
adorned  with  a  large,  flocculent,  bushy  top.  The  plant  was 
used  for  making  boats,  sails,  mats,  and  ropes ;  the  stem  itself 
yielding  the  celebrated  paper  of  Egypt.  The  plant  is  foimd  in 
all  parts  of  the  Nile,  near  Babylon,  and  in  India.     Heb.  Agmon. 

Saffron,  xpokos,  part  of  the  yellow  crocus.  Cant.  4.  14.  The  stigmas 
and  style  of  the  flower  formed  this  fragrant  perfume,  which 
was  used  to  flavoiir  both  meat  and  wine,  and  as  a  powerful 
stimulative  medicine.  It  is  veiy  common  throughout  Asia, 
and  derives  its  English  name  (saffron)  from  the  Arabic  "  zafran." 

Scarlet  oah,  of  Palestine,  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  the 


232  BOTANY   OF  SCRIPTUKE. 

insect  living  upon  it  is   mentioned  (T\]!hF\,  Tolaatli),  Exod. 
25.  4:   Lev.   14.  4,   (>,    etc.     The  tree  is  the  kermes  (hence 
crimson),   or  quercics  coccifera   (holm-oak),  and   the  insects,   a 
worm  (vermes,  hence  vermilion),  seem  to  grow  on  the  branches, 
and  were  long  thought  to  be  vegetable  excrescences  of  the  tree 
itself.     These  insects  are  a  lively  red,  and  formed  in   early- 
times  the  common  scarlet  dye.     This  was  superseded  in  part  by 
the  Tyrian  purple,  and  in  later  times  by  cochineal,  the  product 
of  another  insect  {Coccus  cactus),  indigenous  to  South  America. 
Shittah-tree,  the  acacia,  or  Egyptian  thorn,  Exod.  25,  5,  etc.     The 
stem  is  straight  and  thorny,  the  bark  is  a  greyish-black,  the 
wood  very  light  and  durable,  and  therefore  well  adapted  for  a 
moveable  structvire  like  the  tabernacle.     All  this  species  bear 
flowers,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  fragrance  and  beauty, 
Soapf  of  Scriptvire,  Jer.  2.  22:  Mai.  3.  2,  was  a  carbonate  of  soda, 
obtained  from  a  kind  of  salt-wort.     The  ashes  of  this  species  of 
plants  is  called  in  commerce  barilla,  and  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  glass.     Probably,  the  carbonate  of  potash  (pearlash), 
which  is  obtained  b}''  burning  poplar  and  other  plants,  is  in- 
cluded under  this  name.     Heb.  Bor,  or  Borith. 
Sycomore,   i  Kings  10.  27:  Psa.  78.47,  etc.,  erroneously  translated 
by  the  lxx  (ruH,a.[jt,ivos  (see  Mulberry).    In  its  leaves  it  resembles 
the  mulberry,  but  is  really  a  fig-tree,  bearing  a  coarse,  inferior 
fruit  {Ficus  sycomorus).     It  is  lofty  and  shady   (Luke  19.  4), 
with  wood  of  no  great  value  (i  Kings  10.  27:  2  Chron.  i.  15). 
The  mummy-cases  of  Egypt  were  generally  made  of  it.     This 
tree  must  be  distinguished  from  the  English  sycamore,  which 
is  a  kind  of  maple. 
Tares   (^/^«v;a).  Matt.  i^.   25,  the    LoUum  temulentum,  a   kind    of 
darnell,  or  grass,  resembling  wheat.     It  impoverishes  the  soil, 
and  bears  a  seed  of  deleterious  properties. 
Teil-tree,  Isa.  6.  13,  is  the  linden-tree  of  botanists  {Tilia  Europ.): 
called   also  the   turpentine-tree  (Pistachia    terehinthus).      The 
word  so  rendered  is  translated  elsewhere  elm,  Hos.  4,  13,  and 
oak.   Gen.  35.   4.     It  grows  to  a  great  size,  and  yields  a  kind 
of  turpentine,  of  agreeable  odour  and  taste.     Heb.  Ela. 
TJiyine-u-ood  (Rev.  18.  12),  was  in  great  demand  among  the  Romans, 
who    called   it   thya,  or  citron-wood.      It  grows  only  in  the 
neighbourhood    of  Mount   Atlas,   in   Africa,   and   yields    the 
sanderach   rosin    of   commerce.      It  is    highly   balsamic   and 
odoriferous. 
Vine  (|Q5,  Gephen,  a.f/,Tiko;)f  Gen.  9.  20,  etc.,  a  well-known  tree,  and 
highly  esteemed  throughout  the  East.     The  vines  of  Eshcol, 
and  of  Sorek,  were  especially  celebrated.    The  vine  was  grown 


EXTERNAL  HELPS  :  MINERALOGY.  233 

on  terraces  on  the  hills  of  Palestine,  Isa.  5.  i:  Micah  i.  6,  or 
elsewhere  on  the  gi'ound,  Eze.  1 7.  6,  7.  Sometimes  it  formed 
an  arbovir,  i  Kings  4.  25:  Hos.  2.  12,  propped  up  and  trained. 
A  noble  vine  =  men  of  generous  disposition,  Jer.  2.21:  Isa.  5.2. 
A  strange,  or  wild  vine  =  men  ignoble  and  degenerate,  Deut. 
32.  32:  Gen.  40.  9,  10,  etc. 

Willow,  Psa.  137:  Isa.  44.  4,  was  well  known  in  Judsea,  and  one 
species,  the  weeping  willow,  is  the  Salix  Bahylonica.  (nSVQV), 
Tsaphtsapha,  Ez.  1 7.  5,  is  probably  the  Egyptian  willow  {Salix 
^gypt.) 

Wormwood  {T^IVy,  Laana,  u-^lveiov),  "  root  of  bitterness,"  Deut.  29. 
17:  Rev.  8.  10,  II,  an  emblem  of  trouble.  There  are  various 
species  of  this  tribe  {Artemisia),  of  which  the  English  plant 
{A.  absinthium)  is  a  specimen.  There  are  several  kinds  found 
in  Judaea,  all  of  which  are  exceedingly  bitter.  The  wormwood 
of  commerce  consists  of  the  tops  of  the  plants,  flowers,  and 
yoimg  seeds  intermixed. 

361.  For  the  same  reason  (§  360,)  we  append  tables  of 
the  minerals  mentioned  in  Scripture.  They  will  be  found  to 
throw  light  on  several  passages. 

I.  JEarths  and  other  Mineral  Sulstances. 

Bitumen,  or  asphalt,  translated  slime,  is  an  earth-resin,  abounding 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  elsewhere.  It  was 
used  as  cement,  Gen.  11.  3,  as  it  still  is  in  Zante  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  East.  Pliny  states  that  the  Egyptians  used  it  for 
making  the  papyrus  boats  of  the  Nile  water-tight :  (see  Exod. 
2.  3).     Heb,  Chamar. 

Brimstone,  or  sulphur,  a  mineral  found  in  a  natural  state,  and  ob- 
tained by  art  from  pyrites  and  various  rock  formations.  It  is 
found  in  Palestine  in  both  states.  Gen.  19.  24,  25:  Psa.  11.  6: 
Ezek.  38.  22:  Isa.  30.  33:  34.  9:  Rev.  14.  10.  Heb.  Gophrith. 
Naphtha  is  also  found  in  Palestine,  and  is,  with  the  fore- 
going, highly  combustible.  The  word  occurs  only,  or  I'ather, 
this  earth-oil  is  mentioned  only  in  Theodotion's  version  of  part 
of  Daniel. 

Clay,  an  unctuous  eaiiih,  used  in  making  earthenware,  Isa.  29.  16: 
45.  9:  Jer.  18.  4,  6,  and,  when  mixed  with  sand — then  called 
mud — for  building.  Job  4.  19.  D''D,  Tit  (properly,  dirt),  has  also 
the  meaning  of  clay  in  Isa.  41.  25. 

Earth  has  thi-ee  representatives  in  Hebrew:  |'^X,  Eretz,  =  the 
earth,  habitable  and  uninhabited;    HDIK,  Adama,   properly. 


?34  MINERALOGY  :   STONES   AND   ROCKS. 

red  earth,  cultivable  land,  and  sometimes  tlie  whole  earth; 
"ISy,  aphar,  dry  earth,  or  dust.  There  are  also  words  for  very 
fine  dust  (Deut.  28.  24:  Nahum  i.  3),  and  a  dust-particle^  or 
atom  (Isa.  40.  15).  Clods  of  earth  have  three  names,  Job  7.  5  : 
31.33:  Joel  I.  17. 
Nitre  (soda),  natrum,  "iri3,  Nether,  a  mineral  alkali  (as  DHb,  Borith, 
translated  soap,  is  a  vegetable  alkali),  found  in  a  natural 
state  in  Egypt,  etc.     It  occurs  only,  Jer.  2.  22,  and  in  Prov. 

25.  22.    Vinegar  (any  acid)  makes  it  emit  a  disagreeable  odour, 
and  destroys  its  qualities;  hence  the  last  passage. 

Salt  abounds  in  Palestine.  The  Dead  Sea  is  strongly  impregnated 
with  it.  The  salt-valley  of  2  Sam.  8.  13 :  i  Chron.  18.  12: 
Psa.  60,  is  a  large  plain,  still  existing,  south-west  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  salt-pits  of  Zeph.  2.  9,  were  probably  such  as  are 
still  dug  in  the  borders  of  the  Dead  Sea,  into  which  the  water 
runs,  and  where  a  thick  crust  of  salt  is  soon  deposited.  Figu- 
ratively, salt  expresses  permanence,  friendship,  payment  or  sup- 
port, sterility;  pure,  salutary,  healthy  influence;  preserving 
from  decay.  Hence  a  covenant  of  salt,  2  Chron.  13.5:  Rosenm. 
on  Lev.  2.  13:  Ez.  4.  14,  marg. :  Psa.  107.  34  (because  nothing 
can  grow  in  a  soil  covered  with  salt,  Jer,  17.  6:  Judg.  19.  45): 
Col.  4.  6  (where  it  refers  to  apposite  pure  discourse):  Matt. 
5.  13:  Mark  9.  50.     Heb.  Melach. 

Sand  abounds  in  Palestine,  and  is  often  used  as  a  comparison,  to 
express  abundance,  extensiveness,  weight,  etc.     Heb.  Choi. 

2.  Stones  and  Bocks. 
Alabaster  (from  the  Coptic,  the  whitish  stone)  of  the  moderns,  is  a 
kind  of  gypsum :  among  the  ancients,  the  word  was  applied  to 
a  box,  made  of  a  kind  of  onyx  (Pliny,  lib.  36,  chap,  i).  Matt. 

26.  7:  Mark  14.  3 :  Luke  7.  37.     Pliny  states  that  it  was  much 
used  for  perfumery-boxes,  as  it  still  is  in  Egypt, 

Chalk-stones,  Isa.  27.  9,  lime-stone,  the  chief  material  of  the  hills  of 

Syria  and  Palestine.     It  is  hard  and  whitish;  sometimes  yellow 

or  grey.     Heb,  Gir. 
Crystal  (Ezek.  i.   22:  Job  28.   18)  means  literally  in  Hebrew  and 

Greek,  ice,  a  transparent,  glass-like  stone,  of  the  flint  family, 

Eev,  4,  6:  22.  i.     Heb.  Kerach,  Gabhish. 
Flint,  Deut.  8.  15:  32.  13:  Psa.  114.  8:   Isa.  50.   7:   Job  28.  9, 

translated  also  rock.     The  rocks  of  Sinai,  to  which  in  Deut.  8. 

the  word  is  applied,  are  granite,  pox-phyry,  and  green-stone, 

and  such  rocks  are  no  doubt  intended.     Heb.  Chalamish. 
Lime  (T'b^,  Seed,  Isa.  33.  12:  Amos  2.  i:  translated  plaster,  Deut. 

27  24),  is  more  properly  gypsum,  which  was  moi'e  suitable  for 


mdteralogy:  precious  stones.  235 

the  purpose  named  in  Deut.  27.     Lime,  or  gypsum,  was  early 

used  for  plastering,  Dan.  5.5. 
Marble  (tJ^^,  Shesh)  is  limestone  of  a  close  textm-e.     The  name  iu 

Hebrew  means  whiteness,  and  this  was  probably  the  common 

colour,  I  Chron.  29.  2:  Esther  i.  6:  Cant.  5.  15.     It  is  very 

common  in  Arabia  and  Persia.    Josej^hus  states  that  the  second 

temple  was  rebuilt  by  Herod  with  white  marble,  either  from 

Arabia,  or,  possibly,  from  the  hills  of  Syria. 
Eock  (")-1^*,  Tsur)  is  the  generic  name.     High  precipitous  rocks,  fit 

for  refuge,  are  called  VT'D,  Sela,  Judg.  15.  8,  11:  i  Sam.  14.  4: 

Psa.  18.  3. 
Stone  (|3X,  Even),  is  generic.     The  Hebrew  has  distinct  names  for 

pebbles  and  gravel,  )*i*n,  nij^D,  I'lV- 

3.  Precious  Stones. 

Agate,  a  common  compound  mineral,  of  flint  and  various  gems,  so 
called  from  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily  (Pliny),  Exod.  28.  19: 
39.  22.  The  word  in  Isa.  54.  12  :  Ez.  27,  16,  is  different 
(n*2"l5).  A  similar  Arabic  word  means  vivid  redness,  and  the 
stone  referred  to  is  probably  the  oriental  ruby. 

Amethyst,  a  kind  of  blue  transparent  quartz,  sometimes  pm-ple  or 
greyish ;  supposed  by  the  Greeks  to  have  the  power  of  driving 
away  drunkenness,  hence  its  Greek  name;  by  the  Hebrews,  of 
procuring  dreams  (Q^H,  Chelem,  a  dream).  Rev.  2r.  20. 

Beryl,  Tarshish  stone,  or  chrysolith,  properly,  a  gem  of  yellow  gold 
lustre,  sometimes  vei-ging  to  yellow  green,  Exod.  28.  20: 
39.  13:  Cant.  5.  14:  Ezek.  i.  16,  etc.:  Rev.  21.  20:  see  Onyx. 

Carbuncle  (flashing  as  lightning) ;  the  word  so  translated  is  rather 
the  oriental  emerald  (s-fji.d.ou.y^o;),  a  beautiful  green,  of  different 
shades,  Exod.  28.  17:  Ezek.  28.  13:  so  Lxx:  Jos. 

Other  words  are  used  in  Isa.  54.  12,  meaning  ''sparkling 
stones."  Carbuncle  is  derived,  etymologically,  from  carbo,  a 
glowing  coal.     See  Emerald. 

Diamond,  D?n^  Yahalom,  and  "l''?pLi',  Shemir.  1h.e  first  is  the  onyx, 
a  kind  of  chalcedony,  of  various  tints.  When  red,  called 
sardonyx  (see  Sardius');  reddish  grey,  chalcedonyx;  tawny, 
memphitonyx.  This  gem,  the  onyx,  was  semi-transparent  (like 
the  human  nail,  hence  its  name),  and  was  much  used  for  cameos 
and  seals,  Exod.  28,  18:  Ezek.  28.  13. 

The  second  is  fo\md  Jer.  17.  i  (also  Ezek.  3.  9:  Zee.  7.  12, 
translated  adamant),  and  probably  means  emery,  an  aluminous 
mineral,  very  hard,  used  for  polishing  glass. 

Enwrald,  rather,  carbuncle,  under  which  name  several  brilliant  red 


236  MINERALOGY:   METALS. 

stones  were  included,  especially  the  ruby,  garnet,  etc.  Exod. 
28.  18:  Ezek.  28.  13. 

Jasper,  an  opaque  gem,  of  various  tints,  green,  red,  and  yellow, 
Exod.  28.  20:  Ezek.  28.  13:  Kev.  4.  3:  21.  11,  18,  19. 

Ligure,  hyacinth,  or  jacinth,  a  transparent  gem,  orange-yellow-red, 
found  in  Ceylon  and  India,  Exod.  28.  19:  Eev.  21.  20:  9.  17. 

Onyx,  probably  the  heryl  or  chrysojorase,  Gen.  2.  12:  Rev.  21.  20 
(i.  e.,  a  leek-green  stone),  generally  transparent,  and  a  pale 
green  colour,  Exod.  25.  7:  Ezek.  28.  13. 

Sapphire,  a  transparent  gem,  generally  sky-blue,  and  very  hard; 
hence  the  floor  of  the  throne  of  God  in  heaven  is  compared  to 
it,  Exod.  24.  10:  Ezek.  i.  26:  Rev.  21.  19.  The  sapphire  of 
the  Greeks  was  our  lapis  lazuli ;  the  same  colour  as  the  Scrip- 
ture sapphire,  but  much  softer. 

Sardius  (DIX,  Odem,  r(?t?  stone),  properly  carnelian  (h,  carne),  a 
flesh-coloured  gem,  of  the  chalcedony  family.  It  abounds  in 
Arabia,  and  was  found  largely  at  Sardis,  in  Lydia,  Exod.  28. 
17:  Ezek.  28.  13:  Rev.  4.  3:  21.  28. 

Tcpaz,  a  yellow  gem,  with  red,  grey,  or  green  tinge,  found  in 
South  Arabia.  Hence  the  topaz  of  Gush ;  an  island  of  the  Arabic 
Giilf  being  called  Topaz  island  (Diod.  Sic.  Pliny),  Job.  28,  19: 
Exod.  28.  17:  Ezek.  28.  13:  Rev.  21.  29. 

The  descriptions  in  Eevelation,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  closely 
connected  with  those  in  Exodus,  and  in  Ezekiel. 

4.  Metals. 

Amber,  Ezek.  i.  4,  27:  8.  2,  pi^operly,  a  metal  composed  of  copper 
and  gold.  Electron,  which  is  used  by  the  Lxx  to  translate 
it,  meant  amber,  and  also  a  similar  composition  (Pliny). 
The  corresponding  Greek  word  is  found  in  Rev.  i.  15,  ''fine 
shining  brass." 

Antimony,  or  stibium,  occurs  in  the  Hebrew,  but  is  translated  paint 
(viz.,  the  eyes)  literally,  with  antimony,  2  Kings  9.  30:  Jer. 
4.  30:  Ezek.  23.  40.  The  verb  is  pVO,  Kachal,  tocolourvrith 
al-kohol,  a  fine  black  powder  made  from  the  metal.  The  name 
{i.  e.,  'H,  al-kohol),  was  ultimately  applied  (in  Europe)  to  the 
purely  spirituous  part  of  liquors.  The  stones  of  Jerusalem  are 
said  to  be  set  in  stibium  "fair  colours,"  Isa.  54.  11. 

Copper,  or  brass :  the  former  word  is  derived  from  Cyprus,  where  it 
was  largely  found.  Brass  is  copper  mixed  with  zinc  or  tin.  In 
early  times,  this  metal  was  generally  used  instead  of  iron. 
Wherever  the  word  steel  occurs  in  our  version,  the  original  is 


MINERALOGY  :   METALS.  237 

brass.  There  is  ample  evidence  from  classic  and  Egyptian 
authorities  that  brass  was  extensively  used,  and  it  is  said  that 
the  Egyptians  had  the  art  of  tempering  it.  It  was  employed  in 
making  bows,  and  arms  of  all  kinds.  The  columns  of  the 
temple,  i  Kings  7.  13-21,  the  bath,  or  sea,  in  the  priests'  vesti- 
bule, the  forks  used  in  sacrifice,  the  mirrors,  were  all  of  this 
material,  Exod.  38.  8:  2  Kings  25.  13.  The  ''copper  shining 
like  gold,"  Ezra  8.  27,  was  p'^nbably  a  mixture  of  the  two 
metals.     See  Amber. 

(?o/c?(")ijp,  Segor,  Dri3,  Kethem,  properly,  what  is  barely  concealed ; 
l^^in,  Charuts,  what  is  strongly  lustrous;  T S3,  Paz, ^wre  gold;  and 
iHT,  Zahab,  gold  itself,  its  mineral  name)  is  found  pure,  and  in 
combination  with  silver  or  iron.  The  Jews  obtained  their  gold 
chiefly  from  Sheba  and  Ophir,  both  in  Arabia,  i  Kings  9.  28: 
Psa.  45.  9.  At  present,  no  gold  is  found  there,  but  ancient 
writers  (Aftemid.  Diod.  Sic.)  affirm  that  it  was  formerly  found 
in  considerable  quantities.  The  places  named  in  Dan.  10.  5, 
and  2  Chron.  3.  6,  are  not  kno-mi.  Beaten,  or  perhaps  alloyed 
(Ges.)  gold  is  mentioned  in  i  Kings  10.  16,  17.  Gold  and  silver 
were  sometimes  purified  by  fire,  Prov.  1 7.  3 ;  lead,  antimony, 
salt,  tin,  and  bran,  being  used  for  this  pvirpose.  Gold  orna- 
ments were  early  used.  The  first  mention  of  gold  money  is 
in  David's  age,  i  Chron.  21.  25. 
■Iron  was  largely  foimd  in  Syria,  even  in  the  earliest  times,  Deut. 
8.  9.  Instruments  and  tools  were  made  of  it,  Niunb.  SS-  16: 
Deut.  27.  5.  Steel  is  called  in  Jer.  15.  12,  "northern  iron." 
The  tribe  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  making  it  were  called 
Chalybes,  and  resided  near  the  Black  Sea.  Hence  Jer.  descrip- 
•  tion:  and  its  Greek  name.  Another  name  for  steel  (H^ipS 
Pal  da,  from  the  Arabic)  is  translated  torches,  Kahum  2.  4: 
steel  scythes.     See  Copper. 

Lead  is  first  mentioned,  Exod.  15.  10.  Before  quicksilver  was 
known,  it  was  used  to  purify  silver.  Hence  several  expressions, 
Jer.  6.  29:  Ezek.  22.  18.  In  Amos  7.  7,  a  weight  of  lead,  or 
plummet,  is  mentioned.  The  word  is  the  Arabic  for  lead 
(!]^N,  Anak). 

Ore  of  gold  or  of  silver  has  in  Hebrew  a  separate  name.  It  means 
properly  (Arabic  similar),  something  broken  off.  It  is  variously 
translated  in  our  version.   Heb.  H^ll,  Betzar. 

Silver  (f|D3,  Keseph,  literally,  as  in  Greek,  white  metal)  is  found 
native,  and  combined  with  sulphur  and  acids.  It  often  lies  in 
veins.  Job  28.  i,  and  was  purified  by  lead  and  heat  (see  Lead). 
Lead  and  silver  combined  is  called  silver  dross;  the  separated 


238  EXTERNAL  HELPS:   MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS. 

silver,  purified  silver,  P.!:a.  12.  6.  It  was  brought  (among  other 
places)  from  Spain,  Ezek.  27.  12:  Jer.  10.  9.  In  veiy  early 
times  we  find  it  in  use,  Gen.  23.  15,  16.  Many  utensils  were 
made  of  it.  Gen,  44.  2:  Exod.  12.  35:  IsTumb.  7.  13:  10.  2. 
The  earliest  mention  of  it  as  money  is  in  Gen.  20.  16.  The 
shekels  were  not  coins,  however,  but  pieces  weighed  out;  see 
Gen.  23.  16:  so  even  in  the  days  of  Jeremiah,  Jer.  32.  9.  The 
first  coinage  in  Palestine  was  in  the  days  of  the  Maccabees :  see 
p.  248.  The  word  rendered  pieces  of  silver  in  Josh.  24.  32  is, 
properly,  a  kesitah,  i.  e.,  a  piece  equal  to  four  shekels,  as 
Gesenius  gathers  from  Gen.  33.  19,  and  23.  16. 
Tin  is  first  mentioned.  Numb.  31.  22.  Latei-,  the  Tyrians  imported 
it  from  Tarshish,  Ezek.  27.  12:  a  levelling  instrument  of  tin 
is  mentioned,  Zech.  4.  10.  This  word  is  also  used  for  a  refuse 
of  lead  and  silver  (see  Lead),  in  Isa.  i.  25. 

For  further  information  on  the  foregoing,  consult  Eosen- 
miiller  on  the  mineralogy  of  Scripture,  and  Gesenius's  Lex. 

362.  vi.  A  knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
Jews  Is  of  great  service  in  interpreting  Scripture. 

363.  Habitations,  (a.)  The  founders  of  the  Israelitish 
nation  were  a  tent-dwelling  people.  Tents  were  invented 
before  the  deluge,  and  seem  naturally  associated  with  pastoral 
life,  Gen.  4.  20.  The  first  tents  were  covered  with  skins, 
Ex.  26.  14,  but  the  coverings  of  most  of  those  mentioned  in 
Scripture  were  of  goat's  hair,  spun  and  woven  by  the  women 
(Ex.  35.  26) :  hence  their  black  colour  (Sol.  Song,  i.  5) :  tents 
of  linen  were  used  only  occasionally  for  hohday  or  travelling 
purposes.  The  early  tent  was  probably  such  as  is  still  seen-in 
Arabia,  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  eight  or  ten  feet  high  in  the 
middle.  Sometimes  a  person  of  consequence  had  three  or  four 
tents  •;  one  for  himself,  another  for  his  wives,  a  third  and 
fourth  for  his  servants  and  strangers.  Gen.  24.  67  ;  more  com- 
monly, however,  a  very  large  tent  was  divided  by  curtains 
into  two  or  three  compartments.  The  Holy  Tabernacle  was 
formed  on  this  model,  Ex.  26.  31-37- 

(&.)  Of  huts,  the  intermediate  erection  between  the  tent  and 
the  house,  we  read  but  little  in  Scripture.  Jacob  seems  to 
have  used  them  to  shelter  his  cattle  (Gen.  33.  17),  and  we 
find  them  in  later  times  erected  in  vineyards  to  protect  those 
who  watched  the  ripening  produce  (Job  27.  18  :  Isa.  i.  8), 

(c.)  The  Israelites  probably  saw  good  houses  in  Egypt ;  on 


MAXNEES:   HABITATIONS.  239 

entering  Palestine,  however,  they  occupied  the  houses  which 
their  predecessors  had  built,  and  afterwards  constructed  their 
own  on  the  same  model.  Domestic  architectm-e  must  have 
made  progress  during  the  monarchy.  Solomon's  palace, -built 
by  the  aid  of  Phoenicians,  no  doubt  suggested  improvements. 
Jeremiah  (22.  14)  indicates  some  grandeur  in  building,  and 
in  the  days  of  our  Lord,  the  upper  classes  at  all  events  had 
gathered  instruction  from  the  rules  even  of  Grecian  art. 

364.  (a.)  The  houses  of  the  poor  in  the  east,  were  generally 

built  of  mud,  and  thus  became  appropriate  images 

of  the  frailty  of  human  hfe.     The  walls  were  easily 

broken  through,  and  the  houses  as  easily  destroyed  (Job  24. 

16  :  Ezek,  12.  5  :  Matt.  6.  19. 

(h.)  The  houses  of  "the  rich  were  of  a  different  order.  They 
had  generally  four  sides,  of  which  one  fronted  the  street, 
having  only  a  door,  and  one  or  two  small  windows  above. 
The  door  opened  into  a  porch,  and  the  porch  led  by  a  side 
door  into  a  waiting-room,  and  the  waiting-room  into  a  four- 
sided  court,  open  at  the  top,  and  surrounded  by  the  inner 
walls  of  the  house.  Covered  walks  often  running  along  by  the 
walls  on  the  ground-floor,  while  above  them  was  a  gallery  of 
the  same  dimensions.  Opposite  the  passage  leading  from  the 
waiting-room  into  the  court,  was  the  guest-chamber  (Luke 
22.  11),  where  the  master  received  visitors,  and  occasionally 
transacted  business.  The  roof  was  flat,  surrounded  on  the 
outside  by  a  breast-work  or  battlement :  and  on  the  side  next 
the  court,  by  a  balustrade  of  lattice-work.  The  stairs  to  the 
roof,  and  to  each  storey  of  the  building,  were  generally  in  a 
corner  of  the  quadrangle  nearest  the  entrance,  so  that  each 
visitor  ascended  to  the  roof,  and  to  each  of  the  rooms,  without 
passing  through  the  rooms  below.  In  summer,  the  people 
slept  on  the  roof,  and  at  aU  times  it  was  used  as  a  place  of 
devotion,  of  mourning,  and  of  rest.  At  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles tents  were  erected  here,  and  during  festivals  or  public 
rejoicings,  the  guests  often  assembled  in  the  square  below, 
which  was  sometimes  covered. 

These  facts  explain  the  following  passages,  and  many  others : 
Deut.  22.  8  :  i  Sam.  9.  25  :  2  Sam,  11.  2  :  Isa.  22.  i  :  Acts 
10.  9  :  Mark  13.  15  :  Mark  2.  4, 

(c.)  The  doors  of  eastern  houses  were  double,  and  moved  on 
pivots  :  they  were  secured  by  bars  (Deut.  3.5:  Judges  16.  3), 


240  MANNERS  :   HABITATIONS. 

of  wood,  or  of  metal,  Isa.  45.  2.  Ancient  locks  were  merely 
wooden  slides,  secured  by  teeth  or  catches,  Sol.  Song  5.  4. 
The  street-doors,  as  well  as  the  gates  of  towns,  were  adorned 
with  inscriptions  taken  from  the  Law  (Deut.  6.  9).  The 
windows  had  no  glass,  but  were  latticed  :  in  winter  they  were 
covered  with  thin  veils,  or  with  shutters  having  holes  suffi- 
cient to  admit  light,  i  Kings  7.  17  :  Sol.  Song  2.  9. 

{d.)  No  ancient  houses  had  chimneys,  though  holes  were 
sometimes  made,  through  which  the  smoke  escaped,  Hos. 
13.  3.  In  the  better  class  of  houses,  the  rooms  were  warmed 
by  charcoal,  as  is  still  the  practice  in  the  East  (Jer.  36.  22)  : 
John  18.  18. 

(e.)  The  articles  of  household  furniture  in  use  in  the  East, 
have  always  been  few  and  small.  In  sitting  rooms,  little 
chairs  or  seats,  and  sometimes  tables  appear,  ]\Iark  14.  54. 
The  seat  was  either  a  rug  or  mat,  on  which  the  people  sat 
cross-legged,  or  with  their  knees  bent  under  them,  or  a  legged 
seat,  such  as  chairs  and  stools  (i  Kings  2,  19  :  i  Sam.  i.  9  : 
Prov.  9.  14:  Matt.  21.  12).  The  beds  consisted  generally  of 
mattresses  and  quilted  coverlets ;  sheets,  blankets,  and  bed- 
steads were  not  known,  though  on  the  house-tops  a  settee  of 
wood,  or  a  legged  frame  of  palm  branches  was  used,  on 
which  to  place  the  bed  (Psa.  132.  3  :  Amos  6.  4). 

(/.)  The  common  domestic  utensils  were  of  earthenware, 
or  of  copper,  and  a  few  were  of  leather  :  they  consisted  of  pots, 
kettles,  leather  bottles,  plates,  cups,  etc.  ;  lam^^s  fed  with  ohve 
oil  were  used  for  giving  light  at  night,  and  were  of  earth  or  of 
metal :  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  they  were  placed  upon 
stands,  called  candlesticks,  and  those  had  occasionally  branches 
for  several  lamps  (Gen.  15.  17  :  Ex.  25.  31-40).  A  lamp  was 
always  kept  burning  at  night  (Job  18.  6  :  Prov.  20.  20.) 

{(j)  The  towns  of  Palestine  were  small  in  size,  but  very 
numerous.  Jerusalem,  Samaria,  and  afterwards  Csesarea, 
seem  to  have  been  the  only  exceptions:  from  the  want  of 
temples  and  pubhc  buildings  (except  at  Jerusalem),  they  must 
have  had  but  a  mean  appearance,  the  streets  being  exceedingly 
narrow,  dull,  and  unpaved.  Even  in  the  time  of  Moses,  those 
towns  had  many  of  them  high  walls  (Numb.  13.  25-33,)  and 
gates  implying  walls  are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  19.  i.)  At  the  gates  most  of  the  public  bu- 
siness was  transacted  (Gen.  23.  10,  18 :  Deut.  21.  19 :  Kuth 


MANNERS  :   DRESS.  241 

4.  i)  :  there  also  the  markets  were  held  so  long  as  the  business 
of  the  Israelites  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  sale  of  their  pro- 
duce, or  flocks  (2  Chron.  i8.  9  :  Neh.  8.  i,  3)  ;  but  afterwards, 
they  had  in  the  large  towns,  bazaars,  or  covered  streets  of 
shops,  such  as  are  now  usual  in  the  East. 

365.  The  DRESS  of  the  Jews  consisted  commonly  of  two  gar« 
ments :  the  one  a  close-bodied  frock  or  shirt 
generally  with  long  sleeves,  and  reaching  to  a  httle 
below  the  knees,  though  later  to  the  ankle  :  and  the  other,  a 
loose  robe  of  some  yards  in  length,  fastened  over  the  shoulders, 
and  thrown  around  the  body.  Within  doors,  the  first  dress 
only  was  often  worn.  It  was  regarded,  hovrever,  as  a  kind  of 
undress,  in  which  it  was  not  usual  to  pay  visits,  or  to  walk 
out.  Hence  persons  clothed  in  it  alone,  are  said  in  Scripture 
to  be  naked  (Isa.  20.  2,  4  :  John  21.7:  John  13. 4,)  or  to  have 
laid  aside  their  garments. 

The  sleeves  were  generally  sufficiently  long  to  cover  the 
hands,  and  were  used  during  visits  of  ceremony  to  conceal 
them.  On  occasions  when  great  or  continued  efibrt  was 
required  or  implied,  the  arm  was  "  made  bare,''  and  the 
sleeve  tucked  up  or  removed,  Isa.  52.  10:  Eze.  4.  7. 

The  outer  garment  (a  kind  of  mantle  or  plaid),  sometimes 
served  as  a  covering  by  night,  or  as  a  bed  (Deut.  24.  13  : 
Exod.  22.  27).  The  Israehtes  on  leaving  Egypt,  folded  their 
kneading  troughs  in  it.  Prophets  and  others  wrapped  it 
round  their  heads  as  an  expression  of  reverence  or  of  grief 
(i  Kings  19.  13:  2  Sam.  15.  30:  Esth.  6.  12),  or  sometimes 
as  a  protection  from  the  rain  or  wind,  When  gathered 
round  the  middle  of  the  body,  the  garment  is  called  the 
lap  (2  Kings  4.  39),  when  gathered  round  the  shoulders, 
the  bosom  (Psa.  79.  12  :  Luke  6.  38).  A  considerable  part  of 
the  wealth  of  eastern  nations  consisted  in  these  garments, 
which  were  easily  exchanged,  and  were  often  given  and  worn 
as  expressions  of  affection  and  respect.  Gen.  45.  22  :  2  Kings 
5.  22. 

For  a  single  shirt,  the  wealthy  classes  sometimes  substituted 
a  shirt  of  fine  hnen,  and  an  outer  one  of  coarser  material,  the 
mantle  being  worn  as  an  additional  garment.  The  beauty  of 
these  garments  consisted  not  in  their  shape,  which  never 
varied,  but  in  their  whiteness,  Eccles.  9.  8,  and  they  were 


242  MANNERS:    DRESS. 

torn  or  rent  in  token  of  sorrow  or  repentance,  Gen.  37.  34  > 
Job  I.  20. 

The  inner  garment  was  made  of  either  linen  or  cotton,  the 
outer  garment  generally  of  wool,  or  of  wool  and  hair.  The  art 
of  embroidery  was  evidently  somewhat  known,  Exod.  35.  35  : 
Judges  5.  30  ;  and  one  family  seems  to  have  been  pecuharly 
famous  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  linen,  i  Chron.  4.  21. 
White,  blue,  and  various  shades  of  red  and  purple,  were  the 
favourite  colours  for  clothes,  and  no  others  indeed  are  men- 
tioned in  Scripture. 

Around  the  shirt,  or  inner  garment,  a  girdle  was  sometimes 
worn,  made  of  leather,  fastened  ^vdth  clasps,  2  Kings  i.  8, 
or  of  muslin,  wound  in  many  folds  around  the  waist,  Jer. 
13. 1  :  Matt.  3. 4  ;  and  still  more  commonly  around  the  mantle. 
To  have  the  loins  girt  in  this  way  was  especially  necessary 
in  travelling,  or  when  engaged  in  strenuous  effort  of  any 
kind.  In  the  girdle  a  knife  or  sword  was  sometimes  carried, 
or  in  the  case  of  literary  men,  an  inkhorn  and  pens,  2  Sam. 
20.  8  :  Ezek.  9.  2  :  other  valuables  were  often  i^ut  into  it  too, 
I  Sam.  25.  13 :  2  Sam.  18.  11  :  Matt.  10.  9  (Greek). 

Drawers  were  a  part  of  the  dress  of  the  High  Priest,  and 
were  perhaps  used  in  later  times  by  the  people  generally 
(Exod.  28.  42).     They  were  worn  next  the  person. 

The  feet  were  covered  with  sandals,  consisting  of  soles  of 
leather,  or  of  wood,  bound  to  the  foot  by  thongs  or  latchets 
(Matt.  3.  11).  In  transferring  property,  or  in  passing  to  the 
next  of  kin  any  personal  obligation,  it  was  customary  to  deliver 
a  sandal  (Euth  4.  7),  as  in  the  middle  ages,  a  glove.  To  throw 
a  shoe  or  a  sandal  over  a  country  was  a  symbol  of  possession 
(Psa,  60.  8).  To  remove  the  sandals  was  an  expression  of 
reverence  (Exod.  3.  5  :  Deut.  25.  9).  The  operation  being 
often  performed  by  servants,  to  loose  or  to  carry  them  was  a 
famihar  symbol  of  a  servile  or  degraded  condition,  Mark  1.7: 
Acts  13.  25:  Matt.  3.  II  :  Isa.  20.  4.  Stockings-were  never  in 
use,  and  the  mass  of  the  people  went  altogether  barefoot, 
except  in  winter,  or  during  a  journey. 

The  neck  was  generally  left  bare,  and  very  frequently  the 
head;  when  covered,  it  was  protected  among  the  higher 
classes  by  a  kind  of  turban,  and  among  the  common  people 
by  a  piece  of  cloth  confined  by  a  fillet  around  the  brows :  in 


CUSTOMS  :   FOOD   AND   MEALS.  243 

the  case  of  women,  this  turban  -was  connected  with  a  veil 
covering  the  upper  part  of  the  person. 

The  Israehtes  allowed  the  hair  of  the  head  and  beard  to 
grow  ;  the  foi-mer  was  occasionally  cut,  and  the  partial  use  of 
the  razor  in  trimmiag  the  beard  was  not  unlawful.  Baldness 
was  rare,  and  was  despised,  2  Kings  2.  23  :  Isa.  3.  24  :  Jer. 
47.  5.  The  beard  as  the  sign  of  manhood  was  much  respected  ; 
to  shave  it,  to  spit  upon  it,  to  puU  it,  even  to  touch  it,  except 
as  a  salutation,  was  a  gross  insult  (2  Sam.  10.  4-6  :  i  Chron. 
19.  3-6 :  Isa.  7.  20),  and  for  a  man  to  neglect  or  maltreat  his 
own  beard,  was  a  sign  of  madness  or  of  extreme  grief  (i  Sam. 
21.  13 :  2  Sam.  19.  24  :  Isa.  15.  2.) 

366.  All  the  Easterns  generally,  and  the  Israehtes,  were 
Food  and  simple  and  plain  in  their  food,  which  consisted 
Meals.  largely  of  bread,  fruits,  honey,  milk,  butter,  and 

cheese.  Meat  was  but  httle  used,  animal  food  being  in  some 
degree  restricted  by  the  law  which  aUowed  the  flesh  of  no 
beasts  to  be  eaten,  but  such  as  chewed  the  cud  and  parted 
the  hoof,  nor  any  fish  but  such  as  had  both  fins  and  scales 
(Lev.  II.  1-28).  It  was  in  this  general  way  that  the  hog  was 
forbidden,  but  as  it  was  commonly  eaten  in  the  East,  this 
application  of  the  prohibition  of  the  law  attracted  more  atten- 
tion than  the  rest.  Blood  and  fat,  the  large  lobe  of  the  hver 
and  the  kidneys,  were  also  forbidden.  Poultry  was  used  but 
sparingly,  pigeons  and  the  common  fowl  being  the  only  do- 
mestic birds  kept  in  Palestine,  except  "  the  fatted  fowl,"  pro- 
vided for  the  tables  of  Solomon  and  Nehemiah  (i  Kings 
4.  23:  Neh.  5.  18).  Eggs  are  only  twice  mentioned  as  articles 
of  food.  Though  fish  with  fins  and  scales  were  aUowed,  it 
does  not  seem  that  much  use  was  made  of  this  indulgence  : 
the  operations  of  fishing  were  clearly  weU  known  however, 
(Job  19.  6:  Isa.  51.  20:  Job  41.  i  :  Isa.  19.  8)  :  fish-ponds- 
are  mentioned  in  Sol.  Song,  (7.  4) :  fish  were  even  brought  by 
the  Phoenicians  across  the  country,  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  Jerusalem  (Neh.  13.  16),  and  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city 
called  the  Fish-gate,  seems  to  have  been  appropriated  as  the 
place  of  sale  (2  Chron.  33.  14  :  Neh.  3.  3). 

Among  insects,  it  may  be  noticed,  that  locusts  were  per- 
mitted to  be  eaten.  Lev.  11.  22,  and  were  a  common  article  of 
food  in  the  East,  Matt.  3.  4. 

Bread  was  not  baked  as  with  us,  in  loaves,  but  in  cakes, 

M  2 


244  CDSTOMS  :   FOOD   AND   MEALS. 

rolls,  and  large  thin  biscuits,  each  family  bakmg  its  own, 
and  that  daily.  The  modes  of  baking  were  various  ;  the 
thicker  roll  or  cake  was  baked  upon  the  heated  hearth  ;  the 
thin  bread  upon  metal  plates,  or  around  the  sides  of  earthen- 
ware vessels,  or  of  a  pit  in  the  floor.  Gen.  i8.  6 :  Lev.  2.  2, 
4,  5.  This  work,  like  that  of  grinding  corn,  was  at  first 
performed  by  the  wives  and  daughters  of  famihes.  Gen.  18.  6  : 
2  Sam.  13.  6,  8 :  Jer.  7.  18  ;  but  was  in  time  abandoned  in 
some  cases  to  servants,  i  Sam.  8,  13.  The  bread  in  common 
use  needed  not  to  be  cut,  but  was  broken,  Isa.  58.  7  :  Lam. 
4.  4  :  Matt.  14.  19. 

The  Jews  had  generally  two  meals  a  day  ;  one  in  the  morn- 
ing, between  the  third  and  sixth  hours,  and  the  other,  their 
principal  meal,  about  the  eleventh  hour,  or  five  o'clock,  in  the 
oool  of  the  day.  At  this  meal,  the  guests  aU  recHned  on  their 
left  sides  on  couches,  placed  around  a  circular  table.  In  this 
posture,  the  head  of  one  guest  approached  the  breast  of  his 
neighbour,  upon  whose  bosom,  therefore,  he  was  said  to  lean. 
Hence  Christ  told  John  who  was  to  betray  him,  without  the 
other  disciples  hearing  his  description,  John  13.  23 :  Prov. 
26.  15.  The  feet  were  stretched  out  from  the  table,  and  were 
of  course  first  reached  by  any  one  entering  the  room  (Luke 
7.  38).  Hence  it  is  said  that  the  woman  who  washed  our 
Lord's  feet  stood  hehind  him.  This  practice  was  borrowed 
from  the  Persians :  in  earlier  times,  the  Jews  probably  used 
seats,  or  sat,  as  is  the  present  custom  in  the  East,  round  a 
table  raised  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground. 

The  food  was  taken  by  the  hand,  without  aid  of  knife  or 
fork,  and  hAice  the  practice  of  washing  before  and  after 
meals,  Mark  7.  5.  In  very  early  times,  each  guest  had  his 
own  portion.  Gen.  43.  34  ;  see  i  Sam.  1.5:  but  later,  all  ate 
from  the  same  dish. 

The  ordinary  beverage  taken,  not  during  the  meal,  but 
afterwards,  was  water,  or  wine  diluted  with  water.  A  common 
acid  wine  diluted  in  this  way,  is  called  in  our  Enghsh  version, 
vinegar,  and  was  the  usual  drink  of  labourers  and  soldiers, 
Ruth  2.  14  :  Matt.  27.  48.  This  was  what  the  soldiers  gave 
our  Lord  Vv-hen  he  cried  "  I  thirst,"  The  beverage  previously 
ofiered  him,  vinegar  and  gall,  or  wine  and  myrrh.  Matt.  27.  34  : 
Mark  15.  23,  was  given  to  persons  about  to  be  executed,  in 
order  to  stupify  them.    Our  blessed  Lord  refused  to  drink  it. 


CUSTOMS  :   TAXATION,  245 

In  full  consciousness  he  endured  the  cross,  desiDising  the 
shame. 

The  beverage  with  which  each  guest  was  supplied,  was  in 
ancient  times  handed  to  him  in  a  separate  cup,  ready  mixed 
by  the  host :  and  hence  the  word  cup  is  frequently  used  to 
signify  a  man's  lot  or  portion,  Psa.  ii.  6:  Isa.  51.  22  :  Matt. 
26.  39.  "  Mixed  wine  "  in  the  Enghsh  version,  was  not  wine 
and  water,  but  wine  made  stronger  by  spices,  Prov.  23.  30. 
'•  Strong  drink  "  including  a  very  inebriating  liquor,  made  from 
dat.es  and  various  seeds,  Lev.  10.  9  :    i  Sam.  i.  15. 

Not  unfrequently,  precious  oils  were  used  at  banquets  for 
anointing  the  guests,  Psa.  23.  5  :  45.  7  :  Amos  6.  6.  Christ 
was  thus  honoured  by  the  woman.  Matt.  26.  7.  She  broke 
the  box  or  jar  in  proof  of  the  purity  of  the  oil ;  the  neck  being 
sealed,  to  show  that  it  was  an  imported  perfume,  Mark  14.  3. 

The  principal  meal  being  in  the  evening  of  the  day,  was 
generally  called  supper.  The  hght  and  joy  within  the  house 
on  such  occasions,  were  often  employed  to  represent  the  hap- 
piness of  heaven,  while  the  darkness  without,  the  "  outer 
darkness,"  was  employed  to  shadow  forth  the  misery  of  the 
lost,  Matt.  8.  12. 

367.  The  system  of  taxation  employed  in  Palestine  before 
the  davs  of  the  Romans  is  not  clearly  defined.     The 

Revenue  ''  •   .    j    •  .    • 

and  raxa-  royal  revenue,  however,  consisted  m  part  m  pre- 
^'"^^'  sents,  I  Sam.  10.  27  :  16.  20:  2  Chrou.  17.  5;  in 

the  produce  of  the  royal  flocks,  i  Sam.  21.  7  :  2  Chron.  26.  10: 
32.  28,  29  ;  in  lands  and  vineyards  either  confiscated  or  re- 
claimed from  a  state  of  nature  by  the  sovereign,  j  Kings  21. 
9-16  :  I  Chron.  27.  28  ;  in  tribute,  probably  a  tenth  of  the 
income  of  the  people,  i  Sam.  8.  15  :  17.  25  (see  Gesenius)  ;  in 
the  plunder  of  conquered  nations,  2  Chron.  27.  5  ;  and  in  pay- 
ments imposed  upon  merchants  passing  through  the  terri- 
tory, I  Kings  10.  15.  Later  still  we  find,  probably  in  the 
place  of  some  of  the  above,  a  toU  and  a  tax  on  articles  of  con- 
sumption, corresponding  to  our  excise,  Ezra  4.  14,  19,  20. 
Doth  these  were  of  Persian  or  Assyrian  origin.  Of  the  system 
of  taxation  prevalent  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  we  have  more 
accurate  information. 

Soon  after  Judcea  was  reduced  to  a  province  of  the  Eomau 
empire,  an  enrolment  was  made  of  the  names  and  fortunes  of 
the  citizens,  and  on  this  enrolment  was  founded  a  capitation 


2-16  CUSTOMS  :  modes  of  reckoning. 

^Hax  or  tribute."  This  tax  was  laid  by  the  magistrates  of 
each  city.  It  occasioned  much  division  of  opinion  in  Judsca, 
and  gave  rise  to  more  than  one  insurrection,  Acts  5.  37.  Our 
Lord  was  urged  to  identify  himself  with  its  advocates  or 
opponents,  Matt.  22.  17.  The  tax  was  paid  to  collectors, 
either  in  Roman  money  (the  denarius,  or  penny),  or  in  Grecian 
(the  drachma).  If  paid  in  the  latter,  however,  the  coin  had 
to  be  changed  by  the  traders,  or  "  money-changers,"  as  Roman 
money  only  was  received  at  the  Roman  treasury. 

Besides  this  census  or  head  tax,  there  were  custom  duties, 
or  taxes  on  exports  and  imports,  Matt.  9.  9.  These  were 
fixed  by  law,  and  were  levied  by  revenue  farmers  through 
their  servants.  These  servants  are  called  Publicans  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  the  farmers  of  the  revenue,  Chiefs  of  the 
Publicans.  This  system  of  farming  the  revenue,  proved  a 
strong  temptation  to  the  Publicans,  who  were  generally  un- 
popular. 

The  third  public  tax  in  Judoea  was  the  half  shekel  required 
by  the  law,  to  be  paid  by  every  Jew  into  the  temple  treasury. 
It  was  always  paid  in  Jewish  money,  and  by  all  Jews,  even 
by  those  who  lived  out  of  Palestine.  The  money-changers 
who  sat  in  the  temple,  procured  this  Jewish  money  in  ex- 
change for  Greek  and  Roman  coins,  Matt.  21.  12  :  John  2.  16. 
This  tax  was  regarded  as  paid  to  God  :  when  therefore  our 
Lord  intimates  to  Peter,  that  the  children  of  kings  are  exempt 
from  tribute,  he  imphed  that  He  himself  was  the  son  of  the 
Pather,  Matt.  17.  26. 

This  distinction  between  the  different  kinds  of  taxes  is 
always  preserved  in  the  original  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
generally  in  the  Enghsh  translation. 

368.  A  knowledge  of  the  modes  op  reckoning  employed  by 
Weights  and  the  Jews  wiU  often  aid  us  in  gathering  lessons 
Money.  fj.Qj^  Scripture,  and  is  sometimes  essential  to  an 

intelligent  interpretation  of  Scripture  language. 

The  following  are  tables  of  the  weights,  measures,  and 
money,  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  They  are  taken  from  Ar- 
buthnot's  work,  as  quoted  by  Home. 


CUSTOMS  :   WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES.  247 

369.  (i),  Jewish  weights,  reduced  to  English  troy  weight: — 


The  gerah,  one-twentieth  of  a  shekel 

Bekah,  half  a  shekel 

The  shekel 

The  maneh,  60  shekels    ----------- 

The  talent,  50  maneh,  3000  shekels  ------- 

370,    (2).    Scripture    measures    of    length,    reduced   to   English 

measure: — 

Eng.  ft.      in. 


lbs. 

oz. 

pen. 

gr- 

0 

0 

0 

12 

0 

0 

5 

0 

0 

0 

10 

0 

2 

6 

0 

0 

125 

0 

0 

0 

A  digit,  Jer.  52.  2i 

0 
0 
0 
I 

-  7 

-  10 

-  14 

-  145 

paces. 
0 
145 
729 
40J 
i5i 
172 

0-912 
3648 
10-944 

12  1      3  \    A  span,  Exod.  28.  16 

9-888 

96  1    24  1      6  1    2  1    A  fathom,  Acts  27.  28       

144  1    36  1    12  1    6  1   1-5  1    Ezekiel's  reed,  Ezek.  40.  3-5  -    -    - 

3-552 
11-328 

192  1    48  i    16  1    8  j      2  1    1-3  1    An  Arabian  pole 

7-104 

1920  1  480  1  160  1  80  1    20  1  13-3  1  10  1    Measm-iug  line,  Ezek.  40.  3 

11-04 

371.   (3).  The  long  Scripture  measiires : — 

Eng.  miles 

ft. 

40D  1    A  stadium,  or  fui'long,  Luke  24.  13 0 

4-6 

•2CXX5  1      5  1  aA  sabbath  day's  journey.  Acts  I.  12     -    -    -      0 

3-c 

4000  1    10  1    2  1    An  eastern  mile,  Matt.  5. 41     -    -    -    -      i 

i-o 

12000  1    30  1    6  1    3  1    A  parasang 4 

3-0 

96000  :  240  i  48  1  24  1  8  1    A  day's  journey 3  J 

4-0 

.1  So  called,  because  this  was  the  distance  between  the  tabernacle  and  the  extreme 
point  of  the  camp. 

372-  (4)-  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  liquids,  reduced  to 
English  wine  measure: — 

Gal.     pints. 
A.  caph ■....      o        0-625 


i'3   I    A  log,  Lev.  14.  10 o       0-833 


5-3   I      4  I    A  cab o        3*333 

;i6      I    12  I      3  I    Ahin,  Exod.  30.  24 i        2 


32      I    24  i      6  I    2  I    A  scab 2        4 


96      I    -72  I    18  I    6  I    3  I   A  bath,  or  ephah,  I  Kings  7. 26:  John  2. 6      7        4 
960     I  720  I  i8o  I  60  I  20  I  10  I  Akororhomer,Ezek.45.i4:Isa.5.io  75       5 


373.  (5).  Scripture  measures  of  capacity  for  things  dry,  reduced 

to  English  com  measure : — 

Peck.  gal.  pints. 

A  gachal  -----------    --------o  o  o'i4i6 

20  I    A  cab  or  choenix  2  Kings  6.  25 :  Eev.  6.  6     ----o  o  2-8333 


36  I      1-8  I    Anomer,  Exod.  16.  36:  29.40 o        o        5-1 


120  I      6     I      3-3  I    A  seah,  Matt.  13. 33 i        o        i 


360  I    18     I    10     I    3  I    An  ephah,  Ezek.  45.  11      -    -    -    -    3        o        } 


1800  I    90     I    50     I  15  I    5  I    A  letech,  Hos.  3.2 16 


I    „       I  I       1,1,1   C  A  homer  or  kor,  Numb.  ■)    ,, 

3600  I  180     I  100     I  30  I  10  I  2  I  I     II.  32:  Hos.  3.2-    -1^2 


248  CUSTOMS  :  weights  and  money. 

374.  (6),  Jewish  money,  and  its  value  in  English  coin 
A  gerah,  Exod.  ^o.  13-     ---- 


10  I    A  bekah,  Exod.  j3.  26 


20  I        2  I    "  A  shekel,  Exod.  30.  ij  :  Isa.  7.  23 :  Matt.  17.  27 
["200  I    120  I      50"!    A  maneh  or  minah  Hebraica,  Luke  19.  ij  - 


60000  I  6000  i  3000  I  60  I    A  talent 


Jf.  s. 

0    0 

d. 
I-26C 

0  I 

1-687 

0  2 

5  14 

i42  3 

r3:s 

0.75 

9 

0  12 

1  16 

0-5 
6 

5475  0 

A  sol.dus  aureus,  or  sexlula,  was  worth 

A  siculus  aureus,  or  gold  shekel,  was  worth 

A  talent  of  gold  was  worth 

"  First  coined  by  Simon  Maccabaeus,  i  Mac.  15.  6. 

In  the  preceding  table,  silver  is  valued  at  5s.  and  gold  at  4I.  per  oz.  In  ancient 
times,  gold  and  silver  were  much  scarcer  than  now,  and  therefore  of  higher  relati\  e 
value.  A  shekel  would  probably  purchase  nearly  ten  tunes  as  much  as  the  same 
nominal  amovmt  will  now  purchase. 

375.  (7).  Roman  money  mentioned  in  the  ISTew  Testament,  and 
its  value  in  English  money : — 

f .  s.  d.far. 
A  mite  (^Xeirrov  or  aa-crdpiov),  Mark  12.  42    ---------000    c  | 

A  farthing  (/coSpai/r»js)>  ^'I^^rk  12.  42 about    o    o    o    i.f 

A  penny,  or  denarius  (fiiji/dpiov),  Matt.  22.  19   --------007     2 

A  poimd,  or  miua i26o 

The  Grecian  drachma  in  common  use  was  of  about  the  same  value  as  the  denarius. 
The  Persian  daric  is  the  first  coin  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  is  the  most  ancient 
history  makes  known  to  us.  It  was  rather  heavier  than  a  guinea.  See  i  Chron. 
29.  7  :  Ezra  2.  69 :  8.  27:  Neb.  7.  70-72,  where  the  word  is  translated  dram. 

376.  Many  passages  may  be  explained  by  these  Tables. 
From  Table  3,  we  learn  that  the  sabbath  day's  journey  was 

less  than  a  mile.  How  suggestive  of  the  sacredness  of  the 
day,  when  everything  approaching  to  bodily  fatig-ue  was  for- 
bidden ! 

From  Table  6,  we  learn  to  admire  the  noble  disinterestedness 
of  Elisha.  Naaman  offered  him  6,000  pieces  or  shekels  of 
gold,  or  more  than  ten  thousand  pounds.  This  was  the 
temptation  under  which  Gehazi  fell,  and  yet  it  did  not  excuse 
his  guilt. 

The  same  Table  illustrates  strikingly  the  unreasonableness 
of  an  unforgiving  spirit  and  the  aggravations  of  our  ovra 
guilt.  The  debtor,  who  threw  his  fellow-servant  into  prison 
because  he  owed  him  a  hundred  pence,  about  3Z.,  had  himself 
been  forgiven  10,000  talents,  or,  if  these  were  silver,  upwards 
of  three  millions  sterling,  Matt.  18.  24. 

How  clearly  does  it  illustrate  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  "He 
was  despised  and  rejected  of  men,"  to  find  that  Judas  be- 


CCSTOiK  :    ilODES   OF   RECKONING.  249 

trayed  our  Lord  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  or  3/.  los.  8d.,  the 
price  paid  for  a  slave  when  killed  by  a  beast. 

From.  Tables  4  and  5,  we  learn  the  displeasure  of  God 
against  covetousness. 

"  Ten  acres  of  vineyax-d  (says  the  prophet)  shall  yield  one  bath, 
and  the  seed  of  an  homer  shall  yield  an  ephah,"  Isa.  5.  10. 

That  is,  one  acre  of  land  shall  yield  less  than  a  gallon  of  wine, 
end  nine-tenths  of  the  seed  shall  perish.  Unfaithfulness  and 
irrehgion  are  real  foUy.  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is,  in  all 
senses,  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 

377.  The  Jewish  mode  of  reckoning  time  was  pecuhar. 
Time  and  They  had  two  years ;  the  sacred  and  the  civil, 
modes  of  The  sacred  began  in  March  or  April  (according  to 
reckoning.  ^^^  moon),  the  month  of  deliverance  of  the 
children  of  Israel  from  Eg}-23t ;  and  the  civil  in  September  or 
October,  the  commencement  of  seed-time.''  The  prophets  use 
the  former  ;  those  engaged  in  civil  and  agricultural  concerns,, 
the  latter.  The  year  was  divided  into  twelve  lunar  months,, 
with  every  third  year,  a  thirteenth.  Till  the  return  from 
captivity,  these  months  had  no  separate  name,  except  the  first, 
which  was  called  Abib  (the  month  of  "the  green  ears  of 
corn  "),  or  Nisan,  the  month  of  "  the  flight,"  Esth,  3.  7.  (See 
Exod.  12.  33  :  Heb.)  After  the  captivity,  Babylonish  names, 
were  employed. 

The  natural  day  was  from  sun-rise  to  sun-set  (as  with  the 
Romans),  and  was  divided  (after  the  captivity)  into  twelve 
hours  of  unequal  length.  The  civil  day  (the  day  used  in 
common  reckoning)  was  from  six  in  the  evening  to  six  in  the 
next  evening ;  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  Roman  civil 
day,  which,  hke  ours,  was  from  midnight  to  midnight. 
This  was  divided  agam  into  night  and  day  of  equal  length. 

The  night  was  divided,  in  very  early  times,  into  three 
watches.  The  first  (Lam.  2.  19)  till  twelve  o'clock ;  the 
middle  till  three  in  the  morning  (Judg.  7.  19)  ;  and  the 
morning  watch  till  six  (Exod.  14.  24).  In  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  however,  the  night  was  divided,  as  among  the  Romans, 

*  The  Rabbins  say  that  the  year  began  in  March,  as  did  the 
Roman  year,  and  in  September;  but  the  probability  is,  that  in 
earlier  times  it  began  with  the  new  moon  of  April  and  October  res- 
pectively.    See  Jahn  Archie ologia  Bib.,  §  103. 


250  cusTOiis:  modes  of  reckoning. 

into  four  watches,  of  three  hours  each  (Mark  13.  35) ;  the 
third  of  which  was  called  cock-crowing  (Matt.  26.  34).  The 
day,  iDroperly  so  called  (from  six  in  the  morning  till  six  at 
night),  was  divided  into  twelve  hours,  of  which  the  third,  the 
sixth,  and  the  ninth,  were  devoted  to  the  public  services  of 
worship.  This  division  is  still  retained  among  the  Jews.  In 
very  early  times,  and  till  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  day 
was  divided  into  the  following  parts  : — 

The  break  of  day.  Mid-day  at  12  o'clock. 

The  morning.  The  cool  of  the  day,  from  3 

The  heat  of  the  day,  from  9  o'clock  till  6. 

o'clock  till  12.  And  the  evening. 

From  the  sixth  hour  (or  twelve  o'clock),  tiU  the  close  of  the 
day,  was  called  evening.  This  part  of  the  day  was  divided 
into  two  portions,  called  evenings,  Exod.  12.  6  :  Levit.  23.  5 
(original). 

378.  These  distinctions  explain  several  passages. 

About  the  eleventh  hour,  the  husbandman  said  to  the  labourers, 
"why  stand  ye  here  all  the  day  idle?"  (Matt.  20.  6).  With  us,  the 
eleventh  hour  is  not  yet  noon :  with  the  Jews,  it  was  about  an  hour 
from  sunset.  .  ,  .  Peter's  reasoning  is  rendered  forcible  by  these  facts. 
It  is  (said  he)  but  the  third  hour  of  the  day  (nine  o'clock),  Acts  2. 
15,  the  time  of  the  morning  sacrifice,  before  which  time  the  Jews 
did  not  eat  or  drink. 

On  the  day  of  the  crucifixion  there  was  darkness  over  all  the  land 
from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  hour,  i.  e.,  from  twelve  o'clock  to  three. 
The  passover  was  always  kept  at  the  full  moon  ;  this  darkness, 
therefore,  could  not  have  taken  place  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
nature  from  an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  ...  It  was  at  the  ninth  horn',  Jesus 
cried  with  a  loud  voice,  and  shortly  afterwards  (or  ''between  the 
evening,"  the  time  of  offering  the  customary  sacrifice)  he  expired. 
....  John  says  that  Pilate  brought  Jesus  forth  to  the  people  at  the 
sixth  hour  (John  19.  14),  pi-obably  reckoning  from  midnight,  the 
commencement  of  the  Roman  civil  day.  After  the  overthrow  of 
the  Jewish  state,  the  adoption  of  the  civil  day  of  Europe  and  Egypt 
for  reckoning  was  the  more  natural. 

It  was  at  the  fourth  watch  of  the  night,  or  about  dawn,  that 
Jesus  went  to  the  disciples  on  the  sea.  He  had  spent  the  whole 
night,  therefore,  in  prayer,  Mark  6.  48. 

The  highest  praise  was  bestowed  upon  the  servant  whom  his 
Lord  found  watching  in  the  second  or  third  watch,  i.  c,  from  nine 
till  three,  Luke  12.  38. 


CUSTOMS:   MISCELLANEOUS.  251 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  Jews  and  other  Orientals 
generally  speak  of  any  part  of  a  day,  or  of  a  period  of  time,  as 
if  it  were  the  whole. 

Thus  Jesus  said,  "After  three  days  I  will  rise  again,"  Matt.  27 
63 ;  though  he  was  in  the  gi-ave  only  a  day  and  a  half,  from  sunset 
on  Friday  to  the  earhest  morning  on  Sunday.  He  intimated,  also, 
quoting  from  Jonah,  that  he  would  be  in  the  grave  three  days  and 
three  nights,  i.  e.,  part  of  three  separate  civil  days ;  day  and  night 
meaning  a  day  of  twenty-four  hours.  Matt.  12.  40;  i  Sam.  30. 
12,  13.  In  the  same  way,  a- week  is  called  eight  days  in  John  20. 
26,  as  it  often  is  in  German. 

379.  There  are  many  other  customs  referred  to  in  Scripture 
Miscei-  *^^-^  which  it  is  impossible  to  enlarge, 

ton^."''^"^"         Opulent    Jews,  for   example,   in  ancient  times,  had 
their  childi'en  taught  some  medianical  art,  to  prepare 
them  for  any  reverse  of  fortune;  and  so  St.  Paul  received  a  liberal 
education,  and  learned  tent  making.  Acts  18.  3. 

At  the  time  of  the  passover  the  people  of  Jerusalem  prepared 
2jrivate  rooms,  in  which  any  stranger  might  celebrate  the  feast;  and 
hence  Christ  sent  Peter  and  John,  without  any  scruple,  to  seek  an 
upper  room  for  this  pui^ose,  Mark  14.  15. 

In  ancient  Rome,  children  were  adopted  at  first  privately;  then 
the  adoption  was  ratified  by  a  pubhc  act;  and  the  children  so 
adopted  became  the  heirs  of  their  foster  parents.  Btnce,  in 
Rom.  8,  Christians  are  said  to  be  adopted,  and  yet  to  wait  for  their 
adoption,  even  the  redemption  of  their  bodies;  i.  e.,  for  their  pubUc 
recognition  at  the  coming  of  the  Lord,  ver.  23. 

The  common  salutation  in  the  East  was  a  kiss  ;  sometimes  upon 
the  beard  (2  Sam.  20.  9),  sometimes  upon  the  cheek:  the  kiss  of 
respect  and  homage  was  upon  the  brow  (Gen.  27.  26:  Exod.  4.  27: 
I  Sam.  10.  i:  Psa,  2.  12:  Acts  20.  37).  ...  In  meeting,  the  Jews 
used  many  ceremonies,  and  persons  charged  with  urgent  business, 
therefore,  were  forbidden  to  salute  by  the  way  (2  Kings  4.  29^ 
Luke  10.  4).  .  .  .  The  usual  greeting  was,  "Peace  be  with  thee" 
(Judges  19.  20:  I  Sam.  25,  6):  other  forms  may  be  seen  in  Ruth  3. 
10:  2.  4:  Psa.  129.  8. 

Persons  paying  visits  to  a  superior  generally  brought  presents 
(Prov.  18.  16 :  Job  42. 11).  Kings  and  princes  also  made  presents  as 
marks  of  distinction  (Gen.  45.  22,  23:  Esther  8.  15:  i  Sam.  18.  4). 
J^ot  to  wear  garments  thus  given  was  a  great  afiront  (Matt.  22. 
II,  12). 

An  insult  was  shown  by  maltreating  the  beard,  by  spitting  in  the 
faco,  by  putting  men  to  degrading  employments  (Judges  16.  21; 


252  cusTOJis:  miscellaneous. 

Lam.  5.  13),  by  clapping  the  hands  (Job  27.  23),  by  casting  contempt 
upon  a  man's  mother  (i  Sam.  20.  30:  2  Sam.  3.  39:  16.  10:  19.  22;^ 
by  dishonouring  the  dead  (Jer.  26.  23:  8.  i:  16.  5,  "). 

In  the  earliest  times  there  were  no  inns  like  ours,  and  travellers 
generally  waited  in  the  street,  or  at  the  gate,  till  invited  to  some 
house  (Gen.  19.  2:  Judges  19.  15-21).  In  the  time  of  our  Lord 
there  were  places  of  accommodation  where  lodging  v/as  provided, 
but  where  each  guest  brought  his  own  provisions,  fuel  and  bed.  In 
the  stable  of  such  an  inn,  there  being  no  room  in  the  lodging  apart- 
ment, the  Saviour  of  the  world  was  born.  Places  of  a  similar  kind, 
probably  without  x-esident  occupants,  were  found  upon  the  main 
roads  even  in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs  (Gen.  42.  27 :  43.  21 :  Exod. 
4.  24).  Both  are  still  fo\md  in  the  East;  the  former  called  khans, 
and  the  latter,  caravanserais. 

When  a  person  died,  his  relations  rent  their  garments  from 
head  to  foot ;  a  smaller  rent  being  made  by  spectators  :  hired 
mourners  often  added  to  the  expressions  of  grief  by  their  lamenta- 
tions and  music  (Jer.  9.  17,  18:  Matt.  9.  23:  Acts  9.  39).  Em- 
balming was  common,  though,  except  in  Egypt,  the  i)rocess  seems 
to  have  consisted  of  little  else  than  anointing  the  body  with 
odoriferous  drugs,  and  wrapping  it  in  linen.  The  funeral  followed 
death  within  twenty-four  hours ;  the  body  not  being  placed  in  a 
coffin,  but  closely  Avrapped  from  head  to  foot  on  an  open  bier,  and 
so  borne  to  the  place  of  burial,  which  was  always,  except  in  the 
oase  ofiikings  and  distinguished  men,  at  some  distance  from  the 
city.  For  the  poor,  there  was  a  common  burial  ground  ;  but 
families  had  often  their  sepulchres  in  their  own  fields  or  gardens. 
There  was  no  particular  ceremonial  at  the  gi-ave,  but  the  day  wa.s 
concluded  by  a  funeral  feast  (2  Sam.  3.  35  :  Eos.  9.  4).  Mourning 
was  expressed  afterwards  by  rent  clothes  and  sackcloth ;  sometimes 
by  a  shrouded  face,  and  sometimes  by  dust  sprinkled  upon  the 
head  (2  Sam.  3.  31:  19.  4:  Job  2.  12).  The  gi-aves  v.ere  generally 
dug  in  the  rocks,  with  niches  all  round,  each  holding  a  corpse 
(Job  ic.  21,  22:  33.  18:  Psa.  88.  6:  Isa.  14.  9-19:  38.  10: 
Eaek.  32.  18.) 

Crucifixion  was  the  punishment  of  slaves  only,  or  of  those  upon 
whom  it  was  intended  to  fix  the  deepest  ignominy.  It  was  not  a 
Jewish  punishment,  nor  was  it  inflicted  upon  a  Roman  citizen. 
Thus  Christ  was  delivered  to  the  Gentiles,  and  numbered  with  the 
wicked  in  his  death,  Matt.  20.  19. 

At  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  the  people  (''on  the  last  day  of  tho 
feast")  drew  water  from  the  spring  of  Siloam,  which  issued  from 
a  rock  near  the  temple.  Part  of  this  water  they  drank  amidst 
joyful  acclamations;  the  people  singing  the  words  of  Isaiah,  "With 


EXTERNAL  KELTS  :   GEOGRAPHT.  253 

joy  shall  they  draw  -water  from  the  -wells  of  salyation,-*'  and  the  rest 
they  poured  on  the  evening  sacrifice:  see  John  7.37. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  it  -was  a  common  practice  for  the  hings 
of  Syria  to  -^dsit  Borne,  to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  their  title 
frora  the  emperor  and  senate,  or  to  court  their  favour.  Herod  the 
Great  went  to  Augustus  for  this  purpose,  and  his  sons  -visited  Rome. 
They  -went,  as  our  Lord  expresses  it,  ''to  receive  a  kingdom  and  to 
return,"  Luke  19.  12.  This  practice  explains  the  incidental  allu- 
sions to  the  custom  in  many  of  the  parables;  and  it  gives  an  indii-ect 
proof  of  the  truth  of  the  gospel. 

The  bottles  of  the  ancients  were  not  of  glass,  but  of  skins,  and 
hence  they  shrank  in  the  smoke  (Psa.  119.  83)  and  burst,  if  new 
or  fermenting  T,-ine  were  placed  in  them,  IMatt.  9.  17. 

When  a  person  charged  with  crimes  against  the  state  was  tried  in 
ancient  times,  the  citizens  who  tried  him  voted  for  his  acquittal  by 
dropping  a  v:hite  stone  into  the  box,  and  for  his  condemnation,  by 
di'Opping  a  black  one.  Our  Lord,  therefore,  is  said  to  give  unto 
him  that  overcometh  a  white  stone  (Eev.  2.  17). 

Many  customs  were  connected  in  ancient  times  -with  sealing; 
the  seal,  generally  a  signet-ring  bearing  the  name  of  the  o-wner, 
preserved  the  object.  Job  14.  17,  and  secured  privacy,  Isa.  29.  11. 
It  gave  authority  and  completeness  to  documents,  oSTeh.  9.38:  Esther 
8.  8:  Dan.  6.  9,  13,  17;  or  it  marked  the  object  as  the  peculiar 
property  of  him  whose  seal  was  placed  upon  it,  2  Tim.  2.  19:  Rom. 
4.  It  :  Rev.  7.  2,  3. 

380.  vii.  A  knowledge  of  geography,  under  its  twofold  di- 
vision of  historical  and  physical,  is  of  great  use  in  the  study 
of  Scripture. 

381.  The  rible  directs  us  to  the  high  parts  of  Armenia 
Tiie  lands  of  and  the  fertile  plains  between  the  Tigris  and  the 
the  Bible.  Euphrates  as  the  first  settlement  of  mankind  after 
the  flood.  The  i3ride  and  idolatry  of  Shinaar  dispersed  them  ; 
Shem  and  his  descendants  occupying  the  peninsula  bet-ween 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  Ham,  Africa  ;  and,  after 
some  time,  Japhet,  Europe,  and  part  of  Asia. 

Going  south-westward  from  Ararat,  we  come  to  Mount 
Lebanon  in  Palestine,  and  have  round  us  "the  lands  of  the 
Bible."  Looking  southward  from  this  position,  we  have  on 
our  left,  far  over  the  Syrian  desert,  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris,  which,  taking  their  rise  in  Armenia,  run  into  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and,  as  they  flow,  inclose  the  country  called 


254  GEOGRAPHY   OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Mesopotamia  ("  between  the  rivers  ").  On  the  banks  of  these 
rivers,  men  first  formed  societies  ;  on  the  Euphrates  rose  the 
city  of  Babylon,  and  on  the  Tigris,  the  city  of  Nineveh.. 

Between  the  Euphrates  and  the  table-land,  east  of  Jordan, 
is  Arabia  Deserta ;  southward,  Arabia  Petrea  (the  rocky), 
with  Petra  as  its  capital ;  southward  still,  and  reaching  to  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  is  Arabia  the  fruitful, 
whence  (or  through  which)  came  the  gold  and  spice  of 
eastern  story. 

382.  Eeturning  to  Lebanon,  and  looking  (still  to  the  south) 
on  the  region  below  us,  we  find  Palestine,  having  on  its 
northern  seaboard  Phoenicia  (the  coast  of  Tyre  and  Sidon), 
and,  on  its  southern,  Philistia.  Looking  northward  for  a 
moment  (supposing  that  we  stand  on  Hermon,  where  Libanus 
and  Antilibanus  seem  to  join),  we  find  two  ridges  of  hills 
running  through  the  whole  of  Syria,  Libanus  and  Antilibanus, 
till  they  are  lost  in  Asia  Minor  ;  the  district  they  inclose  is 
Coele-Syria  (or  the  Hollow  Syria),  called  also  the  Plain  of 
Lebanon  ;  its  capital,  Baalbec,  the  city  of  the  sun.  Looking 
southward,  again,  we  find  these  ridges  running  through  the 
whole  of  Palestine,  till  the  left-hand  ridge  is  lost  in  the  Eed 
Sea,  and  the  right-hand  ridge  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  the 
scene  of  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  during  forty  years. 

To  the  west  of  this  latter  region  we  find  Egypt. 

383.  Immediately  beneath  us,  on  the  left,  we  have  the  city 
of  Damascus,  ever  famous  for  bigotry  and  fruitfulness  ;  on 
the  right,  we  have  the  blue  tideless  waters  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, connecting  the  traffic  of  Europe  with  the  marts  of  the 
East ;  and  in  succession,  Cyprus,  Crete,  Malta,  and  Sicily — 
"  the  isles  of  the  sea."  If  now  we  carry  our  eye  in  a  line 
with  our  right  hand,  we  enter  Asia  Minor,  whose  various 
provinces  are  mentioned  in  the  Acts.  Running  westward, 
and  crossing  the  yEgean  Sea,  we  come  to  HeUas,  or  Greece 
("  Achaia  "),  having  Macedonia  on  the  north,  and  Thrace  on 
the  north-east.  From  Macedonia,  Illyricum  stretches  away 
in  a  north-west  line.  Crossing  the  Adriatic,  we  land  at 
Brundisium,  in  Italy,  whence  we  proceed  over  the  Appenine 
Hills  to  Rome,  on  their  western  side.  Thence  we  may  travel 
by  land  over  the  Alps,  or,  by  sea,  through  the  Gulf  of  Genoa, 
to  France  (Gaul) ;  and  from  France,  over  the  Pyrenees,  to 


GEOGRAPHY   OF  SCRIPTURE.  255 

Spain,  and  proceeding  southward,  come  to  "  Tarsliish."  We 
thence  sail  along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  till  we  reach 
Carmel  and  Lebanon  again. 

Still  occup^dng  our  position  on  Mount  Hermon,  and  looking 
southward,  we  find  on  our  left,  beyond  Jordan,  the  high  lands 
of  Gilead  and  the  pasture-grounds  of  Bashan.  The  whole 
country  is  beautiful  and  verdant.  The  valleys,  says  Bucking- 
ham, are  filled  with  corn  and  olives,  and  the  hills  are  covered 
with  vines.  See  i^Tumb.  32.  1-4.  Here,  to  the  south,  were 
the  territories  of  Ammon,  Moab,  and  Edom. 

384.  Between  the  ridge  of  hills  which  runs  through  this 
Valley  of  the  district,  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  and  the  ridge 
Jordan.  of  Lebanon,  which  also  runs  southward  on  the 
west  side  (under  the  names  of  the  mountains  of  Xaphtah,  of 
Ephraim,  or  Israel,  and  the  mountains  of  Judah),  lies  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  ;  containing  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth  (or 
sea  of  Galilee),  the  Jordan  itself,  and  the  Dead  Sea.  The 
■whole  length  of  the  Jordan  with  windings,  is  about  20c 
miles  ;  the  width  of  the  Sea  of  Gennesareth  is  from  eight  to 
ten.  Compare  Matt,  14.  23,  with  John  6.  19.  Westward  of 
this  range  of  hiUs,  and  between  it  and  the  sea,  is  the  district 
of  Tyre,  the  plain  or  valley  of  Sharon,  and  the  country  of  the 
Philistines.  Southward,  "  as  thou  comest  to  Gaza,"  it  is  de- 
sert ;  so  that  the  sea-board  plain  ends  in  the  desert  of  Gaza  ; 
the  centre,  or  plain  of  the  Jordan,  in  the  desert  of  Sinai  ; 
and  the  district  beyond  Jordan  in  the  deserts  of  Edom. 

Isa.  Si-  -'■  Cant,  2.  i. 

385.  Looking,  again,  to  the  district  nearer  to  us,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  mark  a  triangular  valley  opening  to  the  sea  at 
Mount  Carmel,  one  of  the  terminations  of  the  mountains  of 
Israel, — the  mountains  of  JSTaphtah,  or  of  Galilee,  and  another 
part  of  the  same  range,  the  mountains  of  Gilboa,  forming 
Valley  of  the  other  sides.  This  valley  has  been  called  suc- 
Esdraeion,  cessively  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  of  Jezreel,  and  of 
Megiddo.  The  river  Kishon,  that  "ancient  river,"  flows 
through  it  into  the  "Great  Sea,"  not  far  from  Acre,  Judg. 
4,  13  :  5.  21.  The  little  town  of  Nazareth  lies  among  the 
hills  to  the  north.  This  valley  was  the  scene  of  the  victory 
of  Deborah  and  Barak,  of  Gideon,  of  the  PhiHstines  in  their 
last  battle  v.'ith  Saul,  of  Ahab  over  Benhadad,  and  of  the 


256  GEOGRAPHY   OF  SCRIPTURE. 

Egyptians  over  Josiah.  Here  the  Assyrians  and  Persians, 
the  Crusaders  and  Saracens,  the  Egyptians  and  Turks,  the 
Arabs  and  Franks,  have  fought ;  and  it  was  on  this  battle- 
field of  nations  that  Bonaparte  gained  one  of  his  victories 
just  before  he  was  compelled  to  relinquish  Syria.  Mount 
Tabor  rises  on  the  north  side  of  the  plain. 

Judges  4.  12-24:  X  Sam.  31:1  Kings  20:  2  Kings  23.  29. 

386.  If  we  trace  in  this  way  the  history  of  particular  places 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  we  shall  find  the  exercise  highly 
interesting  and  instructive. 

Between  Jerusalem  and  Beersheba,  and  about  twenty  miles 
from  each  place,  lies  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the 
world,  now  occupied  by  some  6,000  Arabs — the 
city  of  Hebron.  Here  lived  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  ;  here 
they  received  the  promise  and  the  seal  of  the  covenant,  and 
here,  they  and  their  wives  were  buried.  In  the  days  of  the 
spies  it  was  inhabited  by  the  sons  of  Anak.  Joshua  des- 
troyed it,  and  the  place  was  given  to  Caleb.  When  rebuilt, 
it  became  one  of  the  Levitical  cities.  Here  David  was 
anointed  king  over  Israel ;  here  Abner  was  assassinated  ;  here 
Absalom  established  his  head-quarters  during  his  rebeUion ; 
and  over  one  of  the  pools  of  Hebron  (several  of  which  still 
remain),  David  hung  up  the  assassins  of  Ishbosheth. 

Numb.  13:  Josh.  10.  37:  14.  13:  2  Sam.  2.  11:  3.  27:  15.  7,  12. 

About  twenty  miles  eastward  of  Jerusalem,  and  accessible 
only  by  a  lonely  and  dangerous  road  (the  Bloody 
way  as  it  was  called  in  Jerome's  days),  lies  the  city 
of  Jericho,  Within  sight  of  its  walls  the  manna  ceased.  In 
the  days  of  Joshua  it  was  overthrown,  and  a  curse  was  pro- 
nounced upon  who  should  rebuild  it,  a  curse  fulfilled  520  years 
afterv/ards  upon  Hiel.  In  the  time  of  EHsha,  it  was  a  school 
of  the  prophets.  Here  Herod  the  Great  died.  Once  the  city 
was  visited  by  our  Lord,  when  he  lodged  with  Zaccheus. 

I  Kings  16.  34:  2  Kings  2.  4,  5  :  Matt.  20.  29,  30. 

Between  Jericho  and  the  Jordan  lay  the  town  of  Gilgal, 
where  were  erected  the  twelve  stones  taken  from 

Giljral. 

the  river  when  the  Israelites  passed  over.     Here 
Samuel  offered  sacrifice,  held  his  yearly  courts,  and  recognised 


GEOGRAPHY   OF  SCRIPTURE.  257 

Saul  as  king.  And  here  was  one  of  the  schools  of  the  pro- 
phets. In  the  days  of  Ahaz,  however,  it  was  the  seat  of 
idolatrous  worship,  and  an  object  of  execration  by  the  pro- 
phets. The  place  where  the  children  of  Israel  had  renewed 
their  covenant  with  God,  and  whence  he  had  so  often  gone  up 
with  their  armies,  thus  became  defiled  with  idolatry.  Josh. 
4.  19  :    Hos.  9.  15. 

If  we  trace  the  history  of  Shiloh,  the  place  chosen  by 
Joshua  for  the  tabernacle,  and  where  it  remained 
for  more  than  400  years,  till  the  days  of  Eh,  we 
shaU  have  in  brief  a  history  of  many  a  favoured  and  after- 
wards rejected  city,  Josh.  18.  i-io ;  Judges  21.  19-23  :  i  Sam. 
chax)s.  1-6  :  i  Kings  11.  29  :  12.  15  :  14.  2,  etc.  :  Psa.  78.  60 : 
Jer.  7.  12-14:  26.  6. 

The  pecuhar  feelings  with  which  Jacob  must  have  visited 
Beersheba,  where  he  offered  sacrifice  (Gen.  46.  i), 
may  be  gathered  from  Gen.  31.  33:  22.  19  :  26. 
23-25.     It  was  already  endeared  to  him  by  many  holy  asso- 
ciations. 

A  brief  notice  of  Palestine  will  throw  light  upon  several 
passages,  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

Falestine. 

387.  Its  XAiiES. — It  is  called  the  world,"*  the  earth  or  the 
land.  Hence  Solomon  is  said  to  reign  from  the 
river  (Euphrates),  to  the  end  of  the  earth,  Psa.  72. 
In  the  person  of  Christ  these  words  have  a  stiU  larger  fulfil- 
ment. The  country  which  lay  to  the  south  of  Judaea,  was 
Arabia,  and  at  its  extreme  border  (from  the  sea),  was  the 
city  of  Sheba,  or  Saba.  And  hence  the  queen  of  Sheba  is  said 
to  have  come  from  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  to  hear 
the  wisdom  of  Solomon. 

The  country  was  early  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of 
Canaan,  the  grandson  of  Koah  (Gen.  11).  It  was  thence 
called  the  land  of  Canaan.  From  the  descendants  of  Jacob, 
it  was  called  the  land  of  Israel.  From  the  fact  that  the  tribe 
of  Judah  occupied  it  almost  alone  after  the  captivity,  it  was 
called  Judaea  (Psa.  76,  i).  From  the  covenant  into  which 
God  entered  with  Abraham  and  his  posterity,  it  was  called 

■  Luke  2,  i:  Acts  ir.  28:  Luke  4.  25  :  21.  26  :  James  5.  17. 


258  GEOGBAPHY  :   PALESTIXE. 

the  laud  of  promise,  Gen.  12.  7  :  13,  15  :  Ex.  15.  14  :  Heb. 
II.  9.  And  from  the  PhiHstiues  or  Pali  (shepherds),  who 
inhabited  its  southern  coasts,  Palestine. 

The  land  of  God,  Lev.  25.  23  ;  the  holy  land,  Zeoh.  2.  12, 
are  also  terms  employed  in  Scripture.  It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  the  limits  of  the  country  to  which  these  names 
were  given,  have  varied  at  different  periods. 

Its  extent  and  divisions. — The  whole  land  of  Israel,  from 
Its  extent  I)an  to  Beersheba,  was  in  length  equal  to  the  dis- 
and  divisions,  tance  between  London  and  York,  or  about  200 
miles,  and  in  its  widest  parts  was  less  than  the  distance  be- 
tween York  and  Liverpool,  or  about  ninety  miles. 

For  seven  centuries  after  the  dispersion,  it  was  occupied  by 
the  Canaanites,  who  divided  it  among  ten  nations.  They  after- 
wards dwindled  to  seven.  Gen.  15.  18-21  :  Deut.  7.  i  ;  of  whom 
the  Amorites  were  the  most  powerful,  and  their  name  is  some- 
times used  for  the  whole.  Gen.  15.  16.  The  Philistines,  Moab- 
ites,  Midianites,  Ammonites,  and  the  children  of  Amalek 
and  Edom  were  residing,  tvhen  the  Israelites  entered  Canaan, 
in  its  immediate  vicinity,  and  some  of  them  within  its  borders. 

Joshua  divided  the  country  into  twelve  parts,  giving  one  to 
each  tribe,  E^^hraim  and  Manasseh  being  reckoned  among  the 
tribes,  and  Levi  ha\dng  his  portion  among  the  rest. 

In  the  North  dwelt  Asher,  Naphtali,  Zebulon,  and  Issachar  :  after- 
wards Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,  and  Galilee  proper. 

In  the  Middle,  Ephraim,  and  half  of  Manasseh ;  afterwards  Sa- 
maria. 

In  the  South,  Judah,  Benjamin,  Dan  and  Simeon;  afterwards 
Judaea. 

Beyond  Jordan,  Eeuben,  Gad,  and  half  of  Manasseh;  afterwards 
Persea,  etc. 

Under  the  reign  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom  was  greatly  ex- 
tended, and  the  distinction  of  tribes  became  less  marked. 
The  whole  of  his  territory  was  therefore  divided  afresh  into 
twelve  districts,  each  under  its  own  officer  (i  Kings  4.  7-19). 

On  the  death  of  Solomon,  ten  tribes  revolted  from  his  son 
Eehoboam,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  of  which  Sychar 
or  Shechem  was  the  capital.  The  other  tribes  of  Benjamin 
and  Judah,  with  parts  of  Dan  and  Simeon,  formed  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  whose  chief  city  was  Jerusalem.     This  division 


GEOGRAPHY  :   PALESTINE.  259 

ceased,  however,  on  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
by  Shahiianeser,  the  Assyrian,  after  it  had  continued  for  254 
years  :  and  the  country  fell  successively  into  the  hands  of  the 
Assyrians,  the  Greeks,  the  Jews  (under  the  Maccabees),  and 
the  Romans. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  it  was  divided  into  five  provinces, 

1 .  Galilee,  which  included  most  of  the  scenes  of  his  personal 
ministry,  and  whence  most  of  his  disciples  were  chosen,  Isa.  9. 
I  :  Matt,  2.  22,  23  :  Luke  4.  14  :  Matt.  26.  6^  :  28.  7.  16. 
This  district  was  despised  by  the  Jews  because  of  its  distance 
from  Jerusalem,  its  connection  with  the  Samaritans,  and  the 
impurity  of  the  dialect  spoken  by  the  people,  Mark  14.70. 

2.  Samaria,  which  included  the  middle  division  of  the  king- 
dom, and  separated  Galilee  from  Judsea,  John  4.  4.  3.  Judaea, 
which  was  nearly  co-extensive  with  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Judah.  4.  The  district  of  Fercea  (or  heyond  Jordan),  which 
included  Abilene,  where  Lysanias  was  tetrarch,  Luke  3.1, 
Trachonitis,  Ituraea  or  Auranitis,^  Gaulonitis,b  Batansea,  the 
ancient  Bashan,  but  less  extensive,  Persea  proper  (between  the 
Arnon  and  the  Jabbok),  where  John  was  beheaded,  and 
Decapolis  (or  the  district  of  the  ten  cities).  5.  Idumcea,  a 
province  which  was  added  by  the  Romans.  It  comprised  the 
extreme  south  parts  of  Judsea,  with  a  small  part  of  Arabia. 
After  some  time,  the  Idumseans  became  mingled  with  the 
Ishmaehtes. 

388.  In  later  times,  these  divisions  have  undergone  various 
Later  divi-  changes.  In  the  fifth  century,  the  country  was 
sions.  divided  into  three  parts  :  Judaea  and  Samaria  ; 
Gahlee  and  Trachonitis  ;  Pereea  and  Idumaea.  In  the  time  of 
the  Crusades,  episcopal  sees  were  established  in  the  principal 
cities.  Under  the  modem  Turkish  authority,  the  whole 
country  is  divided  between  the  pachahks,  or  governments,  of 
Acre  and  Damascus. 

389.  It  will  facihtate  the  study  of  Sacred  Scripture  to  have 
State  (as  to  a  distinct  idea,  both  of  the  divisions  of  the  country 
K^Sys*'^  ^^^  of  ^^6  changes  of  the  government,  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord,    of  our  Lord. 

^  I  Chron.  r.  31,  (from  Jetur.)  :  Ezek.  47.  16.  18  :  Hauran. 
''Josh.  20.  8. 


260 


GEOGRAPHY  :    PALESTINE. 


Herod  the  Great  reigns  from  b.  c.  37  to  b.  c.  3,  over 


Judasa, 
Samai'ia,  Idumcea. 


Galilee, 
Perooa  Proper. 


Trachonitis 
and  Iturea. 


Revenue,  400  talents 
(about  one  million 
sterling). 

These  he  bequeaths  to 
his  son, 

Archelaits,  who  is  ba- 
nished, and  the  pro- 
vince is  put  under 
prociu'ators,  of 

whom   one    of    the 
chief  was 

Pontius  Pilate,  A.  D. 
7  to  36  (dies  36). 


Ptevenue,  200  talents. 


These  he  bequeaths 
to  his  son, 

Herod   Antipas,    who 
beheaded  John. 


Herod    Antipas    ba- 
nished (40J. 


Revenue,     100     ta- 
lents. 

These  he  bequeaths 
to  his  son, 

Philip  Herod  (Jehu 
4.) 


Philip  dies  (37). 


Herod  Agrippa  (grandson  of  Herod)  made  king  of  the  whole 
(Acts  12)  A.  D.  41-44- 

Herod  Agrippa  dies,  a.  d.  44. 


Roman  Governors. 
Fadus  Alexander. 
Felix  (4th  Governor). 
Festus  (5  th  Governor). 


I  Agrippa  (son  of  H. 
Agrippa),  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  is  made 
tetrarch  of  Galilee  also.  .Paul  pleads  be- 
fore him  at  Csesarea  (Acts  25,  26.) 


390.  The  physical  appearance  of  the  country  is  remarkably 
rhysicai  broken  and  mountainous.  The  higher  peaks  of 
appearance.  Lebanon  and  of  Sinai  (which  lie  about  400  miles 
apart)  rise  to  a  height  of  nearly  10,000  feet  above  the  Lledi- 
terranean.  The  Jordan  springs  from  the  sides  of  the  former, 
and  at  the  lake  of  Tiberias  its  level  is  750  feet  below  the 
Mediterranean.  At  the  Dead  Sea,  the  depression  has  in- 
creased to  1,312  feet  ;  and,  as  the  depth  of  that  sea  is  1,350 
feet,  we  have,  altogether,  a  more  remarkable  change  of  surface 
than  is  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  world.  From  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon  the  hilLs  to  the  south  continue  gradually  rising, 


GEOGRAFHY:    PxVLESTlNE.  261 

till  at  Jerusalem  "we  reach  a  height,  above  the  surface  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  of  3,900  feet.  In  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (south 
of  Jerusalem)  they  reach  a  still  gi'eater  height :  eastward,  the 
country  falls  rapidly,  so  that  Jericho,  which  is  but  twenty 
miles  from  Jerusalem,  is  3,406  below  it :  so  accurate  is  the 
description  given  in  the  Bible,  Luke  10.  30  :  John  7.  10 : 
Acts  24.  I.     Compare  Gen.  26.  2  :  46.  3, 

Many  of  these  mountains  abound  in  caverns.  Their  sides 
afford  large  sheep  walks  (Amos  i.  2),  and  the  plains  which 
are  found  on  the  summits  of  some  are  covered  with  corn.  In 
the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  wherever  was  any  depth  of 
earth,  the  ohve  flourished,  and  the  fig.  The  vales  were  most 
luxuriant  and  fruitful,  and  the  very  deserts  were  formed 
chiefly  of  extensive  pasture-land,  unfit  for  the  plough,  but 
rich  in  grass  and  timber.  The  products  of  aU  chmes  were 
thus  found  in  Palestine,  and  upon  the  same  range  of  hills 
were  often  gi-owing  the  fig  and  date  of  the  tropics,  with  the 
oak  and  fir  of  the  temperate  zone.  A  chmate  all  soft  and 
sunny  would  have  injured  the  robust  industry  and  manly 
character  of  the  peoj)le  :  a  country  all  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous would  have  driven  them  into  aUiance  with  their 
heathen  neighbours.  Mountains,  which  grew  ohves  and  wheat ; 
the  snow-covered  heights  of  Lebanon,  and  the  hot  deep 
valley  of  Jordan — pasture  and  tillage — aU  seem  to  have  been 
adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  chosen  people,  and  to 
have  answered  the  description  of  the  Bible — "  a  good  land,  a 
land  of  brooks  of  water,  that  spring  out  of  the  vaUeys  and 
hills." 

391.  In  the  time  of  David,  the  population  was  probably 
four  or  five  milhons  (see  2  Sam.  24.  0),  or  between 

ropulation.  ,  ,  ^  .7    ■^^' 

400  and  500  to  every  square  mile  ;  a  proportion 
such  as  is  now  found  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  The 
present  population  of  Syria,  which  is  four  times  the  size  of 
the  kingdom  under  David,  is  about  a  million  and  a  half.* 
Even  this  population  seems  sustained  with  difficulty,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  country  is  completely  barren.  Its  former 
fertihty  is  ascribed  in  Scripture  to  the  special  blessing  of 
God,  and  its  present  barrenness  to  "the  heat  of  his  great 
anger  :"  see  Lev.  26.  3-5  :  Deut.  7.  12-14  -  u-  8-15  :  28.  1-12, 
compared  with  Deut.  29.  23-25  :  28.  16-24,  38-42. 
*  Dr.  Bowring's  Keport. 


262  geography:  Jerusalem. 

392.  The  capital  of  Judsea  was  Jerusalem.    Its  name  in  the 

days  of  Abraham  was  Salem,  ^  and  it  was  called  Jebus 
ei-usa  e  .  ^^j^gj^  Israel  obtained  possession  of  the  Holy  Land.^ 
Its  Jewish  name  was  perhaps  suggested  by  these  facts,  and 
means  the  possession,  or  home  of  peace.  Part  of  the  city  be- 
longed to  Benjamin,  and  pai-t  to  Judah.  The  foundation  of  the 
whole  is  a  high  rock,  with  four  heads  or  hills,  and  with  a  steep 
ascent  on  every  side  except  the  north."  A  deep  valley  sur- 
rounds three  sides,  and  beyond  the  valley  are  still  higher 
hiUs  ;  so  that  the  city  is  no't  easily  visible  till  the  traveller  is 
near  it.  The  soil  is  very  stony,  and  the  country  round  is  dry 
and  barren. 

The  extent  of  the  city  differed  at  different  times.  It  was 
largest  at  the  time  of  its  final  overthrow  by  Titus.  It  then 
included  Zion,  Acra,  JVIoriah,  and  Bezetha.  Zion  was  on  the 
south-eastern  side  01  the  city,  and  immediately  north  of  it 
was  Acra.  Zion  was  the  higher  of  the  two  ;  the  part  of  Jeru- 
salem which  was  built  upon  it  was  called  the  upper  city,  and 
the  part  built  on  Acra,  the  lower.  They  were  divided  by  a 
high  waU,  first  erected  by  David,  who  resided  on  Mount  Zion. 
Zion  is  now  the  site  of  an  English  Protestant  church. 

Moriah  (where  it  is  supposed  Abraham  was  about  to  offer 
Isaac,  when  the  angel  stayed  his  hand)  lay  to  the  east  of  Acra, 
and  was  the  site  of  the  temple.  The  valley  between  it  and 
Acra  was  nearly  filled  up,  that  access  to  the  temple  might  be 
more  easy.  With  Zion,  Moriah  was  connected  by  a  bridge 
and  terrace.  It  is  now  the  site  of  the  mosque  of  Omar.  To 
the  north  was  the  hill  Bezetha,  which  Agrippa  joined  to  the 
city.  The  whole  circumference  of  the  walls  was  about  four 
miles  and  a  half. 

393.  The  name  of  the  temple  is  apphed  in  the  English  Scrip- 
tures not  only  to  the  place  appointed  for  Divine  worship — 
the  sanctuar}^  and  the  holy  of  holies — but  to  the  courts  and 
buildings  connected  with  it.  The  first  temple  had  been 
erected  by  Solomon.  It  retained  its  original  splendour  only 
thirty-four  years,  when  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  took  it,  and 
carried  away  its  treasures.  After  undergoing  repeated  pro- 
fanations, it  was  finally  plundered  and  burned  by  the  Chal- 
dajans  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  B.  c.  584,  2  Kings  25.  13-15 : 
2  Chron.  36.  17-20. 

*  Gen.  14.  8.  ^  Josh.  15.8.  "  Psa.  125.  2. 


GEOGRAPHY  :   JERUSALEM.  263 

The  second  temple  was  erected  by  Zerubbabel,  but  with 
greatly  diminished  glory,  Ez.  3.  12  ;  and  was  profaned  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  erected  an  image  of  Jupiter  on  the 
altar  of  burnt  offering,  b.  c.  163.  In  this  condition  it  remained 
for  three  years,  when  Judas  Maccabseus  purified  and  repaired 
it,  B.C.  160,  I  Mace.  162. 

About  sixteen  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ  (i.  e.,  b.  c. 
20),  the  repairing,  or  gradual  rebuilding  of  this  temple  was 
undertaken  by  Herod  the  Great.  For  nine  years  and  a  half 
he  employed  18,000  workmen  upon  it,  and  spared  no  expense 
to  render  it  equal  in  magnitude  and  splendour  to  the  original 
structure.  After  his  death,  the  Jews  continued  to  ornament 
and  enlarge  it ;  so  that,  at  the  beginning  of  the  ministry  of 
our  Lord  it  was  still  unfinished,  though  forty-six  years  had 
elapsed  since  Herod  had  collected  his  materials  and  com- 
menced the  work,  John  2.  20.  The  whole  pile  was  con- 
structed of  hard  white  stones,  of  very  great  size,  and  was 
surrounded  by  a  wall  of  very  great  height.  When  Titus 
took  Jerusalem,  he  wished  to  preserve  the  temple  ;  but  his 
most  strenuous  efforts  were  unsuccessful,  and  the  whole  was 
destroyed  by  fire  on  the  same  day,  and  in  the  same  month, 
in  which  the  first  temple  had  been  burned  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
15  Lois  (August),  A.  D.  73.  It  contained  no  ark  or  mercy- 
seat — no  shekinah — no  sacred  fire,  first  kindled  from  heaven, 
nor  Urim  and  Thummim — no  prophetic  spirit,  as  did  the 
first  temple — but  it  had  been  rendered  "more  glorious" 
through  the  presence  and  teaching  of  Him  who  was  the 
Desire  of  all  nations  (Hag.  2.  9). 

But  let  us  enter  within  these  stupendous  walls  by  one  of 
the  eastern  gates,  "  the  gate  Beautiful."  We  are  now  in  the 
outer  court,  the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  and  can  walk  around  ; 
each  side  is  250  yards  long.  Here  is  a  market ;  salt,  incense, 
and  cattle — all  used  in  sacrifice — are  here  on  sale.  Here 
also  are  the  money-changers  ;  and  here,  or  perhaps  within 
one  of  the  next  inclosures,  is  the  treasury. 

Before  us,  but  raised  a  few  feet,  and  separated  by  a  low 
wall  or  partition,  is  the  court  of  the  women.  On  these  pillars, 
\vliich  run  along  the  whole  of  the  waU,  we  may  read  inscrip- 
tions, warning  Gentiles  and  unclean  persons  not  to  enter  on 
pain  of  death.     iSee  Eph.  2.  13,  14. 

All  ascent  of  fifteen  steps  leads  us  into  the  inner,  or  men's 


2fi4  GEOGRAPHY  :   JERUSALEM. 

court ;  and  in  these  two  courts,  called  collectively  the  court 
of  the  Israelites,  the  people  prayed,  while  the  priest  was 
offering  incense  within  the  sanctuary,  Luke  i  lo.  In  the 
corners  of  this  square  are  rooms  appropriated  for  the  purifi- 
cation of  lepers  and  for  the  use  of  Nazarites. 

Within  the  court  of  the  Israehtes  is  the  court  of  tho 
priests,  v/ho  only  are  permitted  to  enter  it.  A  flight  of 
twelve  steps  leads  into  the  temple  itself.  In  entering,  we 
pass  through  the  portico,  where  are  suspended  the  votive 
offerings  of  devout  worshippers  :  see  Luke  21.  5.  Here  also 
are  the  rooms  where  the  Sanhedrim  used  to  assemble  ;  till  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  violence  rendered  it  necessary  for 
them  to  hold  their  meetings  in  the  outer  inclosure. 

From  this  porch  we  enter  the  sanctuary,  or  holy  place,  and 
atill  in  front  of  us  is  the  holy  of  holies,  concealed  by  a  double 
veil,  which,  at  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord,  was  rent  in  two, 
to  indicate  that  the  way  into  the  holiest  was  made  manifest 
and  accessible  to  all  by  the  one  Mediator,  Jesus  Christ,  Heb. 
10.  19-22.  The  holy  of  holies  was  twenty  cubits  square  (from 
thirty  to  forty  feet),  and  was  entered  but  once  a  year  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement.  Lev.  16.  2,  15,  34  :  Heb.  9.  2-7. 

Here,  on  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Titus  found  the 
golden  candlestick,  the  table  of  shew-bread,  and  the  sacred 
trumpets,  which  had  been  used  to  proclaim  the  year  of 
jubilee.  The  arch  of  Titus  has  preserved  the  images  of  these 
relics,  and  it  is  stiR  among  the  evidences  of  the  truth  of  the 
Bible. 

But  let  us  leave  the  temple.  Here  at  the  north-east  cor- 
The  Sheep-,  ner  was  the  sheep-market,  and  adjoining  was  the 
market,  etc.  Pooj  of  Bethesda.  At  the  market  the  sheep  v:ere 
sold  for  the  temple-service,  and  in  the  Pool  they  were  washed 
before  being  delivered  to  the  priests. 

At  the  north-west  corner  of  the  temple  wall  was  a  strong 
fortress,  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  called  Antonia.  It  was 
connected  by  a  flight  of  steps  with  the  temple-courts,  and 
was  guarded  by  a  Roman  garrison.  It  was  from  this  place 
that  the  tribune  with  his  soldiers  ran  to  queU  the  tumult, 
which  the  Jews  raised  in  consequence  of  Paul  having,  (as  they 
supposed),  taken  Trophimus  within  the  sacred  precinct  of 
the  temple.  Here,  it  is  probable  that  Pilate  resided,  when- 
ever he  came  from  Ccesarea  to  Jerusalem.     This  fortress  waa 


GEOGRAPHY  :   JERUSALEM.  2b*o 

therefore  the  Preetorium  where  the  supreme  judge  held  his 
court  of  justice,  John  i8.  28,  33 :  19.  9  :  Matt.  27.  27,  orig. 
Before  the  Praetorium  was  a  raised  pavement,  called  Gabbatha, 
and  on  it  stood  the  tribunal,  or  seat  of  judgment.  This  pave- 
ment was  constructed  that  the  Jews  might  have  their  causes 
decided  without  entering  the  Prsetoriura,  and  thus  becoming 
defiled.  When  Pilate  examined  Jesus  apai-t  from  the  Jews, 
he  was  within  the  Praetorium  :  when  in  their  presence  it  was 
on  the  raised  pavement.  There  Pilate  condemned  him.  In 
the  Praetorium  the  soldiers  mocked  him.  Matt.  15.  16.  Pro- 
bably to  produce  compassion  in  the  minds  of  the  Jews,  Pilate 
again  brought  him  to  the  pavement,  and  when  Jesus  was 
finally  delivered  to  them,  he  was  conducted  through  the  gate 
of  justice  (west  of  the  temple),  to  Calvary,  which  was  just 
without  the  walls,  and  there  they  crucified  him, 

394.  On  the  night  of  our  Lord's  betrayal,  he  seems  to  have 
been  taken  from  Gethsemane,  to  the  house  of  Annas  (on 
Acra),  thence  to  the  house  of  Caiaphas,  on  Mount  Zion,  thence 
to  the  Praetorium,  thence  to  the  palace  of  Herod,  in  Bezetha, 
thence  again  to  the  Praetorium,  and  then  lastly  to  Calvary. 

395.  To  the  east  of  Jerusalem  lay  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
with  the  valley  of  the  Brook  Kedron  between  them.  This 
valley  has  been  for  more  than  3000  years,  and  is  to  the 
present  day,  used  as  a  burial-place.  This  is  called  in  the  Old 
Testament,  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  Joel  3.  2. 

396.  Southward  was  the  valley  of  Hinnom  (Gehenna),  where 
the  Jews  had  once  worshipped  Moloch,  and  ofi"ered  to  it  in 
sacrifice  their  own  children.  "When  Josiah  recalled  them  to 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  the  valley  was  made  the  recep- 
tacle for  the  filth  of  the  city,  and  for  the  bodies  of  criminals 
who  had  been  executed,  2  Kings  23.  10  :  2  Chron.  28.  3.  To 
consume  these  substances  fires  were  kept  continually  burning, 
and  hence  the  place  was  used  as  an  emblem  of  future  punish- 
ment. Matt.  5.  22.  On  the  south  dechvity  of  the  vaUey,  lay 
the  Potter's-field,  afterwards  called,  from  the  circumstances  of 
its  purchase,  the  field  of  blood. 

397.  At  the  destruction  of  Jei-usalem   more  than  a  million 
t     ^^  ^^^  Jews  perished,  and  97,000  were  taken  pri- 

hietoryof  soners.  About  sixty  years  afterwards,  the  Jews 
Jerusalem.  ^-^^  j^^j  begun  to  gather  round  their  ancient  home, 
were  all  banished,  their  return  prohibited  on  pain  of  death, 


266  GEOGRAPHY  :   JERUSALEIU. 

and  the  site  of  the  temple  ploughed  up.  Several  hundred 
years  afterwards,  the  city  was  agam  rebuilt.  In  614,  the  Per- 
sians captured  it,  and  90,000  Christians  were  slain.  In  637,  it 
was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  who  kept  it  tiU  1079,  when  the 
Turks  became  its  masters.  It  is  still  a  large  city,  with  about 
20,000  inhabitants,  but  trodden  down  of  the  Gentiles,  a  "  by- 
word, and  a  reproach." 

After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  many  of  the  Jews 
removed  to  Tiberias,  which  was  long  the  chief  seat  of  their 
literature  and  worship. 

398.  A  knowledge  of  geography  will  often  explain  and  re- 
concile the  statements  of  the  Bible,  show  the  beauty  and 
truthfulness  of  particular  passages,  and  bring  out  the  sense, 
which  might  otherwise  remain  concealed. 

Asia,  for  example,  means  in  the  New  Testament,  a  small 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  of  which  Ephesns  was  the  capital :  hence  when 
the  apostle  was  forbidden  to  go  into  Asia,  he  felt  himself  free  to  go 
to  Bithynia,  one  of  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  Acts  2.  9:  i  Cor. 
16.  19:  Kev.  I.  4. 

The  word  ''  sea,"  is  often  applied  in  Scripture  to  great  rivers. 
The  Nile  is  so  called,  Nah.  3.  8.  The  description  applies  to  No- 
Ammon,  or  Thebes,  the  ancient  capital  of  Egypt,  built  on  both 
sides  of  the  Nile,  and  S'^'^  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  see  also 
Isa.  27.  i:  Jer.  51.  36.  Euphrates  is  so  called,  Isa.  19.  5.  The 
Nile  is  still  called  by  this  name,  el  Bahi-  (the  sea),  Eobinson's 
Researches,  i.  542.  The  word  "  coasts"  means  borders  or  districts, 
Matt.  2.  16:  15.21. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Jews  called  all  civilized  nations, 
excei)t themselves,  Greeks,  Acts  19. 10:  20.  21 :  Rom.  1. 16:  2.  9,  10: 
10.  12  ;  as  the  Greeks  called  all  except  themselves,  Barbarians. 
Hence  the  woman  whom  Matthew  calls  a  Canaanite  is  called  by 
Mark  a  Greek,  and  a  Syro-Phoonician,  Matt.  15.  22:  Mark  7.  26; 
the  word  "  Syro  "  being  intended  probably  to  guard  Roman  readers 
(for  whom  his  Gospel  was  designed),  against  supposing  that  she 
belonged  to  Carthage,  a  "  Phoenician  city." 

The  word  "Grecian"  or  ''Hellenist,"  however,  refers  to  Jews 
who  for  the  most  part  resided  out  of  Judrea,  and  used  the  Grecian 
language  and  manners,  Acts  6.  i:  9.  29:  ir.  20. 

The  expression  in  John  4.  4,  "he  must  needs  go  through 
Samaria,"  has  sometimes  been  taken  to  imply  that  the  "  needs-be" 
vras  founded  upon  the  Divine  purpose.  The  fact  is,  that  Samaria 
lay  between  Judaea  and  Galilee,  and  the  dh-ect  road  to  Jerusalem 
led  through  that  country. 


GEOGRAPHY  :    UTILITY, 


267 


That  the  Gadarenes  kept  swine,  has  been  regarded  as  a  vio- 
lation of  the  Je-ndsh  law,  and  on  that  account  it  is  supposed  our 
Lord  allowed  the  demons  to  enter  into  the  herd :  Josephus  states, 
however,  that  Gadara  was  a  Greek  city,  and  that  it  had  been  only 
recently  annexed  to  Galilee,  Luke  8.  37. 

On  comparing  Luke  24.  50,  with  Acts  i.  12,  it  seems  that 
our  Lord  led  his  disciples  as  far  as  Bethany,  and  yet  he  ascended 
from  the  Mount  of  Olives.  In  fact,  the  Mount  of  Olives  has  on  the 
side  of  it,  next  to  Jerusalem,  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  and  on  the 
other  side,  the  village  of  Bethany.  The  top  of  the  Moimt  overlooks 
them  both,  and  the  two  passages  are  quite  consistent. 

In  Isa.  28.  I,  Samaria  is  called  "the  crown  of  pride,"  and 
lier  glory  is  compared  to  the  fading  flower  of  the  drunkard.  The 
custom  referred  to  in  this  passage  (and  which  is  mentioned  in 
Wisd.  2.  7,  8),  is  that  of  wearing  chaplets  in  seasons  of  festivity. 
Samaria,  moreover,  was  built  on  the  top  of  a  roimd  hill,  and  the 
fact  suggested  the  appropriate  image  of  a  wreath  of  flowers  bound 
round  the  head  of  the  di-unkard. 

The  chief  city  of  Edom  is  described,  with  equal  truth,  as  dwelling 
in  the  clefts  of  the  rock,  and  folding  the  height  of  the  hill,  Obad.  3 : 
a  most  accurate  description  of  the  wondrous  city  of  Petra,  whose 
ruins  were  discovered  by  Burckhardt,  in  1811,  and  have  been 
recently  visited  by  Dr.  Wilson. 

399.  In  using  a  modern  atlas  of  Palestine,  giving  Arabic 
names,  the  following  table  will  be  of  use  : — 


Ain,  ayvm — fountain,  s. 
Arabah — plain,  or 

desert. 
Bahr — sea,  or  lake. 
Beit — house. 
Bir— well. 
Burg — castle. 
Deir — convent. 
El,  en,  er,  etc. — the. 
Ghor  —valley  between 

two  mountains. 


Hajr — great  stone. 
Hummaun — bath. 
Jebel,    jebal — moun- 
tain, s. 
Jisr — bridge. 
Kabr — tomb. 
Khan — inn. 
Khulatj 

Kusr     \ — castle. 
Kasr     J 
Merj — meadow. 


Mesjed — mosk,  tem- 
ple. 

Mukam — tomb  of  a 
saint. 

Nahr — river. 

Nukb — pass. 

Ras—  cape,  or  head. 

Tel— hill. 

Wady) — valley,  or 

Wely  j  water-course. 


400.  Under  physical  geography  are  included  climate, 
weather,  seasons,  etc. ;  and  a  knowledge  of  these  will  often 
throw  hght  on  Scripture. 

401.  The  heat  of  the  climate  of  Judaea  in  summer  is  in- 
tense, and  fi-equentlj  proves  fatal.  Near  Mount 
Tabor,  many  soldiers  of  the  army  of  Baldwin  iv. 

died  from  this  cause,  and  at  the  very  place  (Shunem)  where 
the  child  died  in  the  days  of  Ehsha,  2  Kings  6.  18-20.    How 

x2 


Heat. 


268  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

impressive  tlie  figure  of  the  prophet  when  speaking  of  the 
Saviour,  "He  shall  be  as  the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  a 
weary  land  !"  Isa.  32.  2. 

During  the  summer  there  was  no  rain  in  Palestine  ;  but  in 
the  evening  the  dew  fell  heavily  and  suddenly, 
^"^'  often  wetting  the  incautious  traveller  to  the  skin. 

It  was  as  suddenly  dried  up  on  the  following  morning.  Com- 
pare with  this  fact  the  following  passages,  Psa.  133.  3 :  Hos. 
6.  4  :  14.  5  :  2  Sam.  17.  12. 

Philo  tells  us  that  there  are  no  rains  in  Egypt ;  and  it  is 
No  rain  in  certain  that  rain  in  that  country  is  exceedingly 
i^gypt.  rars.""     Hence  the  evidence  of  the  miracle  of  rain 

mentioned  in  Exod.  9.  18-26,  and  the  hardness  of  heart  dis- 
played by  Pharaoh  in  resisting  the  message  of  Moses. 

Rain  is  generally  preceded  by  a  squall  of  wind.  Compare 
2  Kings  3.  16,  17,  and  Pro  v.  25.  14. 

The  east  wind  of  Palestine  is  very  hurtful  to  vegetation. 
In  winter  it  is  dry  and  cold,  and  in  summer  dry 

^  *■  and  hot.     It  carries  off  'the  moisture  of  the  leaves 

too  rapidly,  and  withers  them.^  When  it  sweeps  over  the 
Mediterranean  it  is  pecuharly  dangerous.*'  It  was  this  wind 
— Euroclydon,  or  a  Levanter,  as  modern  sailors  call  it— which 
proved  so  fatal  to  the  "  Castor  and  Pollux.'"^  The  west  wind 
brought  showers,  and,  after  a  long  drought,  heavy  rain."  The 
north  wind  was  cold  and  drying.^  The  south  wind  brought 
heat°  and  whirlwinds. 

These  whirlwinds  are  sometimes  used  in  Scripture  to  illus- 
trate the  power  of  God  in  the  punishment  of  the  wicked,  and 
the  suddenness  with  which  it  overtakes  them.*"  Mr.  Bruce, 
in  his  travels  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile,  was  suddenly 
caught  by  a  whirlwind,  which  hfted  up  a  camel,  and  threw  it 
to  a  considerable  distance.  It  also  threw  himself  and  his 
servants  down  on  their  faces,  so  as  to  make  the  blood  gush 
from  their  nostrils.  Sometimes,  Maillet  informs  us,  whole 
caravans  have  been  buried  under  the  sand  with  which  these 
winds  are  charged.  When  connected  with  the 
hot,  pestilential  simoom,  they  are  peculiarly  fatal. 
Thevenot  mentions  the  suffocation  from  this  cause  of  4,000 

""  Zech.  14.  18.  ^  Gen.  41.  6:  Ezek.  17. 10:  19.  2:  Hos.  i.'.is- 
•■■  Psa.  48.  7.  ^  Acts  27.  14.  e  L^xte  12.  54:  i  Kings  18.  44,  45* 
'  Prov.  25.  23:  J9b  37.  9,  22.  s  Luke  12.  55:  Zech.  9.  14. 

h  Prov.  r.  27:  10.  25. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY:   SEASONS,   ETC.  !2,i59 

persons  in  1655,  and  of  nearly  20,000  in  1688.  Compare  Isa. 
17.  13  :  Hos.  13.  3 :  Isa.  32.  2  :  Matt.  7.  27  :  Prov.  29.  i. 

Harmer's  Observations,  i.,  164. 

The  value  of  wells  in  the  East  can  be  fully  appreciated 
only  by  those  who  know  the  scarcity  of  water  in 
the  summer  season.  These  wells  were  a  source  of 
strife  between  Abimelech  and  Isaac,  Gen.  26  ;  and  Moses 
commemorates  God's  bounty  in  giving  the  Israehtes  weUs 
which  they  digged  not,  Deut.  6.  11.  Travellers  crossing  the 
deserts  sometimes  go  as  much  as  80  miles  without  water. 
The  wells,  too,  are  often  very  deep,  many  of  them  160  feet, 
and  then  filled  only  with  rain-water.  In  going  to  Jerusalem, 
the  devout  Israelites  went  from  strength  to  strength,  the 
rain  fiUing  the  pools,  Psa,  84  :  see  also  Gen.  24,  16.  The 
comparison  of  false  teachers  to  wells  without  water  is  thus 
seen  to  be  peculiarly  just ;  bitterly  disappointing  the  hopes 
of  their  hearers,  2  Pet.  2.  17.  The  miraf/c,  or  glowing  watery 
appearance  of  distant  sand,  is  also  a  figure  expressive  of  dis- 
appointment. Camels  and  travellers  are  both  deceived,  and 
when  they  reach  what  seemed  a  sheet  of  water  they  find 
burning  dust.     See  Jer.  15.  18,  marg. 

Between  the  days  ■  and  nights  of  Europe,  there  is  no  very 
Frosty  great  difierence  as  to  the  quahties  of  heat  and 

jughts.  cold.     In  the  East  it  is  quite  otherwise.     In  the 

height  of  summer  the  nights  are  often  as  cold  as  at  Paris  in 
the  month  of  March,  and  the  days  scorchingly  hot.  Compare 
Gen.  31.  40,  and  Jer.  36.  30 :  Isa.  49.  10 :  Kev.  7.  16. 

Sii-  J.  Chai'din,  Harmer,  i.,  182. 

402.  It  is  instructive  to  notice  that  the  Scriptures  always 
represent  the  weather,  whose  laws  are  apparently  the  most 
difficult  to  ascertain,  as  under  the  control  and  superintend- 
ence of  the  Creator,  Matt.  5.  45:  Acts  14.  17  :  Jer.  5.  24: 
Psa.  147.  16-18  :  Nahum  i.  5,  6. 

Harmer's  Obsei'vations  will  be  found  a  rich  store-house  of  illuB- 
trations  on  the  physical  geography  of  Palestine.  Recent  travellers, 
and  especially  Dr.  Robinson,  Dr.  Kitto,  and  Dr.  John  Wilson,  have 
largely  added  to  our  knowledge. 

403.  Combining  the  mode  of  reckoning  common  among 
the  Jews  with  the  facts  of  physical  geography,  and  the  sea- 
sons fixed  for  the  various  annual  feasts,  we  obtain  a  table  of 
much  interest  and  value. 


270 


CALKNDAU  OF  THE  JEWS, 

The  first  month  of  the  sacred  year  was  the  one  whose  full  moon 
answered  to  March  and  sometimes  to 


Month  of 

Name, 

Answering 

to  the 
Months  of 

Festivals  and  Lessons. 

Sacred   Civil 
Year.    Year. 

ist 

7th 

Abib,   or   Nisan   (30 
days),  Excd.  12.  2  : 
Ezra  n.  9 :  Neb.  2.  i : 
Esther  3.  7. 

Parts       of 
Mar.   and 
Apr. 

3.  Lev.  6.  Jer.  7.  21. 

14.  Paschal  lamb  slain.  The  Pa.s- 
sover. 

16.  The  lirst-fruits  of  the  barley 
harvest  presented. 

21.  End  of  the  Passover  and  un- 
leavened bread. 

2nd 

8  th 

Tyar,orZif(29days), 
1  Kinss  6. 1. 

Parts       of 
Apr.    and 
May. 

II.  Lev.  16.  1:  Ez.  22. 

14.  The  second  Passover  (Numb. 

9.  10,  n)  for  such  as  could  not 

celebrate  the  first. 

3rd 

9th 

Sisan,  or  Siuvan   (30 
diys),  Esther  8. 9. 

Parts       of 
May    and 
June. 

6.  Pentecost,  or  feast  of  weeks. 
First-fruits   of  wheat-harvest 
(Lev.  23. 17,  20)  and  lirst-fruits 
of  all  the  ground,  Deut.  26.  2, 
10,  16:  I  Kings  12. 25-33- 
10.  Numb.  I  :  Hos.  i. 

4.,h 

ioth 

Thammuz  (29  days). 

Pts.  of  June 
and  July. 

3.  Numb.  13.  I:  Josh.  2. 
26.  Numb.  22.2:  Mic.5.  7. 

5th 

11th 

Ab    (30    days),  Ezra 
7-9- 

Pts.  of  July 
and  Aug. 

3.  Numb.  30.  2:  Jer.  i. 
20.  Deut.  I :  Isa.  i. 

6th 

1 2  th 

EM  (29  days),  Neh. 
6. 15. 

Pts.  of  Aug. 
and  Sept. 

•  3-  Deut.  7.12:  Isa.  49. 14, 
20.  Deut.  16.18:  Isa.  51. 12. 

7th 

ISt 

Tisri,  or  Ethanim  (30 
days),  I  Kings  8.  2. 

Parts       of 
Sept.  and 
Oct. 

I.  Feast  of  trumpets,  Lev.  23.  24. 
Numb,  29.  I. 

10.  Day  of  atonement,  Lev.  23. 
27,  28. 

15.  Feast  of  tabernacles,  or  of  the 
in-gatherings,  Exod.  23.  16: 
Lev.  23.  34.  First-fruits  of 
wine  andoil.  Lev,  23.  39- 

21.  Gen.  I :  Isa.  42.  5, 

8th       2nd 

Marchesvan,    or    Bui 
(29ds.),iKing3  6.38. 

Pts.  of  Oct. 
and  Nov. 

8.  Gen,  23.1:  iSam,  i.i. 

9th 

3rd 

Chisleu(3odays),Zech. 
7.  I :  Neh.  i.  1. 

Parts       of 
iSov.  and 
Dec. 

10.  Gen.  37-  i:  Amos  2. 6. 
25.  Feast  of  the  dedication,    i  Mac. 
4.  52-59:  John  10.  22,  23. 

loth 

4fh 

Thebeth    (29    days), 
Esther  2.  16. 

Parts       of 
Dec.    and 
Jan. 

25.  Exod.  10. 1:  Jer. 46. 13. 

nth 

5th 

Shevet,  or  Shebat  (30 
days).  Zcch.  i.  7. 

Parts       of 
.Jan.    and 
Feb. 

r7.  Exod,  21.  1:  Jer,  34- 8. 

~  I2lh      6th 

Adar  (29  days),  Ezra 

6.15. 
Ve  Adar,  or  2nd  Adar. 

Parts       of 
Feb.    and 
Mar. 

I.  Exod.  38.  21 :   I  Sam.  17.  13. 
14, 15.  Feast  of  Purim. 
25.  Lev.  I.    :  Isa.  4}.2t. 

SHOWING  THE  SEASONS  OF  THE  YEAR,  ETC. 


i^Tl 


followed  next  after  the  vernal  equinox.and  therefore  sometimes 
April,  and  sometimes  to  parts  of  both. 


Seasons  and  Weather. 


I  The  latter  rain  begins  to  fall,  Deut.  ii. 
14:  Zech.  10.  I. 
The  weather  dvuring  the  rains  chilly,  Ezra 
L     10.  9:  John  18.  10. 
Harvest  (-This  rain  prepares  the  corn  for  harvest. 


begins. 


Great  heat,  especially  in  the  plains. 
The  rivers  swell  from  th'j  rains,  Josh.  j.  15 
1  Chron.  12.  15:  Jer.  i:.  5. 


The  latter  rains  still  frequent. 
These  rains  often  preceded  by  whirlwinds, 
I  Kings  18.  45:  att.  8.  24. 


Excessive  drought.  From  April  to  Sept.  no 
rain  or  thunder,  i  Sam.  12.  i"; :  Prov.  26.  i 
The  morning  cloud  seen  early,  but  soon 
disappears,  IIos.  6.  4:  IJ.3. 
Summer  f  Copious  dews  at  night.  Job  29.9:  Psa.  ijj-  3- 
beguis.  I  North    and  east  winds  increase  drought, 
Gen.  41.  6:  Jer.  4.  8. 


Hot 
season. 


Heat  increases. 


Heat  intense ;  countrj'  apparently  burned  up. 
Lebanon  nearly  free  from  snow. 


Heat  still  intense,  2  Kings  4.  19,  20: 
121. 6:  Isa.  49.  9,  10:  Kev.  7,  16. 


j  Heat  in  the  day:  nights  frosty.  Gen.  31.  40. 
I  Showers  frequent:  iac  former,  or  early  rain. 
Seed-    r  Ploughing  and  sowing  begin, 
time 
begins. 


Sometimes  the  eai'Iy  rain  begins  now. 
•Wheat  and  barley  sown. 


Winter  f  Trees  lose  their  foliage, 
begins.  I  Snow  begms  to  fall  on  the  mountains,  Jos. 
36.22. 


Productions 


Barley  ripe  at  Jericho ;  wheat 
partly  in  ear ;  fig-tree  blossoms  : 
winter-fig  still  on  the  tree, 
Matt.  21.  19:  Mark  11.  i.j. 


Barley  generally  three  weeks 
earlier  than  wheat.  Barley  ge- 
nerally cut  this  month,  Ruth  i. 
22.    '\1(1ieat  begins  to  ripen. 


Wheat  ripening  on  the  hills  in 
June;  in  the  valleys,  early  in 
May. 

Grass  in  some  places  a  yard 
high,  John  6.  10. 


Early  vintage.  Lev.  26.  5.  Rice 
and  early  figs  ripen. 


Ripe  figs  at  Jerusalem ;    olives 
at  Jericho ;  grapes  ripening. 


Grape  harvest  general. 


The  latter  grapes  gathered. 


On  the  motmtains  the  cold  is  severe. 
Hail;  snow.  Josh.  10.  11:  Psa.  47.  16,  17. 
AV'eather  warm  at  intervals,  Ez.  3J.  jo,  31. 


Cold 
season. 


I  Corn  still  sov.n. 

I  At  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season  the 
weather   cold,    but   giadually   tecoraes 
j      warm. 

I  Thunder  and  haU.  frequent. 
'  Barley  sometimes  sown. 


Grass  and  herbs  spring  up  after 
the  rains. 


The  winter-fig  found  on  the  trees, 
though  they  are  stripped  of  their 
leaves. 


The  almond-tree  blossoms. 


272  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY;   DTD^ITY 

404.  The  perusal  of  this  Table  wiU  suggest  one  or  two 
obvious  analogies.  The  summer  and  winter  in  Palestine 
coincide  with  the  same  seasons  in  England  ;  as  does  the  time 
of  greatest  heat,  July  and  August,  and  of  greatest  cold, 
January.  Seed  time  is  in  our  autumn ;  and  harvest  begins 
in  our  spring,  and  extends  through  the  early  summer. 

The  rainy  seasons  in  Palestine  begin  about  the  Equinoxes  ; 
the  rain  in  our  autinnn  is  the  early  or  seed  rain  ;  the  rain  in 
our  spring  is  the  latter  or  harvest  rain.  The  one  quickens  the 
seed,  the  other  fills  the  ear.  The  rains  generally  come  from 
the  west  (Luke  12.  54),  driven  up  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
During  harvest  and  summer,  rain  is  most  unusual,  a  fact 
which  explains  the  surprise  of. the  people  as  described  in 
I  Sam.  12.  17. 

The  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan  in  April,  when  the  river 
was  swollen  with  the  winter  rains,  and  hence  the  necessity  for 
the  miracle  recorded  in  Josh.  3. 

In  Scripture,  dates  are  often  fixed  by  a  reference  to  the 
seasons  or  productions,  2  Sam.  21.  9  :  Numb.  13.  20 ;  or  by  a 
reference  to  the  feasts,  John  10.  22. 

The  fact  recorded  in  Luke  4.  17,  has  been  thought  to  fix 
the  time  of  our  Lord's  visit  to  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth. 
The  reading  of  the  Law  was  completed  in  the  fifty-two  sab- 
baths of  each  year,  and  was  begun  in  Tisri  (or  Sept.),  a  cus- 
tom founded  on  Neh.  8.  2  ;  and  Deut.  31.  10,  11.  Gen.  1-6 
was  read  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles  ;  and  on  the  sabbath 
before,  Deut.  29.  10,  with  Isa.  61,  i — 63.  10.  This  reckoning, 
which  is  Lamy's,  fixes  the  visit  on  the  14th  Tisri.  The  time 
seems  fixed  by  the  context,  however,  nearer  to  Pentecost,  d,nd 
the  phraseology  of  Luke  rather  intimates  that  Christ  had 
chosen  the  passage,  than  that  he  found  it  in  the  general  order 
of  reading.  Lamy  has  giveu  aU  the  lessons  (App.  Bibl.  Bk. 
i.,  chap.  5).  The  preceding  Table  gives  the  commencement  of  a 
few  only. 

The  zeal  of  the  peoi)le  mentioned  in  2  Chron.  30.  23,  be- 
comes more  obvious,  when  it  is  remembered  that  they  kept 
the  feast  other  seven  days,  in  the  midst  of  the  harvest. 

Important  lessons  are  often  suggested  by  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of  such  facts  as  this  Table  contains.  Our  Lord,  for 
example,  was  crucified  on  the  day  when  the  paschal  lamb  was 
offered,  and  rose  on  the  day  when  the  first  fruits  of  the  early 


INTERPRETATION  OP  ALLEGORIES.  273 

harvest  were  presented,  "  the  first  fmits  of  them  that  slept," 
The  Spirit  was  poured  out  at  Pentecost,  when  the  first 
fruits  of  the  ground  were  presented  at  the  temple :  and  on 
that  day  3000  persons  "  out  of  every  nation  under  heaven," 
were  added  to  the  church,  Acts  2.  5,  41.  The  feast  of  taber- 
nacles (when  thanks  were  offered  for  the  ingathering  of  all  the 
fruits  of  the  land),  is  yet  to  come. 

The  language  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  23.  27,  29),  comparing  the 
Pharisees  to  whited  sepulchres,  becomes  clearer  from  the 
fact,  that  it  was  spoken  just  before  the  Passover,  and  after 
the  winter  rains,  when  the  Jews  were  busy  whitewashing  the 
burial-places  near  Jerusalem,  and  preparing  for  the  feast. 

Sec.  7.   On  the  application  of  these  Bules  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  Allegories,  Parables^  Types,  and  Symbols  of  Scripture. 

*'  The  Scriptures  being  written  to  the  thoughts  of  men,  and  to  the  succession  of 
all  ages  ....  are  not  to  be  interpreted  only  according  to  the  latitude  of  the  proper 
sense  of  the  place,  and  respectively  towards  that  present  occasion  whereupon  the 
words  were  uttered  ....  but  have  in  themselves,  both  distributively  and  collec- 
tively, infinite  springs  and  streams  of  doctrine  to  water  the  church  in  every  part 
not  that  I  wish  men  to  be  bold  in  allegories  ....  but  that  I  do  much  con- 
demn that  interpretation  of  the  Scriptiu-e,  which  is  only  after  the  manner  men  use 
to  interpret  a  profane  book." — Bacon  ;  Advancement  of  Learning. 

"  Our  Lord  might  have  uttered  the  common  places  of  morality,  but  he  teaches  by 
parables,  because  he  knew  that  they  would  more  constantly  inhabit  both  the  me- 
mory and  the  jtidgement."— SiK  P.  Sydney. 

"  ^lanifeste  dicta  absolvent  parabolas."— /renffjis,  lib.  ii.,  c.  47. 

405.  We  have  been  engaged  thus  far  in  collecting  the  sense 
of  Scripture,  and  in  order  to  ascertain  that  sense,  it  has  only 
been  necessary  to  find  the  meaning  of  the  words.  There  are 
some  parts  of  the  Bible,  however,  where  we  need  an  additional 
kind  of  interpretation.  Hitherto  the  meaning  of  the  words 
has  been  regarded  as  the  Bible.  In  the  j)assages  to  which  we 
are  about  to  refer,  however,  there  is  a  further  meaning  called 
the  allegorical  or  spiritual.  To  this  class  belong  the  allegories 
and  parables,  types,  typical  actions,  and  symbols  of  the  sacred 
volume,  and  as  they  agree  in  the  principles  of  interpretation 
apphcable  to  them  all,  we  class  them  under  one  name  as 
-allegories. 

Figures  and  4^6 .  They  differ  from  the  figures  of  Scripture  in 
Parables.        several  particulars. 

First,  They  present  to  our  view  only  the  less  important  meaning 
they  are  intended  to  convey,  the  moral  or  spiritual  one  being  for  a 
time  concealed;  while  in  figures  the  secondary  or  important  mean- 
ing is  generally  the  promment  one.     When  it  is  said,  for  example, 

n3 


274  ALLEGORICAL   AND   FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE. 

that  the  Sou  of  Man  is  the  sower,  we  use  a  figiire,  and  the  meaning 
of  the  word  "sower"  is  fixed  by  its  place  in  the  sentence.  But 
when  we  say,  ''A  sower  went  forth  to  sow,"  w^e  express  but  one 
meaning,  though  there  is  an  ultimate  meaning  in  view  which  is  not 


Secondly,  Figures  always  represent  one  thing  as  another  thing, 
and  the  meaning  is  at  once  fixed  by  excluding  the  points  in  which 
they  differ  and  combining  those  only  in  which  they  agree.  In  the 
case  of  allegories  or  parables,  it  is  never  said  that  one  thing  is 
another,  though  this  may  be  said  when  the  parable  is  explained. 

Thirdly,  In  figures  there  is  but  one  meaning  consistent  with  the 
context  and  scope;  in  the  allegory  and  parable  there  are  two,  the 
verbal  and  the  allegorical;  the  verbal  being  the  explanation  of  the 
words,  and  the  allegorical,  of  the  thing  or  things  signified  by  them. 

407.  It  must  be  remembered,  that  in  an  allegory  or  type, 
we  are  not  to  expect  an  agreement  between  the  verbal  sense 
and  the  allegorical  meaning  in  all  points.  The  allegory,  so  far, 
is  like  a  figure  of  speech.  In  the  latter,  it  is  enough  if  the 
two  things  compared  touch  in  one  point,  and  in  the  former, 
things  must  not  be  expected  to  touch  in  all.  At  the  same 
time,  the  allegory  so  far  differs  from  the  figure,  that  it  generally 
touches  in  more  than  one.  It  is  in  its  very  nature  a  continued 
comparison,  and  an  expositor  may  safely  proceed  on  the  pre- 
sumption that  there  is  contact  in  most  points  ;  nor  need  he 
desist  from  his  comparison  till  the  resemblance  refuses  to 
appear,  unless  it  be  forced,  or  till  it  is  evident  that  the  cir- 
cumstance under  consideration  is  added  only  to  give  beauty 
or  energy  to  the  narrative. 

408.  The  occasions  on  which  it  is  proper  to  use  an  alle- 
Parabies  gorical  representation,  are  numerous.  It  tests  a 
when  used,  teachable  disposition  (Matt.  13.  13).  It  is  pecu- 
liarly useful  in  giving  a  figurative  exhibition  of  truth,  before  it 
is  intended  to  reveal  it  clearly.  It  often  serves  this  purpose 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  the  book  of  Revelation.  It  is 
useful  in  gaining  a  man's  judgment  against  himself,  as  in  the 
case  of  David,  and  as  in  many  of  the  parables  ;  and  even  when 
there  is  no  need  of  concealment,  it  often  attracts  the  atten- 
tion of  men  who  might  otherwise  remain  indifferent. 

409.  All  the    rules    of  allegorical   interpretation   take   as 

granted,  that  the  verhal  interpretation  of  the  pas- 
words"o  be  sage  has  been  completed,  and  that  if  the  allegory 
ascertained.    ]^q  g^  ij^Q  or  Symbol,  we  have  ascertained  precisely 


ALLEGORIES  :   THE  SCOPE.  275 

what  the  action  or  symbol  is,  whose  allegorical  meaning  we 
are  about  to  investigate.  Till  this  be  done,  no  step  can  be 
taken  in  the  real  interpretation  ;  we  must  first  know  what  the 
thing  is,  before  we  can  know  what  it  is  intended  to  represent. 
410.  (i.)  The  first  rule  of  interpretation  is  ;  ascertain  what 
Firscruie:  IS  the  scope,  either  by  reference  to  the  context,  or 
the  scope.  ^q  parallel  passages  ;  and  seize  the  one  truth  which 
the  type  or  parable  is  intended  to  set  forth,  distinguishing  it 
from  all  the  other  truths  which  border  upon  it,  and  let  the 
parts  of  the  parable  that  are  explained,  be  explained  in  har- 
mony with  this  one  truth. 

In  the  case  of  allegories  the  scope  is  generally  told  us,  as  in 
Psa.  80;  the  whole  being  explained  in  verse  17,  where  the  man  of 
God's  right  band  is  introduced  in  such  a  way  as  directs  iis  to  Israel 
as  the  Vine.  Sometimes,  however,  we  have  to  look  to  other  parts 
of  the  Bible. 

The  entire  book  of  Canticles  is  an  extended  allegory,  and  under 
this  form  is  shadowed  forth  the  spmtual  affection  between  Christ 
and  his  church.  To  explain  the  book,  we  have  recoiirse  to  other 
places,  where  the  relation  between  God  and  his  church  is  described 
imder  a  similar  representation.  So  also  Isa.  5.  1-7;  Ezek.  15.  19, 
10,  14.:  19.  1-9:  23:  31.  3-17. 

In  the  parables,  the  scope  is  generally  told  us  in  the  context; 
sometimes  by  our  Lord  himself  (Matt.  22.  14),  sometimes  by  the 
inspired  narrator  in  his  own  words  (Luke  18.  i). 

Sometimes  it  is  set  forth  at  the  commencement  of  the  parable 
(Luke  18.  9:  19.  ir);  sometimes  at  the  close  (Matt.  25.  13:  Luke 
16.  9);  sometimes  at  both,  as  in  Matt.  18.  23 :  see  verses  21  and  35. 
So  again  in  Matt.  20.  i-t6:  Luke  12.  15-21. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  we  need  to  turn  to  a  parallel  passage ; 
jis,  for  the  full  interpretation  of  Luke  15.  3,  we  turn  to  Matt.  18. 
12,  etc. 

When  from  none  of  these  circumstances  the  scope  can  be  gathered, 
we  must  then  have  reco\irse  to  the  occasion  or  the  subject  of  the 
parable  itself.  The  meaning  of  the  parable  of  the  baiTen  fig-tree 
(Luke  13.  6,  9),  and  of  the  prodigal  son,  is  gathei'ed  in  this  way. 
The  progi-ess  of  the  parables,  and  the  study  of  the  cu'cumstances 
under  which  they  were  spoken,  will  clearly  show  the  design  of  owi 
Lord  in  uttering  them. 

411.  In  the  case  of  a  type,  it  is  important  to  remember  that 
Scope  vi  the  scope  or  intention  of  God  in  instituting  it  can 
tTpps,  \^Q  gathered  only  from  the  Bible.     Sometimes  from 


276  ALLEGORIES  :   SUBORDINATE  TRUTHS. 

the  Old  Testament,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses,  Deut.  i8.  15, 
frequently,  only  from  the  New,  as  in  John  3.  14:  6.  32: 
I  Cor.  5.  7,  8  .  Matt.  12.  40,  etc.  The  principle  laid  down  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  is  that  the  whole  of  the  previous 
dispensation  was  typical — a  shadow  of  things  to  come.  In 
applying  this  principle,  the  rules  found  below  must  be  care- 
fully observed. 

Views  incon-  412.  Any  interpretation  of  a  parable  or  allegory 
distent  with  ti^^t  is  inconsistent  with  the  great  truth,  which  it 
b-2  rejected,     is  thus  Seen  to  involve,  must  be  rejected. 

The  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  for  example,  has  been  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  our  Lord;  the  wounded  traveller,  to  our  sinful 
race;  the  priest  and  Levite,  to  the  moral  and  Levitical  law;  the 
inn,  to  the  church :  an  interpretation  entirely  inconsistent  with  our 
Saviour's  design.  It  is  not  enough,  therefore,  that  the  truths 
which  we  suppose  to  be  contained  in  the  allegories  and  types  of 
Scripture  are  Scriptural ;  they  must  be  evidently  shown  to  be  in- 
volved in  the  purpose  of  God  in  instituting  the  one,  and  of  inspired 
teachers  in  speaking  of  the  other. 

This  remark  is  applicable  to  all  parts  of  the  parables,  and  it  may 
be  reversed.  We  have  the  right  interpretation  when  all  the  main 
circumstances  are  explained.  If  any  important  member  of  the  nar- 
rative is  rendered  by  our  interpretation  nugatory,  or  is  paralysed, 
the  interpretation  is  false ;  and  when  we  have  a  true  interpretation 
of  the  whole,  that  interpretation  of  any  part  is  to  be  rejected  which 
does  not  conduce  to  the  consistency  and  force  of  the  whole.  In 
interpreting  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son,  for  example,  some  ex- 
positors have  descended  to  details  which  are  quite  inconsistent  with 
the  obvious  scope  and  force  of  the  narrative.  The  alienation  of  the 
prodigal  from  all  home  affections — his  resolution  to  seek  happiness 
where  God  is  not — the  fearful  change  in  his  position,  and  his  con- 
sciousness of  that  change — his  attempt  to  repair  his  broken  fortunes 
—his  bitter  disappointment  and  wants— the  resolve  to  return — the 
father's  love  and  welcome — the  festal  rejoicing  which  his  return 
created — the  discontent  and  grudging  spirit  of  the  elder  brothei' — 
the  father's  noble  remonstrance — all  illustrate  the  great  truth  of 
the  passage,  that  God  Avelcomes  the  return  of  the  vilest  of  his 
children,  and  all  are  important.  To  deny,  as  some  have  done,  that 
the  prodigal's  desertion  of  his  home  has  any  reference  to  man's 
apostasy,  weakens  the  parable;  and  to  teach  that  the  ring  is  the 
everlasting  love  of  God,  or  the  seal  of  the  Spirit — that  the  sinner  is 
called  the  younger  son,  because  man  as  a  sinner  is  younger  than 
man  .as  righteous — that  the  citizen  to  whom  he  went  was  a  legal 


allegories:  subordinate  truths.  277 

preacher — that  the  svvine  were  self-righteous  persons — that  the 
husks  were  works  of  righteousness — that  the  fatted  calf  was  Christ 
— that  tho  shoes  were  means  of  upright  conversation,  the  doctrines 
and  precepts  of  the  Scripture — that  the  music  which  the  elder 
brother  heard  was  the  preaching  of  the  gospel— is  to  call  off  our 
attention  from  the  great  lesson  of  the  parable  to  doctrines  which 
the  disciples  could  not  have  found  in  the  parable  itself.  By  turning 
the  most  delicate  touches  into  important  Scriptural  truths,  the 
great  design  of  the  whole  is  obscured,  and  we  learn  to  bring  a 
meaning  into  the  passage,  and  not  o'lt  of  it;  a  habit  which  we  are 
likely  to  employ  with  more  serious  mischief  in  other  places. 

413.  But    while    everything   that  is   explained,   must  be 

explained  with  reference  to  the  writer's  scope,  it 
tails  to  be  is  an  important  question,  how  far  the  details  of  the 
explained.  parables  and  allegories  of  Scripture  have  a  reference 
to  corresponding  facts,  in  the  application  of  them.  From  the 
inspired  interpretation  of  parables  given  us  in  Scripture,  we 
may  gather  that  we  are  to  avoid  both  the  extreme  of  sup- 
posing that  only  the  design  of  the  whole  should  be  regarded, 
and  the  extreme  of  insisting  upon  every  clause  as  having  a 
double  meaning. 

In  the  parables  of  the  sower  and  of  the  tares,  for  example,  which 
our  Lord  himself  interpreted,  the  moral  application  descends  to  the 
roinutest  particulars  of  the  narrative;  the  birds,  and  thorns,  and 
stony  ground,  have  all  their  meaning;  and,  as  Tholuck  has  re- 
marked, it  may  be  said  generally  that  the  simiUtude  is  pei-fect,  in 
proportion  as  it  is  on  all  sides  rich  in  applications.  Even  in  these 
parables,  however,  not  all  the  circumstances  are  explained.  "While 
men  slept,"  in  the  parable  of  the  tares  (Matt.  13.  25),  and  the 
phrase,  "I  cannot  dig,"  and  "to  beg  I  am  ashamed,"  in  the  parable 
of  the  unjust  steward,  have  neither  of  them  any  application  in  the 
explanation  which  our  Lord  himself  gave.  So  in  the  longest 
allegory  in  Sci'ipture — the  book  of  Canticles — the  description  given 
of  the  bride  is  probably  no  moi-e  than  an  expression  of  the  love  and 
complacency  of  Jehovah  towards  his  chosen. 

The  two  following  rules,  in  addition  to  the  one  just  given  as 
to  the  scope  of  the  parable,  will  be  sufficient  to  guard  us  in 
the  interpretation  both  of  the  parables  and  allegories  of 
Scripture. 

414.  (2.)  Even  of  doctrines  consistent  ^vith  the  design  of 


278  ALLEGORIES  :   OTHER  RULES. 

the  parable  or  type,  no  conclusion  must  be  ga- 
of  interpre-  thered  from  any  part  of  either  of  them,  TN'hich  is 
tation.  inconsistent  with  the  clearer  revelations  of  Divine 

truth. 

The  high  priest,  under  the  law,  offered  first  for  his  own  sin,  and 
then  for  the  sins  of  the  people.  It  does  not,  therefore,  follow  that 
Christ  partook  of  our  sinful  nature;  the  contrary  is  the  fact;  ''for 
in  him  was  no  sin."  So  of  the  paschal  lamb ;  it  was  a  type  of  our 
Lord;  it  shadowed  forth  his  death  and  person,  but  not  the  efficacy 
of  his  death,  nor  at  all  adequately  the  holiness  of  his  nature. 

If  it  be  attempted  to  prove  from  the  fact  that  the  rich  man  iu 
the  parable  prayed  to  Abraham,  that  therefore  we  are  to  pray  to 
glorified  saints,  we  reject  the  interpretation  as  inconsistent  with  the 
express  statements  of  Sci'ipture ;  or  if,  from  the  parable  of  the 
faithful  servant,  or  the  prodigal  son,  it  be  gathered  (as  by  the 
ancient  Pelagians^  that  God  pardons  us  without  sacrifice  or  interces- 
sion, on  the  ground  simply  of  our  repentance  or  oiu:  prayers,  we 
reject  the  interpretation  as  inconsistent  with  the  whole  tenor  of  the 
Bible  (John  8.  24:  Heb.  10).  'Nov  can  we  gather  from  Luke  15.  7 
that  the  Phaiisees  were  just  men  who  needed  no  repentance,  or 
from  verse  29,  that  the  elder  brother  had  never  transgressed  his 
father's  command;  nor  from  Luke  16.  i,  that  dishonesty  is  in  any 
good  sense  true  wisdom.  David  was,  in  his  kingly  character,  a 
type  of  our  Lord ;  and  also  in  his  family  descent,  but  not  in  his  sins. 

415.  (3.)  It  is  important  that  neither  types  nor  parables  be 
made  the  first  or  sole  source  of  Scripture  doctrine, 
interpreta-      Doctrines  otherwise  proved  may  be  further  illus- 
*^°°*  trated  or  confirmed  by  them,  but  we  are  not  to 

gather  doctrine  exclusively  or  primarily  from  their  represen- 
tations . 

From  the  parable  of  the  unjust  steward,  some  of  the  early  Scrip- 
tm-e  expositors  gathered,  without  reason,  tlie  history  of  the  apostasj- 
of  Satan.  He  was  said  to  be  the  chief  among  the  servants  of  God, 
and  being  driven  from  his  place  of  trust,  he  drew  after  him  the 
other  angels,  whom  he  tempted  with  the  pronaise  of  lighter  tasks 
and  easier  sendee.  Nor  can  we  conclude,  from  the  parable  of  the  ten 
virgins,  that  because  five  were  wise  and  five  foolish,  half  of  those 
who  make  a  profession  of  religion  will  finally  be  saved  and  half 
finally  perish.  In  the  parable  of  the  lost  sheep,  one  in  a  hundred 
only  went  astray;  in  that  of  the  lost  piece  of  silver,  one  in  ten  was 
lost:  neither  circumstance  can  be  made  the  foundation  of  a 
doctrine. 


PARABLES  CLASSIFIED.  27J> 

Both  these  rules  are  a  modification,  as  it  will  be  seen  of  the 
rule  which  bids  us  interpret  according  to  the  analog}'-  of  faith, 
and  to  look  to  passages  that  are  clear,  for  the  meaning  of 
those  that  are  abstruse. 

416.  The  interpretation  of  symbols,  and  of  symbohcal 
actions,  is  regulated  by  the  same  principles  as  the 
interpretation  of  allegories.  A  symbohcal  expres- 
sion is  simply  a  figurative  one,  founded  on  analogy,  or  re- 
semblance, and  is  interpreted  on  the  principles  common  to 
the  interpretation  of  all  figurative  language. 
Parables, etc.  417-  The  following  are  the  parables  and  fables  of 
'iSmcnt.     the  Old  Testament. 

Jothaiu's;  the  trees  making  a  king,  Judges  9.  7. 

Nathan's;  the  poor  man's  ewe  lamb,  2  Sam.  12.  r. 

Two  brothers  striving  together,  2  Sam.  14.  6. 

Tlie  prisoner  that  made  his  escape,  i  Kings  20.  39. 

Micaiah's  vision,  i  Kings  22.  19-23. 

The  thistle  and  cedar,  2  Kings  14.  9. 

The  vineyard  yielding  wild  grapes,  Isa.  5.  i. 

Th?  parables  in  the   Gospels  will  be   found  enumerated 
chronologically  in  the  introduction  to  the  Gospels. 
Parables  of         ^^^'  Ne9,nder  has  classified  the  parables  of  our 
the  Xew  Tes-  Lord  with  reference  to  the  truths  taught  in  them, 
*™^"  ■  and  their  connection  with  his  kingdom. 

Parables  on  the  progress  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ : — 

1.  The  sower,  Matt.  13.  3:  Mark  4.  3 :  Luke  8.  5. 

2.  The  tares,  Matt.  13.  24. 

3.  The  mustard-seed,  Matt.   13.  31:  Mai'k  4.  31:  Luke  13 ► 

18,  19. 

4.  The  leaveu,  Matt.  13.  33:  Luke  13.  20,  21. 

5.  The  net.  Matt.  13.  47, 

Moral  requisites  for  entering  the  kingdom  of  Christ : — 
■  Anti-pharisaic  parables,  or  negative  requisites. 

6.  The  lost  sheep.  Matt.  18.  12:  Luke  15.  4. 

7.  The  lost  piece  of  money,  Luke  15.  10. 

8.  The  prodigal  son,  Luke  15.  11-32.. 

9.  The  Pharisee  and  the  Publican,  Luke  18.  9-14. 

10.  Strife  for  the  first  places  at  feasts,  Luke  14.  7-1 1. 
Positive  requisites. 

11.  The  two  sons,  Matt.  21.  28. 

12.  The  hidden  treasure,  Matt.  15.  44. 


280  PARABLES   CLASSIFIED. 

13.  The  pearl,  Matt.  13.  45,  46. 

14.  The  towei"  and  the  waiTing  king,  Luke  14.  28-33. 

15.  The  wedding  garment,  Matt.  22.  11. 
Call  to  enter  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

16.  The  feast,  Luke  14.  16-24:  Matt.  22.  1-14. 
Activity  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

17.  The  vine,  John  15.  i. 

18.  The  vdcked  vine-dresser,  Matt.  21.  33-41. 

19.  The  talents,  Matt.  25.  14-30:  Luke  19.  12-27. 

20.  The  barren  fig-tree,  Luke  13.  6. 

21.  Favour  independent  of  works.  Matt.  20.  1-16.     The  La- 

bourers. 
The  true  spirit  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 
Forgiveness. 

22.  The  good  Samaritan,  Luke  10.  25-37. 

23.  The  unforgiving  sei'vant,  Matt.  18.  23:  Luke  7.  41. 
The  right  use  of  Avorklly  possessions. 

24.  The  unjust  steward,  Luke  16.  1-23. 

25.  The  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  Luke  16.  19. 
The  Christian  sphit  under  the  name  of  prudence. 

26.  The  ten  virgins.  Matt.  25. 
Prayer. 

27.  The  importunate  widow,  Luke  18.  i. 

28.  The  friend  on  his  joui-ney,  Luke  11.  5-10. 

419.  Other  authors  have  ado^Dted  a  dififerent  division.  Dr. 
Gray  divides  them  into 

(i.)  Such  as  represent  the  nature  and  progress  of  the  goppel 
dispensation. 

(2.)  Such  as  represent  the  rejection  of  the  Jews,  and  the  calling 
of  the  Gentiles. 

(3.)  Such  as  deliver  moral  instruction. 

Greswell  divides  them  into  the  prophetic  and  the  moral. 

420.  Lisco's  division  is  f)i'eferable  to  either.  He  regards 
them  as  of  three  classes. 

i.  Such  as  represent  the  heavenly  kingdom  as  containing  truths 
and  powers  Divine  in  their  origin,  and  blessed  in  then*  eflFects.  See 
preceding  list,  i,  3,  4,  11,  12. 

ii.  Such  as  represent  the  heavenly  kingdom  founded  on  these 
truths,  and  these  are — 

I.  Those  that  respect  the  church  as  a  whole,  20,  18,  16,  15 
(calling  and  election  differ),  2,  5 . 


ALLEGORICAL  INTERPRETATION  OP   HISTORY.  281 

2.  Those  that  respect  the  entrance  of  individuals  into  the 
church,  6,  7,  8,  14. 
iii.  Such  as  represent  the  heavenly  kingdom  in  the  faith,  love,  and 
hopes  of  its  members.     In  relation — 

1.  To  faith  and  humility,  etc.,  21,  9,  ir,  25,  26. 

2.  To  love  (Luke  7.  41),  23,  22. 

3.  To  hope,  26,  19. 

These  classifications  are  important,  chiefly  as  showing  the 
views  of  eminent  authors  on  the  scojje  of  each  parable.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  adhere  so  rigidly  to  the  classification  we 
adopt  as  to  miss  obvious  moral  lessons. 

421.  The  principles  which  are  applicable  to  the  interpre- 
Aiiegoricai  tation  of  allegories  and  parables,  properly  so  called, 
tSnES-  ^PP^^  equally  to  much  that  is  historical  in  Scrip- 
tory.  ture.  The  ancient  Jewish  people,  for  example, 
sustained  to  God,  the  same  relation  as  is  now  sustained  by  the 
Foundation  Christian  church,  and  by  each  Christian.  Their 
®^it-  sufierings  in  Egypt,  their  deliverance  under  Moses, 
their  wanderings  in  the  desert,  their  entry  into  Canaan,  pre- 
figure important  facts  in  the  history  of  all  Christians.  The 
Israelites  not  only  lived  under  the  same  authority  with  us, 
and  were  governed  by  an  economy  of  disciphne  hke  our  own, 
but  the  facts  of  their  history  were  typical  of  the  history  of 
the  church  (Rom.  2.  28  :  i  Cor.  10 :  Heb.  4  :  i  Pet.  2.  10 : 
Rev.  15.  5). 

422.  It  is  observable,  too,  that  the  relation  between  the 
Jewish  people,  and  some  of  the  nations  that  surrounded  them, 
is  a  type  of  the  relation  between  the  Christian  church  and  its 
adversaries :  Sodom  and  Ishmael :  Egypt  and  Babylon,  have 
all  their  representatives  in  the  history  of  the  true  Israel  (Gal. 
4.  25 :  Rev.  14.  8). 

423.  It  may  be  added,  that  while  in  one  aspect  Israel  as  the 
son,  is  the  representative  of  our  Lord,  eminent  characters 
among  the  Israelites  were  types  of  Him  ;  as  Moses  among  the 
prophets,  David  and  Solomon  among  the  kings ;  and  hence 
expressions,  which  were  originally  true  of  the  type,  are  applied 
to  Christ  as  the  antitype  or  fulfilment.  See  Hos.  ii.  i,  com- 
pared with  Matt.  2.  15,  etc. 

424.  And  as  the  people,  so  the  rites  and  worship  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  typical.  The  whole  dispensation  was  the 
shadow  of  good  things  to  come,  not  the  very  image  or  sub- 
stance of  them.     That  substance  was  Christ  (Heb.  10.  i). 


282  ALLEGORY  :    ABUSE. 

Thus  it  is,  tliat  since  the  beginning  of  our  race,  there  has 
been  a  connected  series  of  representations,  each  embodying- 
some  truth,  and  all  tending  to  illustrate  the  office  and  work  of 
our  Lord,  or  the  character  and  history  of  his  people. 

Jewish  history  and  worship  form  one  grand  type.  The 
Old  Testament  (as  Augustine  long  ago  remarked),  is  the  New 
veiled,  and  the  New  Testament  is  the  Old  unveiled. 

425.  In  the  interpretation  of  all  these  types,  and  of  history 

in  its  secondary  or  spiritual  allusions,  we  use  the 
same  rules  as  in  interpreting  parables  and  allegories 
properly  so  called :  compare  the  history  or  type  with  the 
general  truth,  which  both  the  type,  and  the  antitype  embody  ; 
expect  agreement  in  several  particulars,  but  not  in  all,  and  let 
the  interpretation  of  each  part  harmonize  with  the  design  of 
the  whole,  and  with  the  clear  revelation  of  Divine .  doctrine 
given  in  other  parts  of  the  sacred  volume. 

426.  In  applying  these  rules,  it  is  important  to  remember 

that  the  inspired  writers  never  destroyed  the  his- 
torical sense  of  Scripture,  to  establish  the  spiritual 
(as  some  inquirers  have  done),  nor  do  they  find  a  hidden 
meaning  in  the  words  (as  do  the  Jews),  but  only  in  the  facts 
of  each  passage  ;  which  meaning  is  easy,  natural,  and  Scrip- 
tural ;  and  that  they  confine  themselves  to  such  expositions 
as  illustrate  some  truth  of  practical  or  of  spiritual  importance 
(Heb.  5.  II  :  9.  5).  Indeed,  an  examination  of  the  passages 
quoted  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  will  show  that 
they  are  adduced  exclusively  with  reference  either  to  the  per- 
sonal history  and  mediatorial  office  of  our  Lord,  to  the 
spiritual  character  of  his  kingdom,  or  to  the  future  destiny  of 
liis  church. 

.  427.  The  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture 

abuse  of  his-  has  been  so  greatly  abused,  that  it  becomes  im- 
^°^''  portant   to   illustrate   these    remarks    at    greater 

IcngtPi. 

428.  The  ancient  Jews  allegorized  on  the  words  of  Scripture. 

Among  the  I^  the  oi'iginal  of  the  word  translated  "  created,"  for 

Jews.  instance^   Gen.    i.   i,  they  find  the  first  letter  of  the 

Hebrew  for  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  and  hence  they  prove  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity.  They  refer  Psa.  21.  i,  to  Christ,  because  the 
letters  of  the  original,  for  "shall  joy,"  make  by  transposition, 
Messiah.  The  letter  {<  occurs  six  times  in  Gen  r.  r,  and  as  {St 
represents  loco,  they  suppose  that  the  existence  of  the  world  for 


ALLEGORY  :   ABUSE.  283 

6000  years,  is  tLe  truth  included  in  this  fact.  fiX,  the  sign  of  the 
definite  acciisative  in  Hebrew,  they  regard  as  including  the  M'hole 
essence  of  a  thing,  because  it  is  made  up  of  the  first  and  last  letters 
of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  In  the  same  spuit,  the  pseudo-Barnabas 
says  that  Abraham  circumcised  318  men  of  his  house,  Gen.  14.  14, 
because  this  number  in  Greek  letters,  represents  Jesus  and  the 
cross,  I  =:  10,  H  =r  8,  and  T  =  300. 

429.  Some  writers,  on  the  other  hand,  allegorize  Scripture 
by  destroying  its  facts. 

John  the  Baptist,  for  example,  is  said  to  have  had  no  real 
existence,  but  to  be  only  a  mythic  representation  of  the  collective 
body  of  the  Jewish  prophets  in  their  relation  to  Chiist.  The  nar- 
rative of  the  inn  and  manger  at  Bethlehem,  exhibits  nothing  more 
(they  add),  than  the  common  birth  into  oiir  world  of  everything 
Divine. 

In  the  same  spirit,  the  seven  days  of  creation  were  held  to  imply 
merely  the  perfection  of  the  work  of  God,  and  the  moving  of  the 
Spirit  of  God  on  the  face  of  the  waters,  to  indicate  the  spmtual 
washing  of  Christian  baptism. 

430.  A  practice  more  frequent,  though  scarcely  less  mis- 
chievous, has  been  adopted  in  all  ages,  of  admitting  the  his- 
torical truth  of  the  inspired  narrative,  and  basing  upon  every 
part  of  it  some  spiritual  doctrine,  not  as  illustrated,  but  as 
proved  and  intended  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

To  this  tendency  may  be  traced  the  impression,  that  the  seventh 
thousand  years  in  the  history  of  the  world,  will  be  the  millenium. 
The  division  of  animals  into  clean  and  unclean,  was  held  on  a  similar 
principle  to  represent  virtue  and  vice  in  human  nature.  The 
simplest  statements  were  thus  made  ridiculous.  Moses  had  said, 
''All  that  divideth  the  hoof  and  cheweth  the  cud,  ye  shall  eat," 
indicating,  says  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  that  we  should  hold  fast  to 
those  who  meditate  on  the  command,  and  who  (divide  the  hoof, 
that  is),  live  in  this  world,  but  have  their  expectation  in  another. 
Heaven  and  earth  in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  refer  (says  Tertullian),  to 
the  body  and  the  soul  of  man,  Luke  11.  2.  The  five  loaves  with 
which  our  Lord  fed  the  multitude,  represent,  says  Clement,  the 
five  senses,  John  6.  9.  ^Vjaother  writer  (Cyril),  regards  them  as  the 
five  books  of  Moses,  and  the  two  fishes  as  the  Grecian  philosophy, 
which  is  generated  and  carried  through  heathen  waters:  or  our 
Saviom''s  teaching,  as  apostolic  and  evangeHcal.  Origen  even  builds 
upon  the  images  of  Scripture,  as  he  calls  them,  the  doctrine  of  the 
final  restoration  of  the  whole  spu-itual  universe  to  its  original  bles- 
sedness and  purity. 


284  ALLEGORIES  AND  TYPES. 

Justin  thinks  that  the  wi-estliug  of  Jacob  was  a  type  of  the  tempta- 
tion of  our  Lord,  that  the  injury  he  received,  represented  the  suf- 
ferings and  death  of  Christ. 

Athanasius  who  sometimes  condemned  this  style  of  interpretation, 
expounds  Matt.  5.  29,  and  supposes  the  body  to  mean  the  church, 
the  eyes  and  hands  the  bishops  and  deacons,  who  ought  to  be  cut 
off,  if  they  commit  acts  hurtful  to  the  church, 

Hilary  thinks  that  the  fowls  of  the  air  (Matt.  6.  26-30),  are  im- 
clean  spirits,  to  whom  God  gives  life  without  trouble.  The  lilies 
are  the  angels:  the  grass,  the  heathen.  The  mother  of  Zebedee's 
children  represents  the  law:  her  children  the  believing  Jews. 

Cyril  thinks  Malchus  a  type  of  the  Jews,  and  that  as  Peter  cut  off 
his  right  eai',  so  they  were  to  be  deprived  of  right  hearing,  their 
hearing  being  only  sinister  or  disobedient. 

These  interpretations  were  all  justified  on  principle.  The  obvious 
historic  sense  of  a  passage  was  always  regarded  as  the  less  important, 
sometimes  even  as  altogether  untrue;  while  the  spiritual  or  allego- 
rical was  alone  deemed  worthy  of  an  enlightened  mind.  Hence 
Oi'igen  maintains  that  the  history  of  the  creation,  of  Lot's  incest,  of 
Abraham's  two  wives,  of  Jacob's  marriage  with  Leah  and  liachel,  is 
all  an  allegory ;  so  readily  do  extremes  l)eget  each  other. 

These  examples  were  widely  copied  among  the  various  sects  which 
sprang  up  in  the  early  church.  All  justified  their  dogmas  by  alle- 
gorical interpretations  of  Scripture :  and  in  the  end  the  literal  historic 
sense  with  all  the  moral  and  spiritual  lessons  it  conveyed  was  over- 
looked or  denied. 

431.  Intelligent  piety  will  reject  all  these  fabulous  inter- 
pretations, the  results  of  a  vagrant  fancy,  and  will  be  at  no 
loss  to  elicit  from  the  historical  parts  of  Ssripture,  the  chief 
lessons  of  holy  wisdom  they  were  designed  to  supply.  The 
essential  points  are,  that  many  characters  and  transactions 
recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  are  typical,  that  many  more 
exhibit  qualities  which  we  are  to  imitate  or  condemn,  that 
others  illustrate  principles  of  the  Divine  government  which 
are  still  in  force,  and  that  none  must  be  interpreted  without 
a  reference  to  the  clear  revelations  which  are  given  in  other 
parts  of  the  Divine  word. 

432.  Types  (it  may  be  added),  are  prophetic,  and  may  be 
i>pcs,  both  used  to  prove,  as  well  as  to  illustrate  the  gospel, 
analogical  Examples,  analogies,  and  resemblances,  not  an- 
phetk.*^*  nounced  as  typical,  are  illustrative  only.  They 
explain  truth  rather  than  prove  it. 


allegory:  literature.  285 

433.  On  the  subjects  discussed  in  this  section,  see  especially 
on  the  parables — 

Dodd's  Discourses  on  the  Miracles  and  Parables,  4  vols.,  1757. 

A.  Gray's  Delineation  of  the  Parables,  1777. 

Lisco  on  the  Parables.     Clark,  1840. 

Trench's  Xotes  on  the  Parables  of  our  Lord,  1847. 

On  the  Types,  besides  M'Ewen  and  Wilson  (of  Irvine) — 

The  Gospel  of  the  Old  Testament,  from  St.  Matthew,  by 
Charlotte  EHzabeth. 

Marsh's  Lectures  on  Biblical  Criticism  and  Interpretation,  where 
it  is  maintained  that  nothing  is  a  type  unless  formally  recognised  as 
such  in  the  New  Testament:  Fairbairn  (Typology  of  Scnpture, 
2nd  Series),  maintaining  that  the  whole  of  the  previous  economy  is 
affii-med  in  the  New  Testament  to  be  typical.  This  principle  he 
appHes  to  the  patriarchal  and  Mosaic  institutions  and  history. 

Edwards,  on  the  Types  of  the  Messiah. 

On  Allegorical  Interpretation,  see — 

Olshausen  on  Biblical  Interpretation,  as  taught  oy  the  inspired 
writers:  or,  on  the  deep  sphitual  sense  of  Scripture.  ISTeufch., 
1 8  41,  and 

Maexscher  on  the  Types,  and  the  Typical  Interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture.   Am.  Bibl.  Eep.,  January,  1841. 

Sec.  8.   On  the  Interpretation  of  Prophecy. 

"In  a  certain  sense,  histoty  has  been  justly  called  the  interpreter  of  prophecy; 
btit  to  the  Israelite,  prophecy  was  more  the  interpreter  of  history,  for  it  gave  him 
intelligible  notice  of  approaching  events,  and  it  supplied  him  with  the  reasons  of 
God's  providence  in  bringing  those  events  to  pass." — Davisox  :  Lectures  on  PrO' 
phecy. 

434.  AH  the  difficulties  of  Scripture  interpretation  to  which 
Peculiar  diffi-  we  have  referred  are  to  be  found  in  prophecy.  Its 
pheUc^hiter-  language  is  largely  figurative,  and  often  allegorical. 
pretation,  Allusions  to  the  history  and  circumstances  of  the 
times  are  frequent.  The  events  recorded  are  for  the  most 
part  future,  and  but  dimly  revealed.  On  all  grounds,  there- 
fore, the  utmost  attention  is  required  rightly  to  understand 
the  meaning  of  the  inspired  predictions. 

As  the  prophets  are  called  seers,  the  prophecies  of  the 
Prophecies  Ol^i  Testament  are  commonly  called  visions,  Numb. 
visions.  24.  17  :  2  Chron.  9.  29  :  Ezek.  37  :  Hab.  2.  i.    Some 

of   them   were    recorded  in    writing,  for   the   information 


286  PROPHETIC  LANGUAGE. 

of  the  church  throughout  all  time  ;  others  were  communi- 
cated orally  by  the  prophets  to  their  contemporaries :  the 
whole  in  language  taken  largely  from  the  customs  and  wor- 
Hence  pecu-  ship  prevalent  among  them.  Hence  have  originated 
iruiicatious  of  several  peculiarities  of  the  prophetic  Scriptures, 
time.  425-  As  to  time : — 

1.  The  prophets  often  speak  of  things  that  belong  to  the 
remote  future  as  if  present  to  their  view. 

Thus  in  Isa.  9.  6  it  is  said,  "  Unto  us  a  child  is  born,  unto  us  a 
eon  is  given;"  so  in  Isa.  42.  i. 

2.  They  speak  of  things  future  as  past. 

In  Isa.  5  3,  for  example,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  transactions  of  the 
life  of  the  ''servant"  of  God  are  represented  as  finished:  the 
prophet  seeming  to  stand  between  the  death  of  our  Lord  and  his 
coming  glory. 

3.  When  the  precise  time  of  individual  events  was  not  re- 
vealed, the  prophets  describe  them  as  continuous.  They  saw 
the  future  rather  in  space  than  in  time  ;  the  whole,  therefore, 
appears  foreshortened,  and  perspective  rather  than  actual 
distance,  is  regarded.  They  seem  often  to  speak  of  future 
things  as  a  common  observer  would  describe  the  stars, 
grouping  them  as  they  appear,  and  not  according  to  their 
true  positions. 

In  Jer.  50.  41,  for  example,  the  first  conquest  and  the  complete 
destruction  of  Babylon  are  connected,  without  any  notice  of  the 
interval  between  them;  in  fact,  nearly  a  thousand  years  elapsed  be- 
tween the  first  shock  of  the  empire  in  the  attack  of  the  Persians 
and  the  final  overthrow  of  the  city. 

In  Isa.  chaps.  10,  11,  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  yoke 
of  the  Assyrians  is  connected  with  the  deliverance  which  was  to  be 
effected  by  the  Messiah. 

In  the  same  way,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Hosea,  Ezekiel,  and  Jeremiah, 
all  connected  these  two  events,  without  intimatmg,  however,  that 
the  Messiah  was  to  take  part  in  both. 

Zechariah,  again,  who  lived  after  the  exile,  connects  the  spiritual 
salvation  of  the  church  in  the  distant  future  with  the  temporal 
deliverance  of  the  Jews  under  Alexander  and  the  Maccabees. 

In  tlie  description  which  is  given  of  the  humiliation  and  glory  of 
the  Messiah,  there  is  seldom  any  notice  taken  of  the  time  which  is 
to  elapse  before  his  kingdom  is  established.     Both  are  often  con- 


PROPHETIC   LANGUAGE.  287 

uected  iu  the  same  verses,  as  in  Zech.  9.  9,  10.  Joel  connects  i'l 
the  same  way  the  etfiision  of  the  Si^iiit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and 
its  general  effosion  in  later  times,  chap.  2.  28,  etc. 

Sometimes,  indeed,  the  precise  time  wiis  revealed  to  the  prophet, 
and  is  recorded,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sojom^n  of  Abraham  and  his 
posterity  in  Egypt,  Gen.  15.  13;  the  sixty-five  years  in  which 
Israel  v.-as  to  be  broken,  Isa.  7.  8;  and  the  captivity  in  Babylon, 
Jer.  29.  10;  but  more  commonly  the  prophets  were  ignorant  of  it, 
us  the  apostle  Peter  tells  us,  and  as  Zechariah  has  acknowledged, 
I  Pet.  I.  10-12:  Zech.  14.  7. 

Very  often  the  events,  instead  of  being  represented  as  continuous, 
are  blended  together.  The  latter  parts  of  Isaiah,  and  some  of  the 
prophecies  of  our  Lord,  concerning  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  final  judgment,  illustrate  this  remark.  Matt.  24.  28,  29. 

436.  As  to  language : — As  the  future  was  thus  represented 
Hence  pecu-  ^  visions,  and  under  a  typical  dispensation,  it  can 
liarities  of  excite  no  Surprise  that  the  whole  is  often  described 
P  ra&eo  ogy.  ^^  figurative,  and  allegorical  or  symbolical  terms. 
If  prophecy  had  everywhere  consisted  of  literal  description,  it 
would  have  defeated  its  object,  and  either  have  prevented  the 
fulfilment,  or  have  taken  from  the  fulfilled  prophecy  all  evi- 
dence of  a  Divine  original.  Besides,  as  everything  earthly 
supplies  images  for  describing  things  spiritual,  so  does  the 
whole  of  the  Jewish  economy.  Language  borrowed  from 
nature  and  the  law  is  therefore  as  appropriate  as  it  is  neces- 
sary. The  unity  and  vastness  of  God's  plans  are  illustrated 
by  it  all. 

Under  the  gospel,  for  example,  Messiah  is  to  be  king,  and  hence 
the  prophets  represent  him  as  possessed  of  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  most  distinguished  princes  of  the  Jewish  theocracy,  and  more 
than  once  apply  to  him  the  title  of  David,  who  was,  in  many 
respects,  the  ideal  of  kingly  authority,  Hos.  3.  5:  Jer.  30.  9:  Acts 
13.  34.  They  describe  his  character  as  prophet  or  priest  in  the 
same  strain,  multiplying  images  in  each  case  adapted  to  give  the 
most  exalted  ideas  of  his  office,  Psa.  no:  Zech,  6:  Heb.  7.  In  the 
same  way,  they  speak  of  his  kingdom,  either  of  grace  or  glory,  as 
the  highest  perfection  of  the  Jewish  economy.  It  is  called  Jeru- 
salem, or  Zion,  Isa.  62.  i,  6,  7:  60.  15-20:  Gal.  4.  26-28:  Heb.  11. 
72.     See,  also,  Isa.  60.  6,  7;  66.  23.*     To  Joel,  the  outpoming  of 

'  See  ''Bickersteth  on  the  Prophecies,"  p.  50. 


288  FOUNDED   ON   JEWISH   HISTOIIY. 

the  Spirit  appears  as  a  general  extension  of  the  three  forms  of 
Divine  revelation  which  occur  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  idea  that 
all  nations  should  worship  the  true  God,  Zechariah  expresses  by  the 
declaration  that  they  will  join  in  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (14.  16). 
The  perfect  love  and  fidelity  of  the  people  of  God  appear  to  Hosea 
and  others  as  the  removal  of  the  worship  of  Baal,  and  the  abandon- 
ment by  the  church  of  Assyria  and  Egypt,  Zech.  14.  16:  Isa.  19. 
19-21:  Zech.  chaps.  2.  14.  13:  Mic.  5.  The  glory  of  the  Mes- 
siah's days  is  represented  by  the  prosperous  times  of  David  and 
Solomon,  Zech.  3.  10:  i  Kings  4.  25.  The  prevalence  of  peace,  by 
the  union  of  Judah  and  Israel,  Hos.  i.  ii:  Isa.  11.  13.  In  the 
same  way,  the  enemies  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah  are  not  only 
called  by  the  name  given  to  the  enemies  of  the  ancient  theocracy, 
viz.,  the  nations  of  the  Gentiles,  but  they  often  bear  the  name  of 
some  one  people  who,  at  the  time,  were  peculiarly  inimical  or  pow- 
erful. In  Isa.  25,  they  are  called  by  the  name  of  Moab;  in  Isa.  63 
and  Amos  9.  12,  by  the  name  of  Edom;  and  in  Ezek.  38,  by  the 
name  of  Magog.  There  are,  of  course,  specific  prophecies  con- 
cerning most  of  these  nations  and  cities,  but  their  names  are  also 
used  generically,  or  figuratively,  in  these  and  other  passages. 
Hence  we  have  foretold  the  restoration,  in  the  latter  days,  of  Moab 
and  Elam,  Jer.  48.  47:  49.  39.  Hence,  also,  the  ''blessing  to  the 
earth"  is  to  proceed  in  ''that  day"  from  Israel,  Assyria,  and 
Egypt,  Isa.  19.  18-25. 

437.  Nor  need  this  peculiarity  of  prophetic  language  excite 
surprise.  It  is  found  pervading  the  whole  ancient 
liarity  of  dispensation.  That  dispensation  began  with  the 
fangSag?  promise  to  Abraham.  His  descendants  were  to 
common  in  be  as  the  stars,  and  in  him  and  his  seed  all  nations 
cnp  ure.  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  blessed.  The  first  part  of  this  pre- 
diction was  fulfilled  in  his  literal  seed,  as  Moses  implies, 
Exod.  32.  13:  Deut.  I.  10,  II.  Paul  also  applies  it  to  his 
spiritual  seed,  even  to  all  who  believe,  Rom.  4.  16  :  Gal.  3.  8, 9. 
The  blessing  upon  all  nations,  the  second  part  of  the  promise, 
is  also  upon  all  as  behevers,  and  is  received  through  Christ, 
who  is  the  seed  according  to  the  flesh,  Gal.  3.  16,  19,  29. 

The  next  remarkable  fact  in  the  history  of  the  Jews  is 
their  deliverance  from  Egypt,  and  in  connection  with  that 
deliverance  the  most  remarkable  expressions  are  used  to 
indicate  the  favour  which  God  bore  them.  All  of  these  ex- 
pressions, however,  are  in  the  New  Testament  applied  to  the 


LANGUAGE  FOUNDED   ON  JEWISH  HISTORY.  289 

church.  God  is  said  to  have  chosen  them  (Deut.  lo.  15  : 
Ezek.  20.  5  :  Eph.  14).  He  delivered  and  saved  them  (Exod. 
3.  8  :  14.  30 :  Gal.  1.4:1  Thess.  i.  10 :  2  Tim.  i.  9) ;  He 
created  and  called  them  (Isa.  43.  i  :  44.  2  :  i  Cor.  1.9:  Col. 
3.  10).  Both  are  sows,  helpless,  and  dear  (Ezek.  16.  3-6 :  Isa. 
44.  2:  Deut.  32.  6:  Gal.  3.  26:  i  Pet.  i.  3);  both  are 
hrethren  (Deut.  i.  16:  Col.  i.  2) ;  a  house,  o,  family  (Numb. 
12.  7  :  Heb.  3.  6)  ;  a  nation  (Deut.  4.  34 :  i  Pet.  2.  9)  ;  both 
felloio-citizens,  with  aliens  around  them  (Exod.  20.  10  :  Eph. 
2.  19) ;  and  both  heirs  of  their  appropriate  inheritance 
(Numb.  26.  53  :  Heb.  9.  15).  Compare  in  the  same  way  the 
apphcation  of  the  following  words  under  the  two  dispensa- 
tions. "  Servants  ;"  "  husband  "  and  "  wife,"  "  mother  "  and 
''  children ;"  "  adultery  ;"  "  sanctuary  "  or  "  temple  ;"  "  priests ;" 
"saints"  or  "holy;"  "near"  or  "nigh,"  and  "afar  oflf;" 
"  congregation  "  or  "  church  ;"  "  vine,"  "  vineyard  ;"  "  shep- 
herd," "flock;"  "inheritance"  or  "heritage;"  or  the  privi- 
leges and  duties  which  these  terms  imply,  and  it  wiU  be 
found  that  nearly  aU  the  characteristic  names  of  Israel  are 
apphed  to  the  body  of  believers.  In  the  first  case,  the 
blessings  and  relations,  so  far  as  the  people  were  concerned, 
are  earthly  and  temporal ;  in  the  second,  spiritual  and 
eternal:  individual  spiritual  blessings  being  enjoyed  in  both. 

The  apostles  reason  throughout  their  writings  on  the  same 
princi]3le.  We  who  believe,  and  are  united  to  Christ,  are 
children  of  Abraham  and  heirs  of  his  promise  (Gal.  3.  29  • 
Eom.  4.  II,  16);  the  Israel  of  God  (Gal.  6.  16),  as  distin- 
guished from  the  Israel  according  to  the  flesh  (i  Cor.  10. 18)  ; 
the  true  circumcision  (Phil.  3.  3),  who  therefore  appropriate 
ancient  promises  (Gen.  22.  16,  17,  applied  to  all  behevers : 
Heb.  6.  13,  20  :  Deut.  31.  6  :  Josh.  i.  5,  quoted  Heb.  13.  4,5  : 
Hos,  I.  10:  2.  23,  quoted  Rom.  9.  24-36). 

438.  After  the  exode  comes  the  institution  of  the  ritual 
Leviticai  l^-w,  its  sacrifices,  priesthood,  mercy-seat,  taber- 
^'^^^  nacle  and  temple,  and  worship.     All  these,  it  need 

hardly  be  remarked,  are  represented  in  the  prophets  as  being 
restored  in  the  latter  days,  and  in  the  Gospels  each  expression 
is  applied  to  our  Lord  or  to  his  church.  He  is  priest,  and 
propitiatory  (tXaorr/piov),  tabernacle  {aicrjvii,  John  i.  14),  and 
temple  {vaug,  John  2.  19) ;  as  also,  since  his  ascension,  is  his 

O 


290  LANGUAGE  FOUNDED   ON  JEWISH   HISTORY. 

church  (i  Cor.  3.  16).  Her  members  offer  spiritual  offerings. 
They  form  a  royal  priesthood,  a  holy  nation. 

439.  The   next  prophetic   era  begins  with   Samuel.     His 
tabU  h-      chief  office  was  to  prepare  for  the  estabHshment  of 

nientofthe  kingly  authority.  He  was  commissioned,  more- 
8  °°^"  over,  to  give  to  David  an  assurance  that  his  seed 
should  sit  upon  his  throne  for  ever,  i.  e.,  literally  till  the  end 
of  the  kingdom,  or,  spiritually,  in  the  person  of  his  greater 
Son,  till  all  things  should  be  put  under  his  feet.  Of  this  en- 
larged meaning  Samuel  says  nothing,  nor  does  Nathan ;  but 
David,  himself  a  prophet,  clearly  understands  it,  applies  it  in 
part  to  himself  (2  Kings  2.  4),  but  passes  on  the  fulness  of 
the  promise  to  his  Lord,  Psa.  2  :  72  :  no.  All  these  Psalms 
are  applied,  in  the  New  Testament,  to  the  kingdom  which 
Christ  commenced  when  he  appeared  on  earth  (Heb.  i.  5),  or 
rose  from  the  dead  (Rom.  i.  4). 

440.  This  prophetic  era  is  closed  with  the  predictions  of 
Later  pre-  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  the  later  prophets.  The 
dictions.  great  theme  of  their  predictions  is  the  restoration 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  re-estabhshment  of  that  dispensation 
which  seemed  hastening,  without  hope  of  remedy,  to  decay  ; 
and  under  a  twofold  form  this  theme  is  presented.  The 
prophets  who  preceded  the  captivity,  and  those  who  hved  in 
it,  foretell  a  restoration,  and  borrow  from  it  phrases  to  de- 
scribe the  estabhshment  of  a  7ieiu  kingdom.  Haggai  and 
Zechariah  foretell  the  rebuilding  of  a  temple,  and  under  that 
figure  speak  of  the  church.  After  the  temple  was  finished, 
Jewish  worship  was  selfish  and  insincere.  Malachi  therefore 
foretells  the  coming  of  one  who  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi, 
and  secure  from  all  a  spiritual  offering. 

In  a  word,  not  only  the  prophets,  but  all  the  inspired 
writers  describe  the  church  in  terms  borrowed  from  suc- 
cessive stages  in  the  history  of  the  ancient  economy. 
Whether  because  Old  Testament  prophecy  is  expressed  in 
•Question of  terms  founded  on  that  economy,  therefore  when 
Sn'henS^  apphcd  to  the  church  it  has  no  fiirther  or  more 
arising.  literal  fulfilment,    is    another   question.      In   the 

meantime,  mark  the  fact  from  which  that  question  arises. 
That  fact  is  itself  of  great  importance  in  explaining  both  the 
gospel  and  the  law. 


DOUBLE  APPLICATION  OF  PROPHECY.  291 

441.  From  the  typical  character  of  ancient  dispensations 
Poubi  r  ^^^^^  another  peculiarity  of  prophecy.  It  not 
cation  of  pro-  Only  speaks  their  language,  but  it  has  often  a 
SeTj^elid  <iouble  appHcation.  It  apphes  to  one  object  by 
toiLfcauti-  anticipation  and  partially,  and  to  another  com- 
pletely ;  the  earher  object  being  the  representative 
of  the  later.  In  the  promises  to  Abraham  (Gen.  15,  etc.),-  in 
the  prediction  of  Jacob  concerning  Judah  (Gen.  49),  of 
Balaam  (Numb.  24.  17),  of  Nathan  (2  Sam.  7.  12-17),  and  of 
David  in  some  of  the  Psalms,  in  many  parts  of  Isaiah 
and  other  prophets,  there  is  this  double  reference.  As  the 
history  of  the  Jews  foreshadows  the  history  of  the  church,  so 
does  prophecy  the  experience  of  both.  Not  all  parts  of  pro- 
phecy are  thus  apphcable,  nor,  judging  from  examples  given 
in  the  New  Testament,  are  any  parts  thus  apphcable  to  be 
apphed  indiscriminately.  In  fact,  the  double  apphcation  is 
restricted  to  similar  events  under  two  different  and  remote 
economies,  and  is  never  extended  to  two  different  events 
under  the  same  economy.  Prophecies  on  the  restoration 
from  Babylon  (Jer.  31  :  Isa.  52),  on  the  setting  up  of  the 
tabernacle  of  David  (Amos  9),  and  on  his  kingdom  (2  Sam.  7), 
had  all,  to  a  certain  extent,  an  immediate  fulfilment,  and  are 
yet  apphed  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  gospel  dispensation. 
To  that  dispensation  in  itself,  or  in  its  results,  this  double 
application  must  be  confined. 

442.  It  follows  from  this  double  sense  that,  as  in  the  first 
How  fuimied  fulfilment  there  is  a  limit  to  the  blessing  foretold, 
in  each  case,  g^^  jj^  ^]^g  second,  there  is  a  fulness  of  meaning 
which  it  seems  impossible  to  exhaust.  To  David,  for  ex- 
ample, the  promise  was  partly  conditional,  partly  absolute. 
As  conditional,  it  cannot  be  apphed  to  Christ,  and  as  abso- 
lute, it  cannot  be  apphed  in  its  fuUest  hteral  meaning  to 
David.  "  I  wiU  estabhsh  the  throne  of  his  kingdom  for  ever. 
If  he  commit  iniquity  I  will  chastise  him  with  the  rod  of 
men  .  .  .  but  my  mercy  shall  not  depart  away  from  him  as  I 
took  it  from  Saul,"  2  Sam.  7.  13-15.  The  condition  both 
David  and  God  repeat  (i  Kings  2.  4  :  9.  4),  and  the  promise 
that  David's  seed  should  occupy  the  throne  for  ever,  had  of 
course,  in  a  hteral  sense,  but  a  hmited  fulfilment.  For  ever 
may  mean  tiU  the  end  of  the  kingdom,  or  tih  the  end  of  the 
pohty  ;  the  phrase  implying  perpetuity  of  duration  through- 

02 


23 J  KEFEATED   FULFILMENTS. 

out  the  period — a  system  of  things  to  which  reference  is 
understood  to  be  made.  In  fact,  David's  family  occupied  the 
throne  till  the  end  of  the  kingdom,  holding  it  through  twenty 
descendants  for  upwards  of  400  years ;  while,  in  the  brief 
duration  of  Israel  (254  years),  there  were  nineteen  kings,  of 
nine  different  families.  There  was,  therefore,  a  hteral  fulfil- 
ment of  the  promise,  but  clearly  a  fulfilment  less  glorious 
than  when  applied  to  the  Messiah.  In  truth,  prophecy  bor- 
rowed from  previous  types  is  as  unequal  to  describe  his  king- 
dom as  is  narrative,  founded  on  ritual  institutions,  to  describe 
his  office.  We  call  him  prophet  and  priest ;  our  sacrifice 
and  intercessor  ;  but  no  one  of  the  institutions  whence  these 
names  are  taken,  nor  all  combined,  can  speak  his  glory  or  tell 
his  worth. 

443.  We  must  add  that,  while  there  is  in  reference  to 
Repeated  fui-  ^JV^^  ^'^^  antitypes  a  double  application  of  pro- 
flimentsof  phecy,  there  are  prophecies  which  are  of  the 
piop  ecies.  j^g^^^j.g  Qf  general  moral  principles,  and  which  are 
therefore  repeatedly  fulfilled.  The  proud  shall  be  brought 
low  (Isa.  2.  11),  They  that  forsake  God  .shall  be  con- 
sumed (i.  31),  The  bread  of  the  upright  shall  be  given 
him,  and  his  water  shall  be  sure  (33,  15,  16),  are  instances. 
Each  prediction  was  spoken  on  a  jjarticular  occasion,  and 
each  is  applicable  as  a  general  truth  to  all  time.  In  such 
moral  predictions  the  prophetic  writings  abound  ;  and  in 
reference  to  them  the  remark  of  Leighton  is  peculiarly  appro- 
priate, that  the  "  sweet  stream  of  prophecy  did,  as  the  rivers, 
make  its  own  banks  fertile  and  pleasant,  as  it  ran  by  and 
flowed  still  forward  to  after  ages.' 

444.  Such  being  the  structure  of  prophecy,  the  rules  of 

interpretation  of  most  importance  are  clearly  such 
as  refer  to  the  history  and  circumstances  of  the 
authors— the  use  and  meaning  of  figurative  language  general, 
— parallel  predictions  and  partial  fulfilment,  and  especially 
such  as  are  suggested  by  the  application  made  in  the  New 
Testament,  of  ancient  predictions. 

I.  Let  the  student  of  prophecy  ascertain  the  exact  position 
of  the  prophet  in  relation  both  (i),  to  his  age,  and 

Ascertain  the  i      r  \    n  o  > 

position  of  (2),  to  his  predictions,  (i.)  Each  prophet  was  a 
each  prophet,  jj^essenger  to  his  own  times.  From  the  circum- 
stances of  his  country  he  borrowed  his  imagery,  and  to  the 


RULES  OF  INTERPRETATION,  293 

moral  and  physical  condition  of  his  country  as  existing  or  as 
foreseen,  he  adapted  his  message.  If  he  foretells  impending 
evil,  the  more  distant  future  is  the  opposite  of  the  evil  he 
foretells.  If  he  describes  immediate  good,  the  future  is  the 
completion  of  the  good  he  describes.  And  even  when  that 
future  is  more  distant,  it  is  ever  linked  with  the  present  by 
phrases  level  to  the  capacity,  and  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the 
age.  (2.)  Ascertain  also  his  standing  point  in  relation  to  his 
own  predictions.  Let  the  student  also  take  his  place  if 
possible  by  the  prophet's  side,  and  look  with  him  on  the  past 
and  on  the  future.  If  his  country  Hes  desolate  around  him, 
reahze  and  learn  to  describe  its  condition.  If  he  seem  in 
vision  amidst  the  scenes  of  the  gospel,  stand  near  him  at  the 
birth,  or  death,  or  in  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord. 

To  understand  Isaiah,  for  example,  read  repeatedly  2  Kings 
14-21:  2  Chron.  16-22.  Mai'k  also  the  connection,  and  if  possible^ 
the  centre  of  each  prediction  (see  p.  286).  When  and  where  the  last 
six  chapters  of  Zechariah  were  AAritten  is  a  question  essential  to  a 
right  understanding  of  that  part  of  his  prophecies.  If  written  by 
him  (and  not  as  some  suppose,  by  Jeremiah),  these  chapters  must 
refer  to  the  time  of  our  Lord,  the  second  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
and  subsequent  events  (14.  2).  If  again,  they  were  written  after 
the  return  of  Ezra,  with  the  last  band  of  the  captivity,  the  pre- 
dictiouG  of  chapter  10,  have  not  yet  received  even  a  partial  fulfil- 
ment.    See  Introductions  to  the  prophetic  books. 

2.  Famiharize  yourself  with  the  language  of  prophecy — its 
study  the  figures  and  symbols.  In  these  prophecy  is  more 
fau^t^^'Tof  ^^^^  than  common  history.  Its  poetic  style  and 
Scripture.  other  reasons  make  its  usage  in  this  respect  both 
necessary  and  appropriate.  The  meaning  of  these  figures  is 
pretty  nearly  fixed :  and  though  perhaps  not  clear  to  those 
who  first  used  them,  to  us  -with  the  completed  Bible  in  our 
hands  they  ought  to  be  familiar. 

Compare,  for  example,  the  following  passages  : — 

Descriptions  of  afflictions  and  distress,  Psa.  42.  7:  Isa.  13.  13: 
29.  6:  34.  4:  Jer.  4.  23-26:  Ezek.  32.  7,  8:  38.  20:  Joel  2.  10,  30,. 
31:  Amos  8.  8,  9. 

Interpositions  of  Di\ine  Providence  and  grace  in  delivery  from 
dangers,  Psa.  18.  7-17:  Nah.  i.  4,  5:  Hab.  3.  5-11:  Zech.  14.  4. 

The  joy  of  deliverance,  Isa.  33.  17:  35.  1-7:  55.  12,  13:  60.  13: 
65.  25:  Joel  4.  18. 


294  RULES  OF  INTERPRETATION. 

See  also  the  classification  of  Scripture  symbols,  at  the  close 
of  this  Section. 

Further  light  may  often  be  obtained  in  determining  whether 
words  be  xised  figuratively  or  not : 
(a.)  From  the  words  themselves. 

To  this  rule  belong  numerous  illustrations  founded  on  the  typical 
character  of  the  Jewish  people.  The  kingdom  of  David  is  foretold 
.'liter  he  had  appeared,  and  the  earlier  occiurences  of  Jewish  history, 
are  spoken  of  as  if  they  were  to  be  repeated,  Isa.  ii.  15,  16:  so  in 
Zech.  10.  11:  Hos.  2.  14,  15:  Isa.  4.  5. 

(h.)  Sometimes  from  the  context : 

To  interpret  Isa.  66.  20  literally,  requires  that  verses  21,  23 
should  also  be  interpreted  literally;  involving  the  re-estal>lishment 
of  the  Jewish  priesthood  and  worship.  This  last  view  seems  incon- 
sistent mth  the  reasoning  of  Heb.  10.  lu  the  last  eight  chapters  of 
Ezekiel,  the  literal  interpretation  seems  at  first,  to  have  much  in  its 
favour,  and  yet  many  passages  cannot  be  explained  literally.  In 
chapter  47.  1-12,  for  example,  a  stream  of  water  of  unfathomable 
depth  is  said  to  flow  out  from  the  temple,  restoring  the  waters  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  spreading  life  wherever  it  comes.  The  aptness 
of  this  passage  to  describe  the  progress  of  the  gospel  through  the 
outpouring  of  the  Sphit,  is  obvious:  so  in  Zech.  14.  8,  In  any  case, 
the  whole  must  be  consistently  explained. 

(c.)  Sometimes  we  need  to  refer  to  parallel  passages  : 

In  Isa.  II,  the  kingdom  of  Messiah  is  spoken  of  as  a  kingdom  oi 
peace;  and  in  chap.  9,  the  prophet  speaks  of  the  wars  and  victories 
of  his  reign.  A  reference  to  the  New  Testament,  or  to  other  parts 
of  the  same  prophet,  shows  that  chapter  9,  is  figuratively  expressed. 
The  war  and  peace  are  real,  but  not  literal. 

3.  It  is  a  golden  rule,  that  as  prophecy  is  not  "  self-inter- 
Comparepre-  pretative "  (of  private  interpretation,  2  Pet.  i.  20, 
kSwS'fui-^^  21),  each  of  the  predictions  of  Scripture  must  bo 
liiments.  compared  with  others,  on  the  same  topic,  and  with 
history,  both  profane  and  inspired.  Parallel  predictions  will 
often  throw  light  upon  one  another,  and  recorded  fulfilments 
will  explain  predictions  or  parts  of  predictions  still  unfulfilled. 
History  and  the  New  Testament  will  thus  often  fix  the  mean- 
ing of  individual  passages,  and  these  will  illuminate  and 
explain  their  respective  connections. 


RULES  OP  INTERPRETATION.  295 

Compare  in  this  way  the  parallel  predictions  on  Babylon,  Tyre, 
Egypt,  Amnion,  Nineveh,  Edom,  and  Moab  (See  Epitome  of  the 
Prophets,  Paa-t  ii.),  and  on  the  man  of  sin,  2  Thess.  2 :  i  John  2. 
18;  Dan.  7:  Rev.  13. 

A  few  instances  of  recorded  fulfilments  taken  from  profane 
history  may  be  seen  in  the  Section  on  Evidences. 

Fulfilments  recorded  in  the  New  Testament  may  be  seen 
in  the  chapter  on  Scripture  Difficulties. 

4.  Mark  the  principles  of  prophetic  interpretation  sane- 
Mark  tiie  tioned  by  the  New  Testament.  It  gives  from  God 
principles  of  ^-^q  meaning  of  the  Old,  and  while  fixing  the  sense 
tionsauc-  of  particular  passages,  it  suggests  principles  of 
New  Testa?^  interpretation  applicable  to  all  (See  Chap.  VI.  Sec.  i). 
™ent.  Instead  of  pointing  out  these  principles  at  length, 

we  may  notice  and  illustrate  one  which  is  suggested  in  almost 
every  chapter  of  the  later  Revelation. 

The  great  end  and  theme  of  prophecy  is  CmiiST;  either  in  his 
Its  great  end  person  and  ojB&ce,  or  in  the  establishment  of  his  king- 
is  Christ,  dom.  Under  this  twofold  division  most  of  the  Old 
Testament  predictions  may  be  ranged:  some  of  them  are  already 
fulfilled,  others  are  in  course  of  fulfilment,  and  others,  again,  are  to 
be  fulfilled  at  some  future  day. 

In  paradise,  prophecy  gave  the  first  promise  of  a  Redeemer.  In 
Abraham,  it  connected  the  covenants  of  Canaan,  and  of  the  gospel. 
In  the  law,  it  spoke  of  the  second  prophet,  and  foreshadowed  in  types 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  To  David,  it  revealed  the  kingdom  of 
his  greater  Son.  In  the  days  of  the  later  prophets,  it  pre -signified 
the  changes  of  the  Judaic  economy;  gave  the  history  of  the  chief 
pagan  kingdoms,  and  completed  the  announcement  of  the  Messiah. 
After  the  captivity,  it  gave  clearer  information  still  of  the  advent  of 
the  gospel.  In  the  days  of  our  Lord,  it  spoke  in  parables  and 
direct  predictions ;  and  at  last,  in  dark  symboHcal  language,  foretold 
the  history  and  final  glory  of  his  reign.  "  The  testimony  of  Jesus  " 
ia  indeed  "  the  spuit  of  px'ophecy,"  John  5.  39:  Acts  3.  18:  10,  43; 
Rom.  I.  2:  3.  21,  22:  Rev.  19.  10. 

This  fact  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  proves  the 
general  scope  of  ancient  predictions,  and  Hmits  them.  It 
teaches  us  to  seek  Christ  everywhere,  under  both  Dispensa- 
tions, and  it  makes  plain  the  general  meaning  of  these  pre- 
dictions themselves. 

445.  While  most  inquirers  concur  on  the  whole  in  these 


2i)G  TWO  SYSTEMS   OF   INTERPRETATION. 

rules,  the  application  of  them  has  led  to  very 
ofinterpre-  different  results,  owing  chiefly  to  the  importance 
tation.  which  is  attached  by  various  classes  to  particular 

rules. 

In  much  that  is  essential  these  results  agree, — 
Points  of  I-  The  hterai  fulfilment  of  predictions   which 

agreement,  refer  to  our  Lord's  lirst  coming  is  admitted  by  all. 
Passages  which  might  seem  sufficiently  fulfilled  in  a  general 
sense  by  the  events  of  his  hfe,  were  nevertheless  fulfilled  to 
the  letter.  His  riding  upon  an  ass,  the  division  of  his  rai- 
ment, the  appointment  of  his  death  with  the  wicked,  and  of 
his  grave  with  the  rich  are  examples,  Zech.  9.  9  :  Psa.  22.  18  : 
Isa.  53.  9. 

2.  The  hterai  fulfilment  of  many  predictions  in  relation  to 
the  history  of  the  Jews,  and  of  other,  nations,  is  admitted  by 
most ;  and  both  facts  are  used  by  one  class  of  inquirers  as 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture  ;  by  the  other  class  they 
are  likewise  used  as  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  and 
also  as  illustrations  of  the  principles  of  interpretation  which 
we  ought  to  apply  to  prophecy  not  yet  fulfilled. 

3.  As  to  the  scheme  of  prophecy  generally,  most  admit  that 
it  has  two  centres,  round  which  all  events  revolve :  these 
centres  marking  the  eminences  from  which  the  history  of  the 
world  and  of  the  church  may  be  best  surveyed.  The  one  is 
the  first  advent  of  our  Lord,  to  .suffer,  the  other  is  his  second 
advent  to  reign,  the  latter  to  be  followed  after  an  interval,  by 
the  judgment. 

4.  The  future  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  the  general  pre- 
valence of  truth,  in  fulfilment  of  the  glorious  predictions  of 
both  Testaments— ending,  after  various  struggles,  in  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  enemies  of  the  faith,  are  also  generally 
admitted.  To  this  view  many  from  both  classes  add  the 
restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  land. 

In  describing  these  events,  there  is  also  extensive  agree- 
ment. Predictions  of  spiritual  blessing  to  be  enjoyed  under 
the  gospel,  are  applied  by  both  parties  without  scruple, 
to  the  Christian  church  ;  and  the  reign  of  righteousness,  it  is 
held  on  both  sides,  will  be  visible  as  well  as  spiritual,  affecting 
social  relations,  and  modifying  by  its  influence  all  human 
society.  So  far,  there  is  substantial  agreement  among  most 
students  of  prophecy. 


TWO  SYSTEMS  OF  INTERPRETATION.  297 

446.  The  above  is  (in  brief)  all  which  the  one  class  of 
/•(.ints  of  inquirers  find  there.  Giving  great  weight  to  the 
difierence.  facts,  that  the  Jews  were  types,  that  the  distinction 
between  Jew  and  Gentile  is  formally  abolished,  and  that  our 
dispensation  is  spiritual ;  thinking,  moreover,  that  the  descrip- 
tions in  prophecy,  if  taken  Hterally,  would  lead  to  a  behef  in 
the  restoration  of  Judaism,  and  ia  the  introduction  of  a 
system  adapted  to  th^  infancy  rather  than  the  maturity  of 
the  church ;  finding  that  these  descriptions,  so  far  as  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Jews  is  concerned,  are  not  repeated 
in  the  New  Testament,  and  that  many  prophecies  which  seem 
to  apply  to  them  as  a  nation,  are  referred  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament to  the  church,  or  to  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  Acts 
2.  17-21  :  Kom.  II.  26 ;  they  conclude  that  a  spiritual  inter- 
pretation of  the  whole  series  is  most  consistent  with  the 
tenor  of  Scripture. 

The  other  class  go  further.  Much  of  this  reasoning  they 
admit  to  be  true  ;  deeming  it,  however,  not  all  the  truth.  Find- 
ing that  predictions  even  of  spiritual  blessing  have  had  for 
the  most  part  a  literal  accomplishment,  that  the  Jews  are 
spoken  of  in  both  dispensations  as  still  beloved  for  their 
father's  sake,  that  many  prophecies  (those  for  example, 
which  speak  of  Israel  and  Judah  in  terms,  either  inapphcable 
to  the  first  return,  or  written  after  it,  Isa.  11.  12  :  Hos.  3.  15  : 
Zech.  14),  remain  unfulfilled,  that  the  language  of  these  pro- 
phecies, though  often  applicable  in  a  general  subordinate  sense 
to  the  Christian  church,  cannot  be  confined  to  it  without 
doing  violence  to  the  commonest  rules  of  speech,  that  in  the 
New  Testament,  prophecies  having  undoubtedly  an  early  ful- 
filment in  Jewish  history,  or  in  the  Christian  church  (as  Isa. 
13.  9,  10 :  25.  8 :  Hag.  2.  6),  seem  referred  to  as  having 
fulfilments  still  future  (Matt.  24  :  i  Cor.  15.  54  :  Heb.  12.  26), 
they  maintain,  that  besides  a  first  accomplishment  of  many 
predictions  in  the  history  of  the  Jews,  and  the  spiritual  ac- 
complishment of  others  under  the  gospel,  many  remain  to  be 
accomphshed  in  a  hteral  and  more  extended  sense.  They 
hold,  therefore,  throughout,  the  principle  of  literal  interpre- 
tation, whether  predictions  refer  to  the  restoration  of  the  Jews, 
to  the  second,  i.  e.,  as  most  think  it,  the  pre-millenial  advent 
of  Christ,  or  the  establishment  of  his  reign. 

03 


298  SYSTEMS   OE   PKOPHECT. 

447.  A  complete  view  of  these  two  systems  of  interpreta- 
tion may  be  obtained  from  the  following  Tables, 
systems         One  is  taken  from  Powel's  "  Concordance  "  (1673)  ; 
iUustrated.     ^-^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  Bickersteth's  "  Guide  to  the 

Prophecies." 

i.  The  Jews  shall  be  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  earth  and 
(a)  Inrela-  brought  to  their  own  land,  Isa,  11.  11:  27.  12,  13:  43. 
tioutothe  5,  6:  49.  II,  12:  60.  4.  Compare  Jer.  3.  18:  16.  14, 
'^^"^'  15:  23.  3:  30.  10:  31.  7-10:  32.  37:  so  Hos.  II.  ic,  11: 

Zeph.  3.  10:  Zech.  8.  7,  8:  10.  8-10. 

ii.  They  shall  be  carried  by  the  Gentiles  to  their  place,  who  shall 
join  themselves  with  the  Jews,  and  become  the  Lord's  people,  Isa. 
49.  22:  14.  2:  60.  9:  66.  18,  20:  2.  2-4.  Compare  Jer.  3.  17:  16. 
19:  Ezek.  47.  22,  23:  Mic.  5.  3:  Zech.  2.  ii:  8.  20-23. 

iii.  Great  miracles  shall  be  wrought  when  Israel  is  restored. 

1.  Drying  up  the  Euphrates,  Isa.  11.  15,  16:  Zech.  10.  11:  Rev. 
16.  12:  Hos.  II.  15:  ^lic.  7-  15- 

2.  Giving  rivers  in  desert  places,  Isa.  41.  17-19:  48.  20,  21:  43. 
19,  20. 

3.  Sending  prophets,  Isa.  66.  18-21:  Hos.  12.  9,  10. 

4.  The  Lord  Christ  himself  as  their  head,  Isa.  35.  4:  52.  12:  58. 
8:  Hos.  I.  10,  11:  Mic.  2.  12,  13. 

iv.  The  Jews  restored  from  a  state,  with  judges  and  counsellors; 
the  Lord  Christ  their  Bang,  who  will  then  be  acknowledged  as  king 
over  the  other  nations,  Isa.  i.  26:  60.  17.  Compai-e  Jer.  23.  4:  30. 
8,  9,  21:  Hos.  3.  5:  Ezek.  34.  23,  24:  37.  24,  25:  Isa.  54.  5:  Obad. 
21:  Zech.  14.  5,  9:  Psa.  22.  27,  28. 

V.  They  shall  have  victory  over  all  enemies,  and  all  kingdoms 
and  nations  shall  submit  themselves  unto  them,  Isa.  11.  13,  14: 
14.  I,  2:  41.  14-16:  49.  23:  60.  12:  25.  10-12:  Joel  3.  7,  8,  19,  20: 
Obad.  17.  18:  Mic.  4.  6-13:  5.  5-7:  7-  16,  17:  Zech.  2.  13:  9-  13-16: 
10.  5,  6:  12.  6:  Numb.  24.  17:  Isa.  60.  10-16:  66.  19,  20. 

6.  The  Jews  restored  will  live  peaceably,  without  division  or  con- 
tentions, Isa.  II.  13,  14:  14.  I,  2:  Jer.  3.  18:  50.  4:  I^zek.  37.  21 
22:  Hos.  I.  II. 

Be  very  numerous,  Isa.  27.  6:  44.  3,  4:  49.  18-21:  54.  1-3:  6r.  9: 
Jer.  23.  3:  30. 18-20:  31.  27:  Ezek.  36.  37,  38. 

Have  great  outward  prosperity,  Isa.  32.  16-18:  33.  24:  54.  13-17: 
60.  18,  21:  Jer.  23.  3-6:  30.  10:  31.  34-40:  33.  6-9:  50.  9j  10- 
Joel  3.  17,  18:  Mic.  7.  18-20:  Zeph.  3.  13. 

Be  a  blessing  to  the  earth,  Isa.  19.  24,  25 :  61.  9:  Jer.  33.  9:  Ezek. 
34.  26;  Zeph.  3.  19:  Zech.  8.  13. 


SYSTEMS  OF  PEOPHECT.  299 

vii.  The  land  of  Judsea  shall  be  eminently  friutful,  Isa.  29.  17: 
35.  1-9:  51.  3,  16:  54.  11-13:  55.  12,  13:  60.  13,  17:  65.  25:  Ezek. 
34.  26,  27:  36.  36:  Joel  3.  18:  Amos  9.  13,  14. 

viii.  Jei-iisalem  shall  be  rebuilt,  never  to  be  destroyed,  Isa.  52.  i: 
26.  i:  60,  18:  33.  6:  Joel  3.  17:  Obad.  17:  Zech.  14.  10,  11:  Jer. 
31.  38-40:  Ezek.  38.  II. 

ix.  A  little  before  the  time  of  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  there 
shall  be  great  wars  and  desolation,  Isa.  34:  Joel  3.  i-io:  Zeph.  3. 
8,  9:  Ezek.  28.  25,  26:  Hag.  2.  21-23:  Jer,  30.  7-10:  2  Chron.  15. 
3-7. 

Such  is  one  view.  Each  passage  is  taken  hterally  as  it 
stands.  The  other  view,  looking  at  the  typical  character  of 
the  ancient  J  ews  and  the  nature  of  prophetic  language,  re- 
gards the  whole  as  appHcable  either  to  the  first  return  from 
captivity,  or  subsequent  return  to  the  church  of  Christ 
under  the  dispensation  of  the  gospel,  or  to  the  conversion  of 
the  Jews,  and  the  establishment  among  them  of  that  system 
which  their  own  law  prefigured. 

Before  deciding  on  either  view,  let  the  student  compare, 
humbly  and  prayerfully,  the  inspired  interpretation  of  ancient 
prophecy  as  given  in  the  New  Testament. 

448.  jMr.  Bickersteth's  Table  gives  events,  in  part,  contem- 
poraneous with  the  preceding  ;  in  part,  subsequent  to  it. 

i.  As  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  are  passing  away,  their  power  is 
Cb).  In  rela-  overthrown,  though  vast  numbers  have  been  converted 
tiontothe  to  the  faith  (Dan.  2.  7:  Eev.  7.  9-14:  Eom.  11.  25-32: 
coi^Tof"'^  Luke  21.  24,  25);  the  Jews  are  visibly  recalled  into  the 
oiirLord.  chui-ch,  Dan.  9.  27:  Ezek.  20.  32-44:  Isa.  49.  9-12: 
62.  I. 

ii.  Tiiey  partake  of  renewed  favour,  are  restored  to  their  own 
land,^  and  are  exposed  to  persecution  from  apostate  Gentiles,  who, 
under  the  last  Antichrist,  come  against  restored  Israel.^ 

iii.  Soon,  signs  in  the  sun  and  stars  appear, '^  and  the  sign  of  the 
Son  of  man  himself  is  seen  in  the  heavens.** 

^  Ezek.  36.  1-38:  37.  20-23:  Psa.  37:  Isa.  11.  11,  12: 
21:  Jer.  31.  1-5:  Gen.  13.  14-18:  15.  18-21:  17.  7,  8: 
Exod.  6.  2-8:  Lev.  26.  40-44:  Deut.  30.  4-6:  32.  43. 

^  Jer,  30.  1-9:  Isa.  ic,  20-27:  Dan,  9.  27:  Isa.  31: 
Ezek.  38.  1-16:  Dan.  11.  41-45:  Joel  2.  1-20:  l^Iic.  4.  1 
12.  12. 

°  Matt.  24.  20-29:  Luke  21.  24-26:  Heb.  12.  26-28:  Hag  2.  6,  7: 
Isa.  13.  9-11:  34.  1-4:  Joel  3.  12-15:  2.  31,  32:  Mai.  4.  1-6. 

•^  Matt.  24.  29,  30:  Isa.  18.  3-7:  II.  12-14:  Dan.  8.  13,  14:  Matt. 
23.  39:  Luke  17.  24. 


62. 

4:  60. 

26. 

3,  4: 

n- 

i-io: 

5-10; 

;  Dan. 

300  SYSTEMS   OF  PROPHECY. 

iv.  Christ  raises  his  dead,  changes  his  living  saints,  and  they  I'ise 
to  be  with  him  in  the  air.  Matt,  24.  31 :  Kev.  11.  15,  18:  i  Cor.  15. 
51-54:  I  Thess.  4.  15-17:  2  Thess.  i.  7:  Isa.  27.  12,  13:  Eev.  3.10: 
Isa.  26.  19-21:  Mai.  3.  17. 

V.  The  beast  and  the  kings  of  the  earth  combine  against  the 
Lord,"  and  He  pours  his  judgments  on  Antichrist  and  his  adherents, 
pleading  with  all  flesh  by  fire  and  sword.^ 

vi.  The  character  of  this  dispensation  is  discriminating,  punishing, 
and  purifying  (I  Cor.  3.  12-15:  Mai.  3.  3:  Zech.  13.  9:  Mark  9.  42, 
50:  Jar.  20,  9:  23.  29:  Psa,  98.  3:  i  Pet.  4.  12:  2  Pet.  3.  10-13: 
Kev.  3.  18).  The  Jews  have  a  special  promise  (Isa.  51.  16).  The 
fire  and  tribulation  have  a  crisis  at  the  beginning  (Ezek.  38.  22: 
39.  6:  Isa.  66.  15,  16),  and  again  at  the  close  of  the  millennial 
kingdom  (Rev.  20.  9),  Matt.  24.  i:  Dan.  12.  i:  Jer.  30.  7:  Rev.  19. 
20:  20.  9. 

vii.  Christ  descends  on  Olivet,  with  his  saints,  in  the  sight  of 
Israel, '^  who  welcome  his  coming.'^  Satan  is  bound:  the  millennial 
kingdom  begins,  over  his  saints  and  the  nations  not  yet  consumed.* 

viii.  This  reign  very  blessed,  but  rebellion  still  lurks  among  the 
nations.     Satan  loosed  for  a  season,  Zech.  14.  17-19:  Rev.  20.  9, 

ix.  The  final  judgment,  Rov.  20.  10-15. 

X.  The  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth ;  no  more  sea.  The  holy 
city  descends,  God  is  All  in  all,  and  the  saints  reign  for  ever  and 
ever.  Rev.  21:  22.  5. 

Whether  all  the  details  of  this  scheme  are  to  be  fulfilled 
literally  and  precisely  in  this  order  is  not  agreed,  but  the 
general  plan  itself  is,  on  this  system  of  interpretation,  as  is 
here  described. 

*  Matt.  24.  30:  Rev.  11.  18:  16.  14:  Isa.  8.  8-10:  10.  24-26: 
24.  21,  22:  27.  4:  31.  4:  54.  15 :  66.  18:  Joel  3.  i,  2:  Mic.  4.  11-13: 
Zeph.  3.  8,  9:  Zech.  12.  2-5:  14.  1-5  :  Rev.  19.  19. 

^.Matt.  24.  36-39:  Rev.  15.  i:  16.  i:  Dan.  9.  27:  Isa.  10.  24,  26: 
14.  24,  26:  24.  21-23:  34:  63:  Rev.  19.  10-21:  Joel  3.  11-16:  Nah. 
19.  II,  15:  Isa.  30.  27-33:  Ezek.  38,  17-23:  Dan.  7.  9-14:  Mai.  4. 
I,  3:  Matt.  3.  12:  2  Thess.  i.  8:  2.  8:  Rev.  19.  15,  20:  Isa.  66.  16: 
Rev.  19. 

•=  Acts  1.  11:  Zech.  14.  4,  5,  10-14:  Isa.  64.  i:  66.  i:  60.  13: 
Ezek.  43.  7-9:  Isa.  66.  18,  19:  Isa.  25.  9:  Matt.  23.  29:  Rom.  ir. 
26:  Isa,  59.  20:  Zech.  2.  10-12. 

d  Zech.  12.  10-14:  Jer.  31.  8-12:  Acts  3.  19-21:  Isa.  12.  2,  4: 
Psa,  117:  118.  98:  Rev.  19.  i-6. 

'  Isa.  32.  i:  Dan.  7.  18,  27:  12.  4:  Luke  22.  28-30:  .John  i.  51: 
Rev.  ir.  18:  20.  4,  6. 


THE  COMING  OF  CHRIST.  301 

The  other  view  of  these  passages  we  can  only  indicate. 
Those  that  are  taken  from  ancient  prophets,  and  have  not 
yet  been  fulfilled,  are  interpreted  spiritually  of  the  church 
and  its  enemies,  either  in  its  present  state,  or  when  aug- 
mented by  the  conversion  of  the  Jews,  and  yet  larger  acces- 
sions  from  the  Gentiles  :   those  in  i  and  2  Thess.  and  in 

1  Cor.,  that  speak  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  are  referred 
to  the  one  resurrection  :  and  those  that  speak  of  the  coming 
of  our  Lord  are  interpreted  according  to  one  or  other  of  the 
following  facts. 

i.  ' '  The  coming  of  Christ "  is  an  expression  applied  to  his  coming 
in  the  flesh,  either — 

(a).  At  his  birth,  John  16.  28:  i  John  4.  2,  3:  2  John  7:  Matt. 
18.  II:  20.  28;  Eph.  2.  17:  I  Tim.  r.  15. 

(h).  On  his  entering  'jpon  his  ministry,  Matt.  3.  ii:  Mark  i.  7: 
Luke  3.  16:  John  i.  15,  30:  Matt.  11.  17:  John  5.  43'.  9-  59- 

ii.  It  is  applied  to  any  great,  though  invisible  interposition. 

(a).  As  for  punishment,  or  i-eward,  Eev.  2.  15,  16:  3.  3:  Matt. 
10.  23(?). 

(6).  As  in  the  remarkable  gift  of  the  Spirit,  John  14,  18,  28: 
Matt.  16.  28:  Mark  9.  i. 

(c).  As  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Matt.  24.  27:  Luke  21. 
6,  7,  27:  Mark  13.  26,  ver.  30. 

iii.  It  is  applied  to  his  appearance  for  general  judgment.  Matt.  16. 

2  7,  and  in  many  other  places. 

From  this  language  it  is  concluded  that,  as  Christ  came  in 
the  flesh,  at  Pentecost,  in  Asia  Minor  to  remove  the  privileges 
of  apostate  churches,  in  Judaea  to  destroy  the  ancient  temple, 
so  he  will  come  in  the  fresh  and  enlarged  outpouring  of  his 
Spirit,  and  at  last,  in  person,  for  judgment.  All  "  comings  " 
for  punishment  being  taken  from  the  last,  and  all  "  comings  " 
in  grace  from  the  first.  His  reign  began  at  his  resurrection 
and  at  Pentecost  (Psa.  2  :  Mark  9.  i  :  Rom.  i.  4  :  Heb.  i.  5). 
After  struggles  of  great  principles,  such  as  many  of  the  pas- 
sages above  quoted  indicate,  it  will  be  completed,  so  far  as 
EARTHLY  manifestation  is  concerned,  in  millennial  glory. 

449.  Having  stated  these  difierent  systems,  we  deem  it 
Substantial  unnecessary  to  examine  or  defend  them.  Vv'e 
harmony.  mark  rather  their  substantial  agreement.  The 
coming    triumph    of    truth,  the   spirituahty   and   glory   of 


302  INTERPRETATION  OF  TIMES. 

Christ's  reign,  the  dignity  and  blessedness  of  his  church,  the 
consequent  diminution  of  earthly  evils,  are  common  to  both. 
Where  they  differ  is  rather  in  relation  to  the  modes  or  ac- 
companiments of  these  changes  than  to  the  changes  them- 
selves ;  and  in  relation  to  these  accompaniments,  we  can  but 
commend  the  student  to  the  disclosures  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  to  the  general  principles  of  interpretation  sanc- 
tioned in  its  quotations  from  the  Old.     (See  Chap.  VI.) 

450.  In  the  interpretations  of  the  times  of  prophecy,  it  is 
On  the  inter-  generally  agreed  that  when  years  are  not  men- 
pretationof     tioned,  davs  are  reckoned  as  years.     This  rule  is 

tune  m  pro-      „         -,■,  -,  i-  i-        ,i        ii-ii 

phecy.  founded  on  several  analogies,  and  is  at  least,  highly 

probable.  See  Numb.  14.  34  :  Ezek.  4.  5,  6  ;  where  God  ex- 
pressly appoints  "  each  day  for  a  year." 

Again  the  expression  "  Time,  times  and  half  a  time,"  is 
imderstood  as  meaning  three  prophetic  years  and  a  half,  i.  e. 
years  of  360  prophetic  days  each,  or  1260  years  in  all,  the 
period  assigned  for  the  rise  and  fall  of  Antichrist,  Dan.  7.  25  : 
See  also  Rev.  11.  2,  3,  where  the  same  period  seems  spoken 
of  as  1260  days,  or  42  months. 

Some  of  the  most  remarkable  predictions  of  Scripture,  how- 
ever, specify  the  time  in  years.  Such  are  the  430,  and  400 
years  of  the  history  of  Abraham's  descendants,  Gen.  15.  13  : 
Exod.  12.  40  ;  the  sixty-five  years  foretold  by  Isaiah,  in  which 
Israel  was  to  be  broken,  Isa.  7.8;  the  seventy  years  of  Judah's 
captivity  ;  and  the  seventy  weeks  of  years  (for  the  word  day 
is  not  found  in  this  passage),  in  which  Messiah  was  to  be  cut 
off,  Dan.  9.  26. 

Concerning  the  precise  times  foretold  in  the  Scripture,  it  is 

clearly  not  God's  intention  to  give  us  exact  know- 

ofSfficuit^     ledge.     These  are  put  in  his  own  power,  and  there 

interpreta-      jg  often  very  little  of  a  sanctified  spirit  in  seeking 

tion  even  "^  \    .  ° 

when  fui-  to  know  them.  The  prophecy  sustains  our  hope, 
^  ^  ■  and  elevates  our  feelings.     It  assures  us  of  the 

final  issue,  and  lays  down  certain  prognostics  highly  useful  for 
a  moral  and  spiritual  discernment  of  the  Divine  purpose, 
which,  however,  is  very  different  from  the  merely  mechanical 
process  we  have  above  condemned.  Even  in  prophecies  which 
have  been  fulfilled,  the  dates  are  often  difiicult  of  adjustment ; 
a  fact  that  should  suggest  humility  and  modesty  in  inter- 
preting  prophecies  whose  fulfilment  is  yet  to  come. 


GENERAL  MEANES'G  OF  PROPHECIES.         303 

The  captivity,  for  example,  lasted  seventy  years,  aud  there  are  at 
least  two  different  dates,  from  which  it  may  begin 

From  the  carrying  away  of  Daniel,  to  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  2  Chron. 
36.  5-7:  ri. 

From  the  destruction  of  the  temple  in  the  days  of  Zedekiah,  to 
the  decree  of  Dariiis  to  restore  it,  2  Chron.  36.  14-21 :  Ezek.  6. 

Pi'ideaux  adds  a  third,  from  the  final  deportation  by  Nebuzax'adan 
to  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  Jer.  52.  30:  Ezek.  6. 

The  interpretation  of  the  seventy  weeks  in  Daniel  is  subject  to  a 
like  difficulty.  Volumes  have  been  written  on  the  precise  date  when 
the  period  begins,  and  though  the  meaning  is  now  comparatively 
clear,  the  passage  gave  to  the  ancient  Jew  but  a  general  idea  of  the 
time  of  the  coming  of  our  Lord.  See  Bickersteth  on  the  Prophecies, 
p.  191;  Hales,  quoted  by  Dr.  Kitto;  and  Fuller,  on  the  Apocalypse, 
Dis.  10. 

"  What,  aud  what  manner  of  time,"  are  both  proper  sub- 
jects of  inquiry  in  studying  the  prophets  :  but  then  we  must 
remember  that  God  gave  us  their  predictions  rather  as  part 
of  our  moral  training  than  to  gratify  our  curiosity  and  "  He 
means  that  his  providence,  and  not  ours  should  be  manifested 
by  them  to  the  world." — Sir  I.  Newton. 

451.  Amidst  all  these  difficulties,  two  facts  are  highly  con- 
solatory to  the  ordinary  reader. 

With  care,  he  will  easily  distinguish  between  prophecy,  and 
Moral  lessons  those  parts  of  the  prophetical  writings  which  are 
me^amn'^^^^  purely  historical  or  moral.  Such  portions  are,  as 
ahvays  clear,  w'^e  have  Seen,  frequent,  and  highly  instructive. 
They  contain  affecting  descriptions  of  the  guilt  and  degrada- 
tion of  the  Jews,  powerful  appeals,  and  striking  exhibitions  of 
the  Divine  character,  but  they  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  prophetic  narrative.  However  mysterious  the  prophecy 
may  be,  the  moral  lesson  is  generally  plain.     See  Jer.  9.  11-14. 

452.  When  the  precise  reference  of  any  particular  prophecy 
is  not  clear,  its  general  meaning  can  often  be  ascertained. 

On  reading  Rev.  6.  i,  2,  for  example,  it  is  plain  that  whatever  be 
understood  by  the  white  horse,  the  era  or  event  to  which  the  pro- 
phet refers,  and  which  is  the  first  of  a  series,  will  be  peaceful  and 
prosperous;  as  the  era,  or  event  described  (6.  3,  4),  is  one  of  per- 
secution and  bloodshed.  Verses  5,  6,  describe  an  era  of  equitable 
government,  united  ^\dth  famine;  verses  7,  8,  an  era  of  mortal  sick- 
ness and  ruin;  verses  9-11,  of  severe  protracted  persecution;  verses 


304  SPIRITUAL  LESSONS. 

12-17,  the  era  of  universal  change,  the  breaking  up  of  empires,  and 
the  overthrow  of  established  institutions.  There  may  be  great  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  what  particular  era  or  event  these  predictions 
refer,  but  the  general  characteristics  of  the  era  are  admitted  almost 
on  all  hands. 

So  of  the  whole  book  of  Kevelation;  whatever  be  the  meaning  of 
specific  terms,  it  clearly  reveals  the  coming  of  our  Lord  in  power 
and  great  glory;  till  that  coming,  the  suffering  and  affliction  of  his 
church,  and  after  it,  her  triumph  and  blessedness.  How  consolotary 
are  these  truths  in  every  age,  and  how  impressively  are  they  revealed 
in  nearly  all  the  prophetic  writings  of  Scripture. 

The  moral  and  spiritual  lessons  therefore,  of  prophecy, 
remain,  and  may  be  applied  by  all  to  stimulate  their  effort?, 
and  sustain  their  faith.  Obedience  to  these  lessons  is  more- 
over the  best  preparation  for  understanding  what  is  mys- 
terious :  a  special  blessing  being  given  to  them  "  that  read, 
and  hear,  and  keep  "  the  sayings  which  prophecy  contains. 

45  3 .  In  addition  to  predictions  on  the  coming  and  work  of  our  Lord 
Predictions  (see  Part  II.),  and  those  given  in  the  prophets  (see 
of  Scripture.  Introduction  to  Prophetical  Books,  Part  IL),  it  is  im- 
portant to  notice  that  nearly  all  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
contain  prophecies.  The  principal  events  of  Jewish  history  were, 
as  Ml'.  Davison  has  remarked,  all  foretold.  A  complete  view  of 
these  predictions  may  be  seen  in  Brown's  "  Harmony  of  the  Scrip- 
ture Prophecies,"  or  in  Simpson's  ''Key  to  the  Prophecies,"  London, 
1809. 

In  the  historical  books,  for  example,  from  Gen.  to  2  Chron.  there 
are  upwards  of  a  himdred  predictions  recorded,  with  their  fulfil- 
ments ;  the  whole  supplying  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scriptm'e,  or 
illustrating  principles  of  prophetic  interpretation. 

The  flood,  Gen.  6.  17  (7.  21,  23).  Canaan  and  Shem,  9.  25,  26 
(Josh.  9.  23:  I  Kings  9.  20,  21).  Ishmael's  history,  16.  12  (see 
Heb.  Job  39.  5):  21.  20  (Isa.  21.  17):  17.  20  (Gen.  25.  18).  The 
rebuilding  of  Jericho,  Josh.  6.  26  (i  Kings  16.  34).  Eli's  house, 
I  Sam.  2.  30:  4.  14,  17:  22.  9-23  (i  Sam.  4.  ii:  2.  27:  see  Ezek. 
44.  15).  Name  and  conduct  of  Josiah,  i  Kings  13.  1-3  (2  Icings  23. 
15-20;  350  yeai's  after), 

454.  The  interpretation  of  symbolic  or  figurative  language  is  a  sub- 
Interpreta-  J*^^^  ^^  much  difficulty.  Full  information  in  reference  to 
tion  of  sym-  it  must  be  sought  for  in  such  works  as  Wemyss'  "  Key  to 
^°^'  Symbolical    Language,"   Edin.   1835;    ^^^^s'    "Sacred 

Symbology,"   1853;   or  Daubuz's    "Preliminary  Discom-fse  in  bis 


SYMBOLIC  LANGUAGE.  305 

Commeutary  on  Revelation."     The  nature  of  this  language  may  be 
gathered  from  the  following  examples. 

Adultery,     unfaithfulness    to    covenant,   and    so    a   symbol  of 
idolatry,  especially  among  an  enlightened  people,  Jer.  3.8:  Rev. 
2.  22. 
Arm,  s.  of  strength  or  power,  Psa.  ic.  15  :  Isa.  52.  10.    a.  inade  bare, 

of  power  put  forth. 
Babylon,   s.  of  an  idolatrous,  persecuting  enemy  of  the  church; 

Rome  especially,  pagan  and  papal,  Isa.  47.  12:  Rev.  17.  18. 
Balance,  s.  of  fair  dealing.  Job  31.  6;  or  (when  the  sale  of  corn, 
etc.,  is  indicated)  of  scarcity.  Lev.  26.  26:  Ezek.  4.  16:  Rev.  6.  5. 
Beast,  s.  of  a  tyrannical,  usurping  power,  or  power  merely  worldly, 
Dan.  7.  3,  17:  Ezek.  34.  28. 

Bear,  s.  of  a  fool-hardy,  ferocious  enemy,  Prov.  17.  12:  Isa. 

II.  7:  Rev.  13.  2. 
Bull,  s.  of  a  furious  enemy,  Psa.  22.  12:  Ezek.  39. 18;  bullocks 

=  people,  Jer.  50.  26;  and  stalls  =  cities  or  houses. 
Dog,  s,  of  uncleanness  and  apostasy,  Prov.  26.  11 :  Phil,  3.  2: 

Rev.  22.  15;  also  of  watchfulness,  Isa.  66.  10. 
Crocodile  (in  Heb,  of  Job  7.  12:  Isa.  27.  i:  51.  9:  Ezek.  29. 
3:    32.  2:   Psa.    74.   13),   s.   of  Egypt,  and  so  of  any  anti- 
christian  power.  Rev.  11.  18:   13.  i. 
Goat,   s.  of  Macedonian  kings   (^^geades),  and   especially  of 
Alexander,  Dan.  8.  5-7:  s.  of  the  wicked  generally,  Matt.  25. 

32,  r^. 

Horse,  s.  of  agencies  fit  for  war  and  conquest,  Zech.  10.  3:  s. 
for  speed,  Joel  2.  4:  to  ride,  is  to  have  dominion,  Deut.  32. 
13:  Isa,  58.  14. 
Leopard,  s.  of  a  cruel  and  deceitful  foe  (Isa.  1  r .  6  :  Jer.  5.6: 

Hab.  I.  8),  Dan.  7.  6:  Rev.  13.  2. 
Lion,  s,  of  one  having  energy  and  dominion,  2  Eangs  23.  33; 

Amos  3.  8:  Dan.  7.  4:  Rev.  5.  5. 
LocDST,  s.  of  a  hostile,   destroying  army,  Joel  i.  2:  Rev,  9; 
the  chief  called  Abaddon,  or  Apollyon,  i.  e.,  the  destroyer, 
ver.  II. 
Bee,  s.  of  Assyrian  king,  Isa.  7.  18,  so  represented  in  hieroglyphics; 

also  of  any  fiex'ce  invader,  Deut.  i.  44:  Psa.  118.  12. 
Book,  received,  s.  of  inaugui-ation,  2  Kings  11.  2;  written  xcithin  and 
without,  of  a  long  series  of  events;  sealed,  of  what  is  secret;  to  eat 
a  book,  s.  of  consideration,  Jer.  15.  16:  Rev.  10.  9;  '"'the  hook  of 
Jfe,"  the  list  in  which  the  names  of  the  redeemed  are  enrolled, 
see  Ezra  2.  62:  Rev.  3.  5;  a  book  opened,  s.  of  the  beginning  of 
judgment.  Rev.  20.  12. 


30G  SYMBOLIC  LANGUAGE. 

Bow^  s.  of  conflict  and  victoiy,  Rev.  6.  2;  or  (because  apt  to  start 
aside)  of  deceit,  Hos.  9.  i6:  Jer.  9.  3. 

Brass,  s,  of  baseness  and  obduracy,  Isa.  48.  4:  Jer.  6.  28;  or  of 
strength  and  firmness,  Psa.  107.  16:  Isa.  65.  4. 

Breastplate,  what  protects  a  vital  part  and  strikes  terror  into  an 
adversary,  Isa.  59.  7:  i  Thess.  5. 18:  Rev.  9.  9. 

Brim  (i.  e.,  burning)  stone,  s.  of  torment.  Job  18.  15:  Psa.  9.  6: 
Rev.  14.  10:  20.  10. 

Chariot,  s.  of  government  or  protection,  2  Kings  2.  12:  Psa.  80.  8; 
chariot  and  two  riders,  Isa.  21.  7;  Cyrus  and  Darius  (Lowth). 
In  Zech.  6.  i ;  the  four  great  empires.  Chariots  of  God,  the  hosts 
of  heaven,  Psa.  68.  18:  Isa.  66.  15. 

Cherubim,  s.  of  God's  regal  glory  (Wemyss),  Psa.  18.  12;  or  of  the 
Trinity  and  human  nature  of  Christ  (Parkhurst);  of  angels 
(Lowman,  Pierce,  Mack.);  of  the  excellencies  of  God's  servants 
(Taylor,  Newc);  of  angels  and,  in  Revelation,  of  the  redeemed 
(Mede);  of  God's  manifested  perfections :  see  Gen.  3.  24:  Exod. 
25.  18,  22:  37.  7,  9:  Lev.  16.  2:  Num.  7.  8,  9;  i  Kings  6.  23: 
8.   7:  2  Chron.  3.  10,  13:  Ezek.i.  10. 

Colour,  s.  of  the  nature  of  the  thing  to  which  it  is  applied;  hlacli, 
s.  of  anguish  and  affliction,  Job  30.  30:  Rev.  6.  5-12;  pale,  of 
mortal  disease.  Rev.  6.  8;  red,  of  bloodshed,  or  victory,  Zech.  6.  2: 
Rev.  12.  3;  or  of  what  cannot  be  discharged,  Isa.  i.  18;  white,  of 
beauty  and  holiness,  Ecc.  9.  8:  Rev.  3.  4;  v:liite  and  shining  was 
the  Jewish  royal  and  priestly  colour,  as  purple  wau  the  Roman. 

Crown,  s.  of  delegated  authority.  Lev.  8.  9;  or  of  imperial  au- 
thority and  victory,  Rev.  19.  12  (Greek,  diadem). 

Cup,  s.  of  enticing  luxury.  Rev.  17.  11;  of  idolatrous  rites,  i  Cor. 
10.  21;  of  a  man's  portion,  Rev.  14.  10:   18.  16. 

Drunkenness,  s.  of  the  folly  of  sin,  Jer.  51.  7;  and  of  the  stupidity 
produced  by  Divine  judgments,  Isa.  29.  9. 

Earthquake,  s.  of  violent  agitation,  Joel  2.  10:  Hag.  2.  21:  Rev. 
6.  12. 

Eating,  s.  of  meditation  on  and  communion  ^vith  truth,  Isa.  55. 
I,  2;  s.  of  results  of  previous  conduct,  Ezek.  18.  2;  s.  of  destruc- 
tion of  a  man's  peace  or  property,  Rev.  17.  16:  Psa.  27. 

Egypt,  s.  of  a  proud,  persecuting  powei',  as  Rome,  Rev.  11.  8. 

Eyes,  s.  of  knowledge,  fidelity,  glory,  Zech.  4.  10 ;  of  government, 
Numb.  10.  31.     Evil  eye  =  envy;  bountiful  eye  =  liberality. 

Fire,  s.  of  God's  word,  Jer.  23.  29  :  Hab.  3.  5;  of  destruction,  Isa. 
42.  25:  Zech.  13.  9;  of  purification,  Mai.  3.  2;  of  persecution, 
I  Pet.  I.  7;  of  punishment  and  suffering,  Mark  9.  44. 

First-born,  had  power  over  their  brethren.  Gen.  20.  37;  were  the 


SYMBOLIC  LANGUAGE.  307 

priests  of  the  family,  Exod.  24.  5 ;   "^ere  consecrated  to  God, 

Exod.  13.  I.  13;  sanctified  the  family  by  their  own  acceptance, 

and  had  a  double  share  of  the  inheritance,  Deut.  21.  17.     See 

Heb.  2,  10,  II :  3.  i:  Col.  i.  12. 
Fish,  s.  of  the  rulers  of  the  people,  {.  e.,  of  the  sea,  Ezek.  29.  4,  5 : 

Hab,  I.  14. 
Forehead,   written   on,   the  mark  of  a  priest,  Lev.  19.  28;  of  a 

servant,  and  of  a  soldier:  see  Eev.  22.  4.     Servants  of  idols  wore 

a  mark,  a  name,  or  a  number :  see  Rev.  13.  16. 
Forest,  s.  of  city  or  kingdom;  tall  trees  the  rulers,  Isa.  lo.  17-34: 

32.  19:  Jer.  21.  14:  Ezek.  20.  46. 
Frogs,  s.  of  unclean,  impudent  enemies,  Eev.  16.  13. 
Garments,  s.  of  qualities  or  condition;  c/ean  garments,  s.  of  purity; 

tchite,  of  holiness,  Psa.  51.  7,  or  happiness,  Isa.  52.  i:  Rev.  3.  4: 

Zech.  3.  3;  to  bestow  garments  was  a  mai'k  of  favour,   1   Sam. 

17.  4. 

Gems,  s.  of  magnificence,  beauty,  variety :  see  Table  of  gems. 

Grapes,  rijyc,  s.  of  people  ready  for  pvmishment.  Rev.  14. 18;  gleaned, 
B.  of  a  people  carried  away,  Jer.  52.  28-32. 

Hands,  s.  of  actions;  pure  hands,  hands  full  of  blood,  etc.,  indicate 
such  actions  respectively,  Psa.  90.  17:  Job  9.  30:  i  Tim.  2.  8: 
Isa.  I.  15.  To  wash  the  hands,  s.  of  expiation,  or  of  freedom  from 
guilt,  I  Cor.  6.  11:  I  Tim.  2.  8.  s.  of  power:  the  right  hand  is 
the  place  of  favour,  Mark  16.  19;  to  give  the  hand  of  felloAvship^  s. 
of  communication  of  rights  and  blessings.  Gal.  2.9.  To  give  the 
hand  is  to  yield  to  another,  Psa,  68.  31:  2  Chron.  30.  8  (Heb.); 
to  lift  up  the  right  hand  was  a  sign  of  swearing.  Gen.  14.  22: 
Dan.  12.  7.  Marks  on  the  hand,  s.  of  servitude  and  of  idol 
worship,  Zech.  13.  6;  hands  put  on  another,  s.  of  ti-ansmission  of 
blessing,  authority,  or  gvdlt,  Gen.  48.  14-20:  Dan.  10.  10;  hands 
of  God  laid  on  a  prophet  indicates  spiritual   influence,  i  Kings 

18.  46:   Ezek.  I.   3:  3.   22;    his  finger  less   influence;   his  arm 
greater. 

Harp,  a  s.  of  praise  and  joy,  Psa.  49.  5 :  33.2;  used  especially  after 
victory,  2  Chron.  20.  28:  Isa.  30.  32:  Rev.  14.  i.  2. 

Harvest,  s.  of  time  of  destruction,  Jer.  51.  33:  Isa.  17.  5:  Rev. 
14.  14-18;  sickle,  the  s.  of  the  instrument,  Joel  3.  13;  3.  of  time 
of  complete  deliverance,  or  ingathering;  so  (Horsley)  Hos.  6.  11; 
s.  of  the  field  of  labour  for  the  church.  Matt.  9.  26. 

Heaven  and  Earth,  used  in  a  threefold  sense;  the  invisible  and 
moral,  the  visible  and  literal,  and  the  political.  In  the  last  sense, 
heaven  is  a  s.  of  rulers;  earth,  of  the  people;  heaven  and  earth,  of 
a  kingdom,  or  polity,  Isa.  51.  15,  16:  65.  17:  Jer,  4.  23,  24: 
Matt  24.  29. 


308  SYMBOLIC  LANGUAGE. 

To  fall  from  heaven,  is  to  lose  dignity;  heaven  opened,  is  a  new 
phase  in  the  political  world;  a  door  opened  in  heaven,  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  government:  see  Hag.  2.  6-22.  San,  moon,  stars, 
are  s.  of  authorities,  supreme  or  secondaiy,  Isa.  24,  21,  23 :  Joel 
2.  10:  Kev.  12.  I. 

Horn,  s.  of  power,  Amos  6.  13  (Heb.) :  Deut.  33.  17  (see  Josh.  17. 
14- J  8)  :  I  Kings  22.  11 :  Mic.  4,  13;  so  of  i-egal  dignity,  Jer.  48. 
25:  Dan.  8.  9:  Rev.  13.  i.  Horns  of  the  altar,  when  touched, 
formed  a  sanctuary,  Exod.  21.  14:  Amos  3.  14:  Jer.  17.  i. 
Horns,  or  rays,  wex-e  part  of  the  glory  ascribed  to  God,  Deut.  33. 
2  •  Hab.  3.  4  (Heb.),  and  to  Moses. 

Incense,  a  s.  of  prayer.  Psa.  141.  2  :  Rev.  8.  4:  Mai.  i.  11 ;  it  was 
ofiered  with  fire  taken  from  the  bm-nt  offering. 

Key,  a  s.  of  authority;  a  commission  to  open  or  shut,  Isa.  22.  22: 
Rev.  I.  18  :  3.  7:  20.  I. 

Lamp  (so  •'  candle"  should  be  translated),  a  s.  of  light,  joy,  truth, 
and  government.  Rev.  2.  5:  see  Exod.  25.  31,  32:  i  Kings  11. 
36;  i.  e.,  a  successor  shall  never  fail,  Psa.  132.  17. 

Manna,  s.  of  Divine,  immortal  sustenance.  Rev.  2.  17:  see  Exod. 
16.  33,  34- 

Marriage,  s.  of  a  state  of  union  under  covenant,  and  so  of  per- 
fection, Isa.  54.  1-6:  Rev.  19.  17. 

Measure,  to,  or  divide,  s.  of  conquest  and  possession,  Isa.  53.  12: 
Zech.  2.  2 :  Amos  7.  17,  where  re-measurement  implies  I'e-posses- 
sion. 

Mother,,  s.  of  the  producer  of  anything,  Rev.  17.  5;  s.  of  a  city, 
whose  inhabitants  are  her  children,  2  Sam.  20.  19:  Isa.  49.  23; 
of  the  metropolis,  whose  daughters  are  dependent  cities,  Isa.  50  i: 
Hos.  2.  2,  5 ;  of  the  New  Testament  church.  Gal.  4.  26. 

Mountain,  s.  of  stability  and  greatness,  Isa.  2.  2:  Dan.  2.  35. 

Trees,  tall,  s.  of  rulers,  Ezek.  31.  5-9;  low,  s.  of  common  men.  Rev. 
7.  i:  8.7- 

Trumpet,  blown,  s.  of  the  warning  of  the  approach  of  important 
events. 

Vine,  s.  of  luxuriant  productiveness,  Jer.  2.  21:  Hos.  14.  7:  Rev. 
14.  18;  vintage,  of  the  destruction  of  such.  Rev.  14.  19. 

Virgins,  s.  of  faithful  servants,  uncorrupted  by  idolatry.  Rev. 
14.  4. 

Wind,  agitatinrj  the  air,  s.  of  commotions;  restrained,  of  tranquillity, 
Rev.  7.  I. 


SYSTEMATIC  THEOLOGY.  ?,0d 


CHAPTER  V. 

On  the  Systematic  and  Inferential  Study  of  the 
Scriptures. 

"  Inferences  from  Scripture  that  appear  to  be  strictly  legitimate  must  be  received 
■a  ilh  the  greatest  caution,  or,  rather,  decidedly  rejected,  except  as  they  are  supported 
by  explicit  Scripture  declarations." — Bridges:  On  the  Christian  Ministry. 

"  No  science  is  more  strictly  inductive  than  theology.  .  .  .  The  Bible  is  a  record 
of  words  and  facts  .  .  .  and  our  duty  is  to  analyse  ihem ;  reducing  them,  by  a 
method  strictly  inductive,  into  a  proper  order,  and  then  deducing  "  (rather  gathering) 
"  from  them  the  legitimate  general  truth." — Bishop  of  Kentucky. 

"  A  Bible  Christian  insensibly  borrows  and  unites  what  is  excellent  in  all  systems, 
perhaps  wi±out  knowing  how  far  he  agrees  with  them,  because  he  finds  all  in  the 
written  word."— Newton  :  Works,  vi.  418. 

Sec.  I.   O71  the  Study  of  the  Doctrines  of  Scripture. 

455.  It  is  obvious  that  truth  may  be  revealed  in  different 
forms  ;  either  authoritatively,  as  law ;  or  historically,  by  way 
of  example  ;  in  promise,  or  in  doctrine.  The  truths  of  the 
Bible  are  revealed  in  all  these  forms,  and  each  often  involves 
the  other.  A  command  includes  a  doctrine  ;  a  doctrine,  a 
promise ;  and  both  doctrine  and  promise,  correspondent 
duty. 

456.  If  the  commands,  and  doctrines  and  promises  of 
Scripture  ar-  Scripture  were  respectively  placed  by  themselves, 
ranged  ac-      ^^  should  have  a  System  of  truth  on  one  principle 

cording  to  »      1       ^      ,  r  l 

theformoof    of  arrangement.    And   if  the  doctrmes  and  pre- 
*"^^  ■  cepts  which  refer  to  each  truth  of  Scripture  were 

placed  together,  we  should  then  have  a  system  of  truth  on  a 
different  principle.  In  the  first  case,  Scripture  truth  would 
be  classified  under  the  form  of  the  statement,  which  may  be 
OraccorcUng  pi'^ceptive,  promissory,  or  doctrinal.  In  the  se- 
to  the  truths  coud,  the  various  forms  of  Scripture  statement 
would  be  classified  under  the  truths  to  which  they 
respectively  refer.  By  the  careful  student,  both  principles  of 
arrangement  are  combined.  That  view  of  the  whole  which 
puts  the  correct  meaning  upon  every  part  of  the  Divine 
word,  and  assigns  to  every  truth  and  duty  such  a  place, 
both  in  order  and  importance,  as  properly  belongs  to  it,  each 
truth  and  duty  honouring  the  rest,  and  itself  appearing  to  the 
greatest  advantage,  is  the  true  system  of  divinity. 


310  SrSTEMATIC  STUDY  OF  SCRIPTURE  IMPORTANT. 

457.  Nor  is  the  necessity  of  sucli  arrangement  peculiar  to 

the  Bible.  Both  in  nature  and  in  providence  facts 
uot peculiar  and  objects  are  scattered  in  endless  variety.  It  ia 
to  Scripture,  ^-^q  business  of  science  to  detect  amongst  them  aU 
unity  and  order.  The  general  laws  that  regulate  the  universe 
therefore,  and  the  rules  of  conduct  by  which  men  govern 
their  hves,  are  alike  facts  reduced  to  system  by  intelligence 
and  care.  In  both  cases,  too,  we  employ  the  same  principle 
of  investigation — the  great  principle  of  the  inductive  philo- 
sophy. The  texts  of  Scripture  form  the  basis  of  theology,  as 
the  facts  of  nature  form  the  basis  of  natural  science,  or  as 
the  facts  of  consciousness  form  the  basis  of  mental  philo- 
sophy. In  the  Bible,  however,  we  have  this  advantage,  that 
while  in  nature  facts  are  the  only  data  from  which  we  gather 
general  laws,  in  Scripture,  we  find  the  general  laws  of  truth 
and  duty,  as  well  as  particular  instances  in  which  those  laws 
are  seen  to  be  applied  to  the  uses  of  hfe. 

458.  The  systematic  study  of  the  Bible  (it  must  be  ob- 
Interpreta-  served)  difiers  very  materially  from  the  interpreta- 
temat?c^tS  ^i^n  of  it.  Interpretation  is  concerned  only  with 
differ.  ^he  meaning  of  individual  passages :  Systematic 
Theology  considers  them  in  their  relation  to  one  another  and 
to  ourselves. 

459.  When  it  is  said  that  we  study  the  doctrines  of  Scrip- 

ture in  its  precepts,  we  embody  un  important 
voivesdoc-  truth.  Between  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of 
trine.  Christianity  there  is  an  essential  connection.     Not 

only  does  doctrine  contain  by  implication  a  command,  but  it 
exhibits  such  views  of  truth  as  are  adapted  by  God  to  excite 
holy  affections,  and  those  affections  are  the  immediate  prin- 
ciples of  holy  conduct.  The  belief  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
gospel,  and  obedience,  are  therefore  inseparable.  "  Morality 
is  religion  in  practice,  and  religion  is  morality  in  principle." 
He  that  loves  God  keeps  his  commandments,  and  he  that 
keeps  the  commandments  loves  God.  Man  may  attempt  to 
put  asunder  the  things  which  God  has  thus  joined.  He  may 
explain  truth  so  as  to  destroy  morality,  making  "void  the 
law  through  faith,"  or  he  may  hold  "  the  truth  in  unrighteous- 
ness." But  God's  design  is  that  truth  should  always  pro- 
mote hohness,  as  it  is  essential  to  it.  Holiness,  therefore,  is 
never  found  without  truth  ;  and  if  ever  truth  be  found  with- 


RULES  FOR  FRAMIJfG  A  SYSTEM.  311 

out  holiness,  it  is  because  the  perverseness  of  human  nature 
has  succeeded  in  parting  them. 

460.  The  systematic  study  of  Scripture  has  been  singularly 
Importance  misrepresented.  Some  hold  that  there  can  be  no 
tematicstudy  intelHgent  knowledge  of  Scripture  without  it,  and 
of  Scripture,  others,  that  it  is  useless  ;  a  remnant,  in  fact,  of 
scholastic  habits,  which  it  is  for  the  interest  of  the  church  to 
destroy.  Both  these  views,  however,  are  wrong.  The  pas- 
sages of  the  Bible  which  contain  clear  summaries  of  truth  are 
so  numerous  (Tit.  2.  11-14:  Eph.  2.  4-10),  that  a  good  man 
will  often  gather,  without  knowing  it,  a  comprehensive  and 
sound  system.  On  the  other  hand,  to  repudiate  system 
compels  us  either  to  confine  ourselves  in  statements  of  doc- 
trine to  Scripture  language ;  or  it  exposes  us  to  the  risk  of 
misrepresenting  one  doctrine  in  enforcing  another ;  or,  more 
commonly  still,  it  tempts  us  to  overlook  the  due  proportion 
or  connection  of  doctrines,  and  so  leads  us  into  error,  the 
more  seductive  that  it  is  founded  partially  on  truth.  "  General 
principles  drawn  from  particulars,"  says  Locke,  "are  the 
jewels  of  knowledge,  comprehending  great  store  in  little 
room :  but  these  are  therefore  to  be  used  with  the  greater 
care  and  caution,  lest,  if  we  take  counterfeit  for  time,  our  loss 
be  the  greater  when  our  stock  comes  to  a  severe  scrutiny." 

461,  The  Bible  may  be  studied  systematically  for  a  double 
Theology,  purpose  ;  either,  first,  to  ascertain  the  doctrines  of 
dogmatic        Scripture,  or  secondly,  to   determine  its   rules  of 

morality  and  hohness.  The  system  of  doctrine 
thus  framed  is  called  dogmatic,  or  doctrinal  theology  ;  and  the 
system  of  duty,  moral,  or  practical  theology  ;  both,  however, 
being  most  closely  interwoven  in  Scripture  as  they  are  in 
human  experience. 

462.  In  gathering  doctrinal  truth  from  Scripture,  we  bring 

together  all  the  texts  that  refer  to  the  same  sub- 
ject, whether  they  be  doctrines,  precepts,  pro- 
mises, or  examples  ;  impartially  compare  them  ;  restrict  the 
expressions  of  one  text  by  those  of  another  ;  and  explain  the 
whole  consistently.  When  the  proposition  which  we  derive 
from  the  passages  examined  embodies  all  they  contain,  and 
no  more,  it  may  then  be  regarded  as  a  general  Scriptural 
truth. 


312  RULES  FOR  FRAMING  A  SYSTEM. 

463.  The  following  rules  are  equally  obvious  aud  im- 
Rules.  poi'tant, 

r.  From  the        "^ye  must  gather  our  views  of  Christian  doctrine 

New  Ics-  ° 

tament.  primarily  from  the  New  Testament,  interpreting 

its  statements  consistently  with  one  another,  and  with  the 
facts  and  clear  revelations  of  the  Old. 

In  carrying  out  this  rule  it  is  necessary  to  explain  am- 
biguous aud  figurative  passages  by  those  that  are  clear  and 

2.  Loca  literal ;  and  passages  in  which  a  subject  is  briefly 
ciassica.  described  with  those  in  which  it  is  largely  dis- 
cussed ;  and  general  assertions  by  others  (if  such  there  be) 
which  treat  of  the  same  truth  with  some  restriction  or 
exceptions. 

Not  only  must  the  passages  which  speak  of  the  same  doc- 

3.  All  held  trine  be  explained  consistently  with  one  another, 
consistently,  -^^-t  each  doctrine  must  be  held  consistently  with 
other  doctrines. 

The  Scriptures  teach,  for  example,  on  a  comparison  of  passages, 
that  repentance,  faith,  and  obedience,  ai'e  the  gifts  of  God.*  Do 
we  therefoi'e  gather  that  men  are  guiltless  if  they  do  not  repent, 
and  believe,  and  obey  the  gospel?  or  do  we  deem  it  needless  to  ex- 
hort men  to  repentance,  obedience,  and  faith?  If  so,  our  views  are 
unsound,  for  the  guilt  of  impenitence  is  charged  entirely  upon 
man.^  His  unbelief  is  declared  to  be  his  great  sin  and  the  ground 
of  his  condemnation;''  and  not  to  obey  God  is  everywhere  con- 
demned. Men  are  exhorted,  too,  to  repent,  "^  and  believe,  and 
obey.  So  Samuel  taught  the  Israelites,  and  so  Peter  exboi*ted 
Simon  Magus  and  the  murderers  of  our  Lord.® 

Though  truths  may  be  revealed  in  Scripture  which  it  is 
difficult  for  us  to  harmonize,  yet  one  truth  so  held  as  to  con- 
tradict another  is  not  held  as  the  Bible  reveals  it. 

Employ   and   interpret  the   doctrines   of    Scripture   with 

4.  Truth  to  special  regard  to  the  practical  purposes  for  which 
be  held  for      the  Scripture  reveals  them. 

practical  pur-  ^ 

poses.  <phe  use  made  in  Scripture,  for  example,  of  the  doc- 

trine of  election  is  highly  instructive.     However  the  doctrine  itself 

''  John  15.  5:  Acts  6.  31:  Eph.  2.  8:  Phil.  1.29:  2. 13:  i  Pet.  i.  z. 
^  Matt.  II.  20,  21:  Rev.  2.  20,  21.         **  John  3.  18:  16.  9. 
^'  Mark  r.  15.  "  Acts  3.  19:  8.  22, 


RULES  FOR  FRAMING  A  SYSTEM.  313 

be  regai'ded,  all  agree  in  admitting  that  it  can  involve  no  capricious 
fondness,  without  reason  or  Avisdom ;  nor  can  it  be  regarded  as 
affection  founded  upon  our  merit,  or  as  seeking  for  its  ultimate  end 
our  happiness.  It  is  rather  an  exhibition  of  the  chai-acter  of  God, 
vvhich  represents  him  as  acting  in  pursuance  of  his  own  purpose, 
and  wliile  securing  that  purpose,  as  displaying  his  glory  and  pro- 
moting the  general  good.  The  doctrine  is  introduced  in  Scripture, 
too,  only  for  such  objects  as  these;  to  declare  the  soiu"ce  of  salvation 
to  be  the  undeserved  favour  of  God,  and  to  cut  off  all  hope  of 
acceptance  by  works,  as  in  Rom.  ii.  5,  6;  to  account  for  the  tin- 
belief  of  the  Jews  without  excusing  it,  as  in  Rom.  9;  or  to  show 
the  certain  success  of  Christ's  kingdom  in  defiance  of  all  hostility, 
as  in  Matt.  21.  42:  John  6.  37.  Considered  without  reference  to 
these  facts,  it  might  be  made  the  gi'ound  of  a  charge  of  caprice,  or 
it  might  become  (as  among  the  Jews)  the  nourishment  of  self-con- 
ceit ;  or  it  might  be  used  to  destroy  the  doctrine  of  human  respon- 
sibility or  the  duty  of  Christian  devotedness.  The  doctrine  sys- 
tematically considered,  viewed,  that  is,  in  connection  with  the 
truths  among  which  it  stands,  and  applied  to  the  purposes  for 
which  the  inspu-ed  teachers  used  it,  has  a  humbling  and  sanctifying 
tendency. 

The  doctrine  of  Satanic  influence,  again,  is  taught  in  Scripture; 
bi'.t  only  to  give  us  a  clearer  perception  of  the  value  of  the  work  of 
Christ,  and  to  excite  us  to  greater  watchfulness  and  prayei',  2  Cor. 
4.  4:   Eph.  2.   2:   6.   12:   John  13.  27:  Luke  8.30:  Rev.  12.  9: 

1  John  3.  8:  Eph.  6.  11-18,  etc. 

The  mysterious  connection  between  the  first  offence  and  the  fact 
that  all  are  under  condemnation  is  clearly  affii-med  in  the  5th  chap- 
ter of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and  in  i  Cor.,  but  only  to  magnify 
the  grace  of  God  in  our  redemption  by  Christ. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Tiinity  is  a  revelation  of  God  in  relation  to 
man;  and,  though  sometimes  introduced  as  an  article  of  faith, 
simply  (as  ia  the  rite  of  baptism),  it  is  generally  in  connection  with 
spiritual  blessings,  and  especially  with  the  scheme  of  redemption, 

2  Cor.  13.  14. 

It  must  be  remembered,  again,  that  deductions  drawn  by 
^        reason  from  propositions  foimded  on  the   state- 
tions  from      ments  of  Scripture  are  not  to  be  deemed  inspired 
Secessariir'  unless  those  deductions  are  themselves  revealed. 
'"^®*  It  is  certain,  for  example,  that  distinct  acts  of  per- 

sonal agency,  which  are  in  some  passages  ascribed  simply  to  God, 
are  ascribed  elsewhere  to  the  Father,  or  to  the  Son,  or  to  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  that  worship  and  adoration  are  claimed  for  each.     "We 

P 


314  RELATIVE  IMPORIANCE  OP  TRUTH. 

may  say,  therefore,  that  there  are  three  Persons  in  the  Godhead, 
and  but  one  God;  or  that  there  is  a  Trinity  in  Unity.  We  thus 
express  Scriptxire  truth  in  a  convenient  form.  But  if  we  attempt; 
to  explain  this  truth,  or  to  draw  from  the  phraseology  employed 
other  remote  conclusions,  we  may  either  darken  counsel  by  words 
mthout  knowledge,  or  gather  lessons  which  God  has  not  taught. 

Or  again,  that  all  men  are  sinners,  and  that  the  holiest  acts  of 
the  best  men  come  short  of  the  requirements  of  the  Divine  law, 
are  truths  revealed  in  Scripture,  and  we  comprehend  them  both 
in  the  general  statement  that  men  are  totally  depraved  ;  but 
if  from  this  statement  we  gather  the  concl\ision  that  all  men  are 
sinners  in  the  same  degree,  the  conclusion,  though  seemingly  in- 
volved in  the  statement,  is  not  a  lesson  of  Scripture,  but  an  inference 
dra^vn  by  human  reason,  not  from  God's  word,  but  from  the  imper- 
fect language  of  man.  All  men  are  bound  to  believe  Scripture,  and 
he  that  believes  Scripture  believes  all  that  is  seen  to  be  contained 
therein.  But  ''no  man,"  says  Jeremy  Taylor,  "is  to  be  pressed 
with  consequences  drawn  from  thence,  unless  the  transcript  be 
drawn  by  the  same  hand  that  wrote  the  original.  For  we  are  sure 
it  came,  in  the  simplicity  of  it,  from  an  infallible  Spirit;  but  he 
that  bids  me  believe  his  deductions  bids  me  believe  that  he  is  an 
unerring  logician;  for  which  God  has  given  me  no  command,  and 
himself  can  give  me  no  security.'"^ 

Concerning  all  doctrines  indeed,  which  are  peculiar  to 
Scripture,  the  rule  of  the  martyr  Ridley  is  as  Christian  as  it 
is  philosophical.  "  In  these  matters,"  says  he,  "  I  am  so  fearful 
that  I  dare  not  speak  further,  yea,  almost  none  otherwise  than 
the  text  doth  as  it  were  lead  me  by  the  hand." 

But  besides  ascertaining  the  truths  of  the  gospel,  it  is  not 
6.  Truth  ia  less  important  in  framing  a  system  of  truth  to 
itscompara-  ascertain  their  relative  importance  ;  and  if  possible, 
ance.  the  order  in  which  Scripture  reveals  them.     With 

this  view,  notice  : — 

1.  What  things  are  omitted  in  one  book,  or  in  several,  or  in 
Comparative  many,  and  then  gather  the  conclusion,  that  what 
importance,     q^-^q  omitted,   are   probably   not  as   important  as 

bow  ascer-  ■       -,     -i     ^   •        ^^ 

tained.  those  that  are  included  in  all. 

2.  Mark  the  subjects  which  are  oftenest  recommended  to 
attention  by  our  Lord,  and  by  his  apostles. 

If  it  be  asked,  for  example,  what  is  the  most  memorable  circum- 

*  "Dissuasives  against  Popery." 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  315 

stance  in  the  institution  of  the  last  supper,  the  I'eply  is,  its  cona- 
memorative  character:  for  this  peculiarity  is  thrice  mentioned  in 
the  words  of  the  institution,  i  Cor,  ii.  24,  25,  26. 

A  rule  of  the  Divine  procedure  is  on  the  same  groimd  of  obviouo 
importance.  Thrice  is  it  intimated  by  om*  Lord,  and  in  each  case 
with  much  emphasis,  that  gifts  habitually  exercised  are  increased, 
while  gifts  habitually  neglected  are  withdrawn,  Matt.  13.12:  25 .  29 : 
Luke  19.  26.  So  of  humility,  which  is  mentioned  with  peculiar 
honour  no  less  than  seven  times  in  the  first  thi-ee  Gospels,  Matt. 
18.  4,  etc. 

3.  Observe  carefully  what  is  common  to  the  two  dispensa- 
tions, the  Christian  and  the  Jewish. 

In  both,  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God,  his  power  and  truth- 
fulness are  frequently  revealed.  So  among  our  first  duties  are  gra- 
titude and  love.  The  numerous  injunctions  in  the  law,  respecting 
sacrifices,  and  the  prominence  given  to  the  truth,  that  Chiist  was 
"  once  ofiered  to  bear  the  sins  of  many,"  illustrate  the  paramount 
importance  both  of  the  doctrine,  and  of  appropriate  feelings  in  re- 
ference to  it,  Heb.  9.  28. 

4.  Observe  the  value  ascribed  in  Scripture  itself,  to  any 
truth  or  precept  which  it  contains.^  Sometimes  a  quaUty  is 
set  forth  as  essential,  "  Without  faith  it  is  impossible  to 
please  God."  Sometimes  one  quality  is  preferred  to  another, 
as  love  to  both  faith  and  hope,  i  Cor.  13.  It  is  on  this  prin- 
ciple that  much  importance  is  attached  to  the  quahfications 
which  are  to  regulate  the  decisions  of  the  day  of  judgment. 
Such  as  faith,  and  the  right  government  of  our  thoughts, 
words,  feelings,  actions,  habits,  and  dispositions.^ 

The  reader  may  apply  the  foregoing  rules  to  ascertain  the 
importance  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  our  Lord,  and 
the  connection  of  both  with  justification  and  hohness,  e.g. 

Gal.  2.  20:  3.  1 :  3.  13:  5.  24:  5.  11:  6.  12,  14.  i  Cor.  i.  13,  17, 
18.  23:  2,  2,  8:  5.  7:  8.  11:  II.  26:  15.  3.  Rom.  3.  24,  25:  4. 
24,  25:  5.  8,  19:  6.  5-8,  10:  8.  3.  32:  14.  15.  Eph.  I.  7:  2.  16: 
5.  2:  Col.  I.  14,  18-20,  etc. 

^  See  "  Exposition  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke,"  by  James  Thomson, 
D.D.,  Introd. 

"John  3.  15:  Matt.  15.  18,  20:  13.  43,  49:  16.  27:  Rom.  2.  6: 
Gal.  6.  8:  Rev.  14.  13 :  i  John  3.  23.  These  passages  all  prove  that 
the  design  of  the  gospel  is  not  only  pardon  but  holiness,  and  that 
meetness  for  heaven,  includes  both  title  and  character. 

P  2 


310  APPARENT  C0:N'TII ADICTIONS. 

The  fact  of  the  resurrection  and  ascension  of  our  Lord,  as 
an  evidence  of  the  completion  and  acceptance  of  his  work, 
and  as  a  pledge  of  the  resurrection  of  his  people,  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Epistles  alone,  more  than  fifty  times.  Any 
view  of  the  gospel,  therefore,  which  gives  to  these  doctrines 
a  second  place,  is  clearly  not  the  gospel  of  Scripture. 

464.  One  or  two  general  principles  may  be  laid  down  to  aid 
Canons  on       ^^  the  application  of  these  rules, 
tion'oftiiese        ^'  ^^^^^^S  must   be   made   a   matter  of  faith 
rules.  which  is  not  a  matter  of  revelation. 

2.  In  studying  the  Bible,  there  must  be  an  indifferent 
judgment  till  the  truth  itself  decides.  Allow  no  bias  but 
what  is  received  from  the  Scriptures  themselves,  otherwise, 
our  knowledge  will  be  only  inclination  and  fancy. 

3.  The  same  prominence  should  be  given  to  each  doctrine, 
as  is  given  to  it  in  Scripture. 

4.  Where  the  doctrine  of  Scripture  is  important  and  ne- 
cessary, the  Scripture  will  be  found  full  and  clear.  "Where 
Scripture  is  not  full  and  clear,  the  doctrine  is  either  in  itself 
not  important,  or  the  certain  knowledge  of  it  does  not  belong 
to  our  present  state. 

5.  The  Bible  being  inspired  cannot  really  contradict  itself. 
Of  apparent  contradictions,  some  are  merely  verbal,  and  the 
right  interpretation  of  the  words  will  remove  the  difficulty. 
Others  which  originate  in  the  doctrines  themselves,  may  be 
solved  by  one  or  other  of  the  three  following  rules. 

(a.)  When  the  same  action  is  affirmed  of  different  persons, 
there  is  a  sense  in  which  it  is  true  of  both. 

It  is  said  for  example,  ten  times,  that  Pharaoh  hardened  his  heart, 
and  ten  times,  that  God  hardened  Pharaoh's  heai-t;  and  both  state- 
ments are  in  a  sense  true.  What  the  sense  is  not,  may  be  gathered 
from  Scripture  revelations  of  God's  character;  what  the  sense  is, 
may  be  told  us  in  Scripture,  or  it  may  not.  If  it  is  not,  that  sense 
is  one  of  the  secret  things  which  "  belong  unto  God."  If  it  is,  then 
both  the  sense  which  reconciles  the  statements,  and  the  statements 
themselves  are  revealed. 

Instances  in  which  the  same  act  is  ascribed  in  Scripture  to  dif- 
ferent persons. 

Exod.  18.  17-26:  Deut.  i.  9-13,  in  relation  to  the  appointment  of 
judges.  Numb.  13.  1-20:  Deut.  i.  22,  on  sending  the  spies.  2  Sam. 
24.  I :  I  Chron.  21,  i,  in  the  numbering  of  the  people  by  David. 


SCRIPTURE  PRECEPTS.  317 

(b.)  When  apparently  contradictory  qualities  are  ascribed  in 
Scripture  to  the  same  person  or  object,  there  is  a  sense  in 
which  both  assertions  are  true. 

There  is  a  sense,  for  example,  in  which  all  men  are  sinners,  and 
there  is  a  sense  in  which  some  men  (those  born  of  God),  do  not 
commit  sin  (r  John),  and  both  senses  are  Scriptural.  "What  those 
senses  are  must  be  gathered  from  the  Bible,  if  they  be  revealed. 
If  not  revealed,  we  believe  the  statements,  and  wait  for  furtlier  light. 
There  is  a  sense  also,  iu  which  God  visits  the  sins  of  the  fathers 
upon  the  children,  and  there  is  a  sense  in  which  the  children  do 
not  bear  the  sins  of  the  fathers,  Exod.  20.  5  :  Ezek.  18.  20.  Either 
the  effects  of  the  father's  sin  fall  temporarily  upon  his  children, 
though  each  man's  final  destiny  is  the  result  of  his  own  conduct,  or 
the  first  passage  may  be  limited  to  those  who  hate  him;  in  their 
case  there  is  an  accumulation  of  punishment. 

(c.)  "When  one  thing  is  said  in  Scripture  to  secure  salvation, 
and  the  want  of  another  thing  is  said  to  exclude  from  it,  the 
existence  of  the  one  necessarily  implies  the  existence  of  the 
other. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  that  faith  saves  us,  and  yet  no  one  can  be 
saved  who  hates  his  brother.  Both  statements  are  true  ;  and,  in 
fact,  we  find  that  faith  and  love  are  never  disjoined. 

This  is  the  canon  that  reconciles  the  prerogatives  of  faith 
with  the  promises  made  to  character,  as  in  the  sermon  on  the 
mount.  It  is  not  that  such  characters  having  faith,  are 
blessed,  for  the  promise  is  absolute  ;  but  it  is,  that  faith 
forms  such  characters,  and  so  brings  the  believer  within  the 
range  of  the  promise. 

Sec.  2.  T!ie  Precepts  of  Scripture. 
465.  The  study  of  Scripture  doctrine  has  been  placed  lirst 
in  this  chapter  for  a  double  reason.     Most  of  the 

DoctniiG  €S" 

sentiai  to  rules  apphcable  to  the  study  of  the  first,  are  ap- 
houness.  pHcable  to  the  Study  of  aU.  It  will  be  found,  more- 
over, that  Scripture  doctrine  is  at  the  foundation  of  all  true 
morality.  The  gospel  begins  its  message  with  the  "  story  of 
peace,"  unfolding  the  pardoning  mercy  of  God  through  the 
death  of  his  Son.  It  then  exhibits  its  truths  as  motives  to 
hoUness.  When  these  truths  have  taken  possession  of  the 
heart,  they  teach  us  to  perceive  in  Scripture,  the  requirements 
of  a  high  and  spiritual  obedience  :  and  under  their  influence, 


318  PRINCIPLES   OF   MORALITY. 

we  learn  to  serve  in  newness  of  spirit,  and  not  in  the  oldness 
of  the  letter.  This  is  the  order,  therefore,  of  human  expe- 
rience ;  knowledge  in  the  heart,  or  truth,  precedes  knowledge 
in  practice,  or  goodness  :  or,  in  simple  Scripture  language, 
man  is  sanctified  by  faith,  through  the  operation  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

466.  When  the  reader  of  the  Bible  has  examined  and  clas- 
sified its  precepts,  he  will  find  that  it  is  rather  a 
bookofprin-  book  of  principles  than  of  directions.  And  of 
cipies.  principles  in  a  double  sense  :    Its  precepts  refer 

rather  to  motives  than  to  actions,  which  motives  are  called  the 
principles,  or  beginnings  of  action  :  and  moreover,  its  precepts 
are  comprehensive  maxims,  and  are  therefore  rather  prin- 
ciples of  morality  than  specific  rules.  When  it  speaks  of 
holiness,  it  means  faith,  well-regulated  affection,  inward  purity, 
and  moral  rectitude  of  disposition,  and  these  it  represents, 
not  as  the  ground  of  our  salvation,  but  as  its  evidence  and 
i.e.  of  mo-  result.  The  law  of  the  ten  commandments,  which 
tives.  seems  at  first  to  refer  to  practice  only,  is  summed 

up  by  our  Lord,  in  the  form  of  love  to  God  and  to  man  ; 
humility  and  evangelic  faith  towards  God,  and  all  holy  con- 
duct towards  our  fellows  being  the  appropriate  utterance  of 
these  inward  feelings.  This  apparent  peculiarity  of  the  gospel 
scheme  was  the  more  striking  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  from 
the  fact,  that  Jeiuish  tradition  had  given  undue  importance  to 
ritual  zeal  and  punctuahty  :  and  it  accounts  for  much  of  the 
opposition  which  the  first  teachers  of  the  truth  encountered. 
That  it  is  a  pecuharity  also  of  the  laiu  is  plain,  both  from  the 
nature  of  its  precepts  and  from  the  teaching  of  our  Lord,  for 
when  he  impresses  upon  his  hearers  the  importance  of  inward 
dispositions,  he  never  speaks  of  the  law  as  faulty,  but  merely 
frees  it  from  the  glosses  of  the  Pharisees,  and  unfolds  its 
spiritual  meaning.     See  also  Mark  12.  32-34. 

467.  Even  when  the  precepts  of  the  gospel  are  given  in  a 
Even  specific  ^P^cific  form  they  are  often  intended  as  descrip- 
ruies  involve  tive  rather  of  character  than  of  specific  acts.  The 
pnncip  es.  command  of  our  Lord,  "  If  any  man  will  sue  thee 
at  the  law  to  take  away  thy  coat,  let  him  have  thy  cloak 
also,"  is  an  instance.  Matt.  5.  40.  A  specific  compliance 
with  the  precept  would  be  seldom  practicable.  To  wait  for 
the  occasion  when  it  can  be  applied,  or  even  to  apply  it  at  all, 


PRECEPTS,  MORAL  AND  POSITIVE.  319 

might  be  of  little  service ;  but  to  chcirish  the  disposition  at 
which  it  aims  is  to  take  one  of  the  likehest  means  of  pro- 
moting our  hohness. 

468.  It  is  another  pecuharity  of  the  precepts  of  the  gospel 
^^^^^  that  they  are  generally  expressed  in  comprehen- 
generai  sive  terms,  and  that  the  apphcation  of  them,  and 
maxims.  ^-^^  distinctions  that  attend  it,  are  left  to  the 
reason  of  the  reader.  It  is  true  that  the  laws  are  so  plain  as 
to  leave  a  conscientious  and  teachable  mind  in  httle  danger 
of  mistake.  StiU,  it  is  part  of  our  disciphne  that  we  are  left 
to  apply  them.  There  is  such  clearness  in  the  command, 
that  he  that  runneth  may  read ;  but  withal,  such  possi- 
bihty  of  error  as  proves  God  to  be  testing  "  what  is  in  our 
hearts,  and  whether  we  will  keep  his  commandments  or  not." 

469.  Applying  these  distinctions  to  the  moral  law,  whether 
The  moral  given  in  the  Old  Testament  or  in  the  New,  it  may 
^^^^-  be  observed — 

1.  That  whatever  evil  it  prohibits  in  the  highest  degree  it 
prohibits  in  the  lower.  Murder  and  the  malignant  passions 
in  every  stage,  adultery  and  the  sins  of  the  flesh,  fraud  and 
wrong,  false  accusation  in  private  intercourse  and  in  courts  oi 
law,  theft  and  covetous,  discontented  desires,  are  all  con- 
demned ;  and 

2.  That  when  sin  is  forbidden,  the  opposite  duty  is  en- 
joined, and  when  any  duty  is  enjoined,  the  opposite  sin  is 
forbidden-  It  forbids  the  use  of  images  of  invisible  things 
for  purposes  of  worship,  and  thus  enjoins  spiritual  service. 
In  excluding  every  other  object  of  religious  worship,  it  im- 
phes  that  God  is  to  be  worshipped,  reverenced,  and  loved. 
It  surrounds  the  parental  relation  with  sanctity  and  honour, 
and  thus  condemns  the  indifference  and  false  independence 
which  are  too  often  indulged.  This  apparent  extension  of 
the  meaning  of  inspired  precepts  is  the  necessary  result  of 
the  general  truth  that  the  Scriptures  are  a  book  of  principles, 
checking  or  fostering  dispositions,  and  speaking  in  the  lan- 
guage of  comprehensive  command. 

470.  Keeping  in  mind  that  the  precepts  of  Scripture  refer 
chiefly  to  the  dispositions  of  the  soul,  that  they  are  expressed 
for  the  most  part  in  general  terms,  and  that  the  apphcation 
of  them  is  left  to  the  reader,  we  need  still  to  notice  an  im- 
portant distinction  between  these  precepts  themselves. 


320     DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  MORAL  AND   POSITIVE  PRECEPTS. 

Some  are  called  moral  and  others  positive,  and  the  distinc- 
Moraipre-  tion  is  founded  on  Scripture  itself.  Bishop  Taylor 
pSve  de-  defines  moral  precepts  as  having  their  measure  in 
^^^-  natural  reason,   while   in    positive  precepts,   the 

reasons  and  measure  are  incidental,  economical,  or  poKticaJ. 
The  reason  of  the  first  is  eternal,  the  reason  of  the  second, 
temporary.  Bishop  Butler  and  Dr.  Doddridge,  again,  define 
the  first  as  precepts,  the  reasons  for  which  we  see  ;  and  the 
second  as  precepts,  the  reasons  for  which  we  do  not  see.  By 
combining  these  definitions,  Vv'e  may,  perhaps,  obtain  one 
sounder  than  either.  Positive  precepts  refer  only  to  outward 
acts,  and  to  such  outward  acts  as  do  not  naturally  flow  from 
an  obedient  heart ;  moral  precepts,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
reference  to  inward  holiness  or  to  acts  as  the  natural  expres- 
sion of  holy  feehng.  Both  are,  within  certain  hmits,  obli- 
gatory, and  the  neglect  of  either  has  itfe  peculiar  aggravations. 
To  violate  moral  laws  is  to  disobey  our  reason  and  God.  To 
,  violate  positive  laws  is  to  sin  where  temptation  is  commonly 
feeblest,  and  where  disobedience  involves  a  direct  denial  of 
Divine  authority. 

Some  precepts  (it  is  obvious)  are  mixed  in  their  nature, 
being  partly  moral  and  partly  positive.  Such  is 
the  law  of  the  sabbath.  That  creatures,  framed 
as  man  is,  should  present  some  united  worship  is  a  moral 
duty ;  but  whether  that  worship  be  presented  on  the  seventh 
or  the  first  day  of  the  week  must  be  decided  by  positive  law. 
It  is  obvious,  too,  that  in  the  use  of  the  words  of  this  dis- 
tinction we  are  liable  to  mistake.  Moral  duties  are  ^^ositive, 
in  the  sense  of  being  expressly  commanded  ;  and  positive 
duties  are  moral,  in  the  sense  of  requiring  holy  motive  in 
fulfilling  them  :  guilt,  too,  is  incurred,  if  they  be  regarded 
with  indifierence  or  contempt. 

471.  Positive  laws  however  differ  widely  from  those  which 
^.  ,.     .         are  strictly  moraL 

Distinction  *' 

^tween  jj^  their  nature.     The  moral  are  intrinsically  holy  and 

immutable;  the  positive  are  indifferent  till  the  precept 
is  given.  Under  the  law,  tor  example,  to  look  at  the  brazen  ser- 
pent, to  sprinkle  the  door-posts  with  bloody  wei-e  acts  of  no  obliga- 
tion till  God  had  commanded  them,  and  both  were  temporary  in 
their  duration. 

In  their  evidence.     The  moral  precept  is  written,  though  often 


RELATIVE   CLAIIIS   OF  EACH.  321 

nearly  eflfaced,  in  the  heart;  but  the  positive  precept  in  the  Bible 
only.  The  latter,  therefore,  is  a  matter  of  pure  revelation,  and 
differences  among  Christians  in  reference  to  them  are  more  easy  and 
(may  we  not  say  ?)  less  inexcusable. 

In  their  ground.  Moral  precepts  are  founded  in  the  nature  of 
God  and  of  man,  and  in  the  relation  that  subsists  between  them; 
positive  precepts  in  God's  will  alone.  That  will  is  doubtless  guided 
by  wisdom,  and  the  genenU  design  of  many  positive  precepts  is 
even  obvious.  Baptism,  and  the  Lord's  supper,  and  the  sabbath, 
for  example,  are  all  adapted  to  a  specific  end;  but  why  these  ordi- 
nances only,  and  not  others,  is  not  revealed. 

In  the  extent  of  their  obligation,  moral  precepts  are  universally 
binding.  There  is  no  state  conceivable  to  which  God's  moral 
dominion  does  not  extend.  Positive  precepts,  on  the  other  hand, 
ai'e  particular.  The  ceremonial  law  included  the  Jews,  but  not  the 
Gentiles.  Worshipping  in  groves  was  allowed  to  the  patriarchs 
(Gen.  21.  33),  but  was  forbidden  to  the  childi'en  of  Israel  (Deut. 
16.  21).  Under  the  gospel  it  is  indifferent  (John  4.  21).  Other 
observances  were  binding  on  the  priests,  but  not  on  the  people. 
So,  under  the  gospel,  those  only  must  partake  of  the  Lord's  supper 
on  whom  that  ordinance  is  enjoined. 

They  differ,  further,  in  their  observance.  Moral  precepts,  incul- 
cating principles,  are  obeyed  by  a  thousand  different  actions.  Posi- 
tive pi'ecepts,  controlling  conduct  only,  ai-e  uniform,  and  are  to  be 
observed  according  to  the  prescription  and  letter  of  the  law. 

And  lastly,  in  their  connection.  Moral  precepts  are  necessarily 
connected.  Positive  precepts  may  be  so  by  authority,  but  are  not 
so  in  their  nature.  Faith  is  followed  by  hope,  and  joy,  and  love. 
Love  to  God  strengthens  our  sorrow  for  offending  and  our  fear  to 
offend;  and  love  to  man,  fidelity  and  beneficence.  But  circtmi- 
cision  did  not  imply  holiness  or  ceremonial  purity.  Institutions 
maybe  observed  apart,  ^' but  virtues  go  ever,"  says  Bishop  Hall, 
"in  troops." 

472.  In  reference  to  tlie  application  of  these  laws,  moral 

Rules  for        ^^^  positive,  it  must  be  remembered — 

applying  i.  That  moral  precepts  never  really  contradict 

one  another.     If  there  be  apparent  contradiction, 

we  have  misinterpreted  the  meaning  or  the  limits  of  the  law. 

2.  Positive  institutions,  being  founded  exclusively  on  the 
law  of  God,  admit  of  no  additions  in  number  to  those  it 
reveals.  Institutions  professedly  of  Divine  original  must  not 
only  not  be  forbidden  in  Scripture,  they  must  be  expressly 
commanded.     To  increase  the  number  of  such  institutions, 

P  3 


322  PROMISES   UNIVERSAL   AND   PECULIAR. 

says  Dr.  Whichcote,  "  lessens  the  number  of  things  lawful, 
brings  the  consciences  of  men  into  bondage,  multiplies  sin  in 
the  world,  makes  the  way  narrower  than  God  has  made  it, 
and  divides  his  church." 

3,  When  positive  precepts  interfere  with  the  observance  of 
the  moral  law,  they  must  yield  the  outward  rite  to  the  ex- 
pression of  holy  feeling,  the  offering  of  sacrifice  to  the  dictates 
of  mercy,  the  keeping  of  a  sabbath  to  the  law  of  love. 

4.  God  rejects  his  own  positive  institutions  when  men 
make  them  final,  or  put  them  in  competition  with  holiness, 
or  substitute  them  for  it,  Isa,  i.  11-17  .  66.  3  :  Mic.  6.  7,  8  : 
Jer.  7.  4,  5  :  Amos  5.  21. 

Sec.  3.   The  Promises  of  Scrijpture. 

473.  Faith  in  the  promises  of  the  gospel,  is,  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  great  medium  of  man's  renewal 
and  holiness.  When  born  again,  that  is  restored  to  the  con- 
dition and  character  of  children,  it  is,  under  the  operation 
of  the  same  Holy  Spirit,  by  the  incorruptible  seed  of  the 
Divine  word,  received  into  the  heart.  When  justified,  it  is 
by  faith ;  and  by  faith  they  are  made  holy :  faith  is  our 
"  shield,"  our  "  work,"  our  "  victory,"  our  "  life." 

In  studying  and  applying  the  promises  of  the  Bible,  it  is 
important  that  we  remember  the  following  particulars. 

474.  The  general  promises  of  the  Bible  are  the  expression 
Pi-omises  the  ^^  Grod's  immutable  counsel.  Men  have  often  at- 
counsei  of      tached  this  idea  of  counsel  to  the  secret  purposes 

of  God  only,  as  if  those  purposes  contradicted  his 
word,  or  were  intended  to  nullify  and  frustrate  its  statements. 
But  in  Scripture  the  promises  are  always  spoken  of  as  the 
revelation  of  his  purpose,  and  the  violation  of  his  promise  as 
the  denial,  not  of  his  word  only,  but  of  himself.  He  had  pro- 
mised "before  the  world  began,"  Titus  i.  2  ;  and  the  promises 
are  quoted  m  proof  of  his  immutabihty,  Heb.  6.  17,  18. 

475.  Some  of  the  promises  are  universal,  and  others  pecu- 
Universai  liar  and  temporary  ;  and  it  is  important  to  distin- 
and  peculiar.  g-^{^\^  between  them.  There  are  promises  made 
to  Noah,  to  Moses,  to  David,  to  Peter,  which  cannot  apply  to 
us.  The  promise  to  the  Israelites,  of  outward  prosperity, 
was  temporary,  being  suited  to  their  dispensation,  and 
adapted  (in  a  state  where  eternal  things  were  less  clearly  re- 


PROMISES,   ABSOLUTE  AND   COXDITIOXAL.  323 

vealed)  to  secure  obedience.  So  the  gift  of  miracles,  and  of 
infallibilitj  for  writing  or  confirming  the  Scriptures,  was  pro- 
mised to  the  first  age  of  the  church  only,  but  is  now  with- 
drawn. The  gospel  is  the  universal  promise,  and  the  only 
one.  It  is,  therefore,  the  ground  and  measure  of  our  faith. 
Many  promises,  however,  made  to  individual  believers  are 
branches  of  the  universal  promise,  and  are,  as  such,  to  be 
applied  to  behevers  still.  Paul,  for  example,  apphes  to  the 
Hebrew  Christians  the  promise  of  God  to  Joshua,  "I  will 
never  leave  thee ;"  and  Nehemiah  prayed  for  the  fulfilment 
of  the  promise  given  to  Moses,  Josh.  i.  5  :  Heb.  13.  5  :  Neh. 
I.  5-11. 

To  this  class  belong  the  promises  that  refer  to  the  present 
Promises  of  ^^®'  especially  those  that  are  contained  in  the  Old 
temporal  Testament.  When  appUed  to  a  consistent  Chris- 
^^^^^'  tian  they  embody  a  general  truth,  namely,  that  re- 
hgion,  by  making  men  honest,  and  sober,  and  industrious, 
has  a  constant  tendency  to  secure  temporal  blessing.  The 
hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich,  and  diligence  is  enforced  by 
the  gospel.  But  then  the  constancy  of  this  law  is  corrected 
by  three  considerations,  i.  Persecution  and  sufi'ering  are 
expressly  foretold  of  the  church,  and  for  Christ's  sake  ;  and 
such  suffering  is  itself  the  theme  of  a  promise.  2.  The  tem- 
poral promises  of  the  Old  Testament  have  a  hmit  in  the  very 
character  of  the  later  dispensation.  It  is  one  of  faith  rather 
than  of  sight.  3.  And  besides,  temporal  mercies  are  now 
employed  to  promote  the  Christian's  spiritual  welfare,  and 
are  given  or  withheld,  as  may  prove  most  for  his  highest 
good.  Under  the  law,  the  rod  of  the  wicked  less  frequently 
rested  upon  the  lot  of  the  righteous,  because  the  lessons  of 
Pro\idence  were  among  the  grand  teachers  both  of  the 
church  and  of  the  world.  Now,  however,  the  Bible  is  com- 
plete ;  and  God  is  free  (so  to  speak)  to  adapt  his  discipline 
to  the  wants  of  each  of  his  children.  In  asking,  therefore, 
for  the  fulfilment  of  temporal  promises,  even  when  imiversal, 
we  must  remember  that  prosperity  has  ceased  to  be  the  univ 
form  expression  of  Divine  favour,  and  that  providence  is  now 
administered  in  subservience  to  the  spiritual  discipline  of  the 
church. 

476.  Some  of  the  promises  are  absolute,  and  others  are 
Absolute  and  Conditional, 
conditional.        The  promises  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  and 


324  PROMISES   NOT  THE   RULE   OP  DUTY. 

of  the  call  of  the  Gentiles  were  absolute.  The  promise  of 
pai'don  and  of  blessings  essential  to  salvation  is  suspended 
upon  our  faith.  The  Christian's  progress,  again,  in  hohness, 
and  his  freedom  from  chastisement,  are  dependent  upon  his 
dihgence,  and  obedience,  and  prayer. 

It  may  be  said  generally  that  every  promise  of  spiritual 
blessing  to  individual  Christians  is  given  to  character,  and  on 
conditions.  So  Nehemiah  believed,  and  therefore  his  prayer 
ended  with  the  acknowledgment  that  the  promise  was  made 
to  such  only  as  turn  to  God,  and  keep  his  commandments  to 
do  them.  See  also  i  Chron.  28.  9,  19  :  Ezek.  33.  13-15  :  Jas. 
I.  5-7  :  I  Sam.  2.  30 :  Rom.  4.  3,  12  :  Heb.  4.  i.  These  pro- 
mises are  made  to  character ;  sincerity  and  faith  are  always 
required.  Do  we  seek  Abraham's  blessing,  we  must  walk  in 
Abraham's  steps.  Do  we  wish  for  special  tokens  of  Divine 
regard,  we  must  cherish  the  poor  and  contrite  sj)irit  with 
which  God  is  pleased  to  dwell.  And  they  are  made  on  con- 
ditions. Further  light,  and  richer  gifts,  are  ever  bestowed  in 
proportion  to  our  industry,  and  fervour,  and  fidelity,  and 
prayer. 

So  far,  therefore,  as  any  promise  of  Scripture  is  common, 
and  we  fulfil  its  conditions,  we  may  apply  it  to  ourselves  as 
boldly  as  if  our  name  were  there.  If  even  it  be  a  particular 
promise  given  to  one  saint,  but  a  branch  of  the  universal 
promise  of  the  gospel,  and  we  do  as  he  did  to  whom  it  was 
originally  given,  it  becomes  our  own. 

477.  This  connection  of  the  promises  of  Scripture  and  the 
Tu:„ conditions  attached  to  them  is  often  overlooked. 

IJiis  con- 
nection over-  Men  apply  the  promises  as  if  they  were  made  to 
looked.  j-i.  Tx-i. 

sorrow  or  distress.     In  fact,  no  promise  is  given 

to  mere  distress,  but  only  to  distress  crying  for  relief,  and 
seeking  it  in  the  way  of  Divine  appointment :  "  Call  upon  me 
in  the  day  of  trouble,  and  I  will  deliver  thee  and  thou  shalt 
glorify  me,"  is  the  uniform  language  of  Scripture,  Psa.  50.  15. 
In  this  respect,  its  promises  differ  from  its  invitations.  The 
latter  are  commands  addressed  to  aU,  even  to  the  impenitent 
and  the  unbelieving  (Mark  i.  15) ;  the  former  to  the  penitent 
and  believing  only,  or  to  the  impenitent,  on  the  supposition 
that  they  turn  and  believe. 

Time  of  ful-        ^7^*  ^^^  often  promises  a  blessing  without  fixing 

fiimentnot     the  time  when  it  is  to  be  bestowed.      God   will 

deliver  the  righteous  out  of  his  troubles,  but  the 


SCRIPTURE  EXAMPLES.  325 

time  is  not  told  us  (Psa.  37).  Christ  is  to  come  again,  and  to 
take  us  to  himself  (John  14.  1-3) ;  but  "  of  that  day  and 
hour  knoweth  no  man."  To  trust  in  the  promise,  therefore, 
includes  both  patience  and  faith.  He  that  believes  will  not 
make  haste,  Isa.  28.  16  :  Rom.  1,7:2  Thess.  3.  5. 

479.  Rightly  to  employ  the  promises,  we  must  use  them, 
.  not  indeed  as  the  gromid  or  measure  of  duty,  but 

rightly  used    yet  as  motives  to  exertion  and  prayer. 

when  made 

prayer.^  **^  ^°^  ^^  promised  to  deliver  his  church  and  to  de- 

stroy her  adversaries;  but  these  promises  are  not  our 
guide.  Paul  had  i-eceived  a  promise  that  he  should  see  Rome,  and 
yet,  when  the  conspiracy  was  framed  to  assassinate  him,  he  imme- 
diately took  steps  to  protect  his  life,  as  if  no  promise  had  been 
given  (Acts  23.  11-17).  In  every  case,  the  precept  is  our  rule, 
though  the  promise  may  influence  our  motives  and  encourage  our 
prayers. 

God  promised  David  to  establish  his  house,  and  David  therefore 
pleaded  the  more  eaimestly  with  God  to  fulfil  his  promise,  2  Sam. 
7.  16-25. 

God  had  promised,  in  the  days  of  Elijah,  to  ''send  rain  upon  the 
earth,"  i  Kings  18.  i,  and  yet  Elijah  prays  -with  the  greater  earnest- 
ness and  perseverance,  i  Kings  18.  42-44. 

Daniel  knew  that  the  seventy  years'  captivity  was  expiring  when 
he  set  his  face  by  prayer  to  seek  its  accomplishment,  Dan.  9.  2,  3. 

When  our  Lord  had  promised  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
disciples  continued  in  prayer  till  the  promise  was  fulfilled.  Acts 
I.  14. 

480.  Rightly  to  employ  the  promises,  we  must  use  them  to 
And  when  promote  our  hohness.  They  were  given  that  we 
they  promote  might  be  partakers  of  a  Divine  nature.    Nor  is 

oimess.  ^j^^  design  of  God  answered,  unless  they  deepen 
our  thankfulness  and  bind  us  to  a  life  of  holy  and  devoted 
obedience,  2  Pet.  i.  4 :  2  Cor.  7.  i. 

Sec.  4.  The  ExamjAes  of  Scripture. 

481.  In  considering  and  applying  the  examples  of  Scrip- 
in  studying  ture,  there  are  several  points  to  which  attention 
amTSe!'"  ^eeds  to  be  directed. 

member—  i.  Many  things  are  recorded  in  Scripture  with 

censure.  There  are  examples  of  injustice  and  idolatry,  which 
are  either  discountenanced  by  the  law,  or  were  at  the  time 


326  SCRIPTURE  EXAMPLES 

expressly  coudemned.  The  record  of  them  is  not  intended 
to  hallow  the  facts,  or  to  justify  us  in  copying  them,  but  to 
illustrate  the  wickedness  of  human  nature  and  the  justice  of 
God,  or  to  serve  some  holy  and  important  end. 

2.  The  actions  of  a  good  man,  which  were  nevertheless 
wrong,  or  which  are  not,  on  other  grounds,  intended  for  our 
imitation,  are  sometimes  recorded  without  censure.  To  this 
class  belong  the  equivocation  of  Abraham  before  Pharaoh ; 
the  falsehood  of  Rebecca  and  Jacob  ;  the  dissembled  madness 
of  David,  i  Sam.  21.  13  ;  and  the  massacre  at  Jabesh  Gilead. 
To  this  class,  also,  belong  such  actions  as  were  allowed  under 
the  law,  but  are  forbidden  under  the  gospel.  Polygamy,  for 
example,  was  only  permitted  to  the  Jews,  "because  of  the 
hardness  of  their  hearts  ;"  never  enjoined.  The  reasoning  of 
our  Lord  condemns  it  (Mark  10.  6),  nor  must  we,  from  the 
pattern  of  children,  learn  the  measures  of  duty  in  men. 

3.  Many  acts  under  the  old  dispensation  were  done  by 
express  command.  Abraham  offered  up  his  son  ;  Joshua 
destroyed  the  Canaanites ;  the  Levites  put  to  death  the 
idolaters  in  the  camp  ;  Jehu  rebelled  against  the  house  of 
Ahab,  2  Kings  9  :  but  each  of  these  acts  was  performed  under 
the  authority  of  a  peculiar  3.nd  positive  precept.  The  fact  that 
God  expressly  commanded  them  takes  them  out  of  the  list  of 
imitable  actions.  To  make  similar  actions  commendable,  we 
must  have  similar  authority. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  when  a  pecuhar  command  was 
given,  the  reason  is  generally  appended,  showing  the  com- 
mand to  be  but  temporary.  Abraham  was  commanded  to 
offer  up  his  son,  to  test  his  faith ;  Joshua  destroyed  the 
Canaanites  because  the  time  of  their  probation  was  past,  and 
they  had  proved  irretrievably  idolatrous  ;  idolaters  in  Judaea 
were  put  to  death,  because,  there,  idolatry  was  treason  against 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  invisible  King. 

4.  In  judging  of  Old  Testament  examples,  we  must  ascertain 
the  principle  on  which  the  actions  were  performed.  This  is 
the  rule  suggested  by  the  nth  chapter  of  the  Hebrews,  where 
some  acts  are  recorded  as  imitable  only  in  the  principle  of 
faith,  from  which  they  sprang.  Without  this  rule,  Scripture 
may  be  made  to  sanction  the  most  contradictory  acts.  In 
Genesis  21.  9,  for  example,  Ishmael  mocked  Isaac,  and  from 
Galatians  4.  29,  we  learn  that  this  mockery  was  the  expression 


NOT  OUR  RUL2.  327 

of  a  spirit  of  persecution,  and  of  contempt  of  God's  promises. 
Elijah,  on  the  other  hand,  mocked  the  priests  of  Baal  to 
23rove  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  idolatry.  EHjah's  conduct 
in  calling  fire  from  heaven  (2  Kjngs),  was  not  the  result  of 
angry  feeling,  but  of  a  desire  to  convince  a  wicked  prince,  and 
an  idolatrous  people  ;  when  James  and  John  wished  to  exercise 
the  same  power,  however,  our  Lord  rebuked  them  ;  partly 
because  his  kingdom  forbade  such  agency,  and  partly  because 
the  temper  in  which  they  spoke  was  passionate  and  revengeful. 

482.  All  these  considerations  may  be  expressed  in  the  form 
of  rules  :  and  it  follows  that  we  are  not  to  copy  the  practices 
which  Scripture  records  and  condemns ;  nor  practices  which 
Ruieofjudg-  it  records  without  censure,  unless  those  practices 
mentand       were  holv  as  weU  as  lawful:   nor  what  was  done 

i-ule  of  imita-  ■,  .  ^  -,   , 

tion.  under  specific  and  temporary  command  ;  nor  what 

was  done  in  consequence  of  inferior  knowledge;  nor  must  we 
copy  or  judge  the  good  acts  of  even  a  good  man,  without  con- 
sidering their  motives  and  end. 

Or  the  whole  may  be  summed  up  in  one  principle.  In 
relation  to  Old  Testament  examples,  the  rule  of  judgment  is, 
that  we  estimate  each  act  as  the  individual  who  performed  it 
was  bound  to  estimate  it  by  the  law,  under  which  he  Hved, 
and  the  negative  rule  of  imitation  is,  that  we  are  not  to  copy 
it,  if  it  be  inconsistent  with  the  precepts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment.    The  positive  rule  of  imitation  will  be  found  below. 

483.  Of  what  use  then  are  the  examples  of  Scripture,  and 
Use  of  how  are  we  to  employ  them  ?     They  are  of  great 

example.  use. 

In  interpreting  the  rules  of  Scripture  where  the  sense  is 
I.  In  inter-  questioned.  If  the  example  be  set  by  men  who 
pretation.  were  at  the  time  inspired,  and  that  example  is  in 
obedience  to  the  rule  in  question,  we  have  then  an  inspired 
interpretation  of  its  meaning.  The  conduct  of  Paul  in  op- 
posing Peter  on  the  question  of  circumcision,  and  the  practice 
of  the  apostles  generally,  decides  the  signification  of  many 
passages  of  Scripture.  In  such  cases  we  copy  the  example, 
not  because  good  men  have  left  it,  but  because,  under  the 
circumstances,  it  proves  to  us  what  is  the  mind  of  Christ. 

We  may  thus  often  find  an  explanation  of  the  meaning  of 
Scripture,  in  the  examples  which  inspired  men  have  left  us. 
"  Swear  not  at  all,"  for  instance,  is  one  of  the  commands  of  our 


328  SCRIPTURE   EXAMPLES, 

Lord,  Matt.  5.  33-37.  In  the  same  chapter  he  tells  us  that  he 
came  not  to  destroy  the  law  (ver.  1 7,  1 8),  and  as  the  law  permitted 
oaths,  it  may  be  presumed  that  all  oaths  for  all  purposes,  are  not 
forbidden  in  this  prohibition.  On  referring  to  2  Cor.  11.  31-33: 
Rom.  I.  9,  it  becomes  plain  that  the  precept  refers  to  our  ordinary 
communications,  which  should  be  yea,  yea,  nay,  nay.  The  vice 
which  is  thus  condemned  was  very  common  among  the  Jews. 
''  Resist  not  evil,"  in  the  same  chapter,  will  be  found  by  the  same 
reasoning  to  mean,  *'  cheiish  not  a  spirit  of  retaliation  and  revenge." 
Our  Lord  did  not  complain  of  the  law  in  the  hands  of  the  magis- 
trate, nor  did  he  forbid  his  disciples  appealing  to  it  where  public 
justice  was  concerned.  He  himself  remonstrated  against  unjust 
smiting,  John  18.  23;  and  Paul  so  far  resisted  evil,  as  to  protest 
against  cruel  indignities  offered  him,  and  on  another  occasion,  to 
appeal  to  Csesar,  Acts  25.  11.  The  meaning  of  the  precept  there- 
fore is,  rather  suffer  injury  than  revenge  yourselves. 

They  are  of  use  again — 

In  teaching  us  to  apply  the  rules  of  Scripture  to  particular 
2.  In  teach-  cases.  The  New  Testament,  is  in  a  great  degree,  a 
ing  to  apply  book  of  principles,  and  not  of  specific  directions, 
rSel^^^        and  it  requires  great  wisdom  to  apply  them. 

If,  for  instance,  it  be  asked  whether  it  is  the  duty  of  all  Christians 
to  speak  of  the  true  God,  or  of  his  Son,  and  to  exhort  others  to 
believe  in  Him,  we  appeal  to  the  precepts  of  the  gospel,  precepts 
addressed  to  all  saints,  and  we  illustrate  and  learn  to  aj^ply  the  pre- 
cepts from  Scriptm-e  example.  Abraham,  Gen.  18.  19.  The  Captive 
Maid,  2  Kings  5.  3.  The  restored  Demoniac,  Mark  5.  20.  Anna, 
Luke  2.  38.  Andrew  and  Philip,  John  i.  41,  46.  The  woman  of 
Samaria,  John  4.  29.  Persecuted  Christians,  Acts  8.  4.  Apollos, 
Acts  18.  25.  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  Acts  18.  26.  Phehe  and  others  at 
Rome,  Rom.  16.  12.     Philemon.,  ver.  6. 

The  value  of  examples  for  this  purpose,  may  be  well  illustrated 
by  comparing  the  moral  principles  laid  down  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs, 
with  the  application  of  them  in  the  different  characters  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  It  is  said  for  example,  "  There  is  that  maketh  him- 
self rich,  and  yet  hath  nothing,  and  there  is  that  maketh  himself 
poor  and  yet  hath  great  riches."  Of  the  first  principle  we  have 
illustrations,  in  Ahab,  i  Kings  21.  4,  16,  22:  in  Haman,  Esther  5. 
1 1- 13:  the  self-righteous  Pharisee,  Luke  18.  11- J4:  in  the  self- 
conceited  Corinthians,  i  Cor.  4.  8:  in  the  false  teachei'S  alluded 
to  by  Peter,  2  Pet.  2.  18.  19:  and  of  the  second,  in  Matthew,  Luke 
5.  27,  28:  Zaccheus,  Luke  19.  8,  9:  Paul,  2  Cor.  6.  10:  Phil.  3.  8. 
The  Ephesian  converts.  Acts  19.  19:  Eph.  2:  and  in  the  church  of 


THEIR   UTILITY.  329 

Smyrna,  Rev.  2.  9:  compared  with  the  church  at   Laodicea,  Rev. 
3.  17. 

The  great  use  of  Scripture  examples,  however,  is  not  for 
purposes  of  interpretation,  but  for  the  increase  of 
niotingour  our  holiness.  They  illustrate  Divine  truth  and 
holiness.  human  duty — they  show  the  possibihty  of  obe- 
dience— they  rebuke  our  imperfections,  and  by  exhibiting  the 
sins  of  good  men,  excite  our  watchfahiess  and  charity. 

Does  the  Christian  a^k,  for  instance,  whether  it  is  possible  for  him 
to  serve  God  in  the  business  of  the  world,  as  well  as  in  retirement, 
or  in  the  public  service  of  religion?  let  him  remember  that  Enoch, 
who  walked  with  God,  had  sons  and  daughters,  that  Abraham  had 
great  possessions,  that  Joseph  was  governor  of  Egypt,  that  Moses 
was  king  in  Jeshurun  (Deut.  33.  5),  that  Jeremiah  dwelt  in  royal 
courts,  that  Daniel  was  third  ruler  in  the  kingdom  of  Babylon,  and 
that  our  blessed  Lord  himself,  was  not  less  holy  a^  the  carpenter 
than  when  engaged  in  his  public  ministry,  or  when  offering  the 
great  sacrifice  of  the  cross. 

Do  we  wish  to  test  om:  repentance,  and  ascertain  whether  it  is 
worldly  or  spiritual?  we  may  examine  its  fruits,  or  we  may  com- 
pare it  with  Scripture  examples.  We  have  true  repentance  in 
David,  2  Sam.  12.  13,  and  Psa.  51:  in  Manasseh,  2  Chron.  33.  12, 
13 :  in  Job  42.  5:  in  Nineveh,  Jonah  3.  5,  8:  in  Peter,  Matt.  26.  75 : 
and  in  the  Publican,  Luke  18.  We  have  worldly  repentance  in 
Pharaoh:  in  Saul,  i  Sam.  15.  24:  in  Ahab,  i  Kings  21.  27;  in 
Johanan,  Jer.  13.  12,  20:  and  in  Judas,  Matt.  27.  3,  5. 

Do  we  watch  with  most  care  against  our  easily  besetting  sins,  and 
feel  secure  against  others  to  which  we  are  less  prone.  We  may, 
with  advantage  remember  that  Abi'aham  the  father  of  the  faithful 
distrusted  the  providence  of  God;  that  Moses  the  meekest  of  men, 
spoke  unadvisedly  with  his  Hps;  that  Job  murmured  (Job  6.  8,  etc.); 
and  that  the  boldest  of  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  swore,  through 
fear,  that  he  never  knew  him. 

The  impressiveness  of  these  examples  may  be  incrcEised  by 
Efifectof  our  selecting  such  as  resemble  more  closely  our 
contrast.  q^^^j^  (3a,se,  or  by  placing  in  contrast  the  conduct 
of  different  persons  under  similar  circumstances. 

We  may  compare  the  hiimility  of  the  ti-ue  teacher,  John  the 
Baptist,  with  the  self-conceit  of  Simon  Magus,  the  false  teacher  who 
gave  out  that  he  himself  was  some  great  one,  John  i.  19-27,  and 
Acts  8.  9 ;  the  anger  of  Jeroboam  and  Uzziah  when  reproved  with 


330  EXAMPLES,  HOW  FAR  TO  BE  COPIED. 

the   submission  and   diligence    of    Jehoshaphat,    i   Kings    13.   4: 
2  Chron.  26.  19:  2  Chrou.  19.  24,  etc. 

484.  Nor  ought  we  lightly  to  esteem  the  value  of  such 
Their  im-  examples.  "  All  that  philosophy,  wise  men,  and 
portance.  general  reason  can  teach,"  says  Luther,  "  that  is 
profitable  for  good  life,  history  presents  by  examples  and  cases. 
And  when  we  look  at  it  deeply,  we  find  that  thence  have 
flowed,  almost  all  rights,  art,  good  counsel,  warning,  threaten- 
ing, terror,  consolation,  strengthening,  instruction,  and  pru- 
dence, as  out  of  a  hving  spring."  Examples  thus  become 
morality  taught  in  facts,  "  Christ  and  his  gospel  preached 
from  the  annals  of  his  own  kingdom,"*  and  the  experience  of 
his  church. 

485.  It  may  be  remarked,  generally,  that  if  the  matter  to 

which  the  example  refers,  is  of  a  moral  nature^  we 
principle  of  are  to  copy  the  example  of  inspired  men,  so  far  as 
iimtation.  ^j^^  reason  of  the  practice  is  the  same  in  their  case 
and  in  ours.  If  the  cases  are  not  similar,  we  then  obey  the 
command  by  cherishing  the  spirit  which  their  example  em- 
bodied, without  copying  the  example  itself.  It  is  a  principle, 
for  instance,  that  Christians  are  "  by  love  to  serve  one 
another,"  and  if  the  churches  of  one  district  have  abundance, 
and  those  of  another  district  are  suffering  from  poverty,  the 
churches  in  the  former  case,  are  to  obey  the  command  by  col- 
lecting for  their  poorer  brethren,  as  the  early  churches  did, 
Acts  II.  28-30:  I  Cor.  16.  I.  They  apply  the  rule  in  the 
sam.e  way.  But  if  it  be  said  to  follow  from  this  principle, 
that  we  should  copy  the  examples  of  the  early  Christians,  and 
wash  one  another's  feet,  we  then  apply  the  exceptive  principle 
just  named.  That  custom  was  in  eastern  countries  a  common 
and  necessary  refreshment ;  but  to  observe  it  here  would 
defeat  the  design  of  the  observance.  A  kiss  was  the  common 
form  of  eastern  salutation,  and  was  designed  to  express  affec- 
tionate regard ;  the  principle  of  that  practice  (the  exercise  and 
expression  of  affectionate  feehng),  is  still  binding,  but  we 
cease  to  copy  the  example,  or  to  express  the  principle  in 
that  form,  because  the  custom  has  ceased.  The  primitive 
church,  it  is  evident  from  the  New  Testament,  had  its  love 
feasts  ;  we  have  no  record  of  their  being  a  Divine  appoint- 
"  Neander. 


EXAMPLES,   HOW  FAR  TO  BE  COPIED.  331 

ment,  but  they  were  probably  the  spontaneous  expression  of 
mutual  affection.  Hence,  when  they  were  abused,  the  apos- 
tles condemned  them.  "  These  are  spots,"  said  Jude,  "  iu 
your  feasts  of  charity."  In  the  case  of  the  Lord's  supper,  the 
abuse  was  condemned  also,  but  the  ordinance  was  re-incul- 
cated. The  observance  of  such  feasts,  therefore,  is  allowable, 
if  they  tend  to  deepen  the  feelings  they  are  designed  to  express, 
but  the  example  is  plainly  not  of  binding  authority. 

486.  If  the  matter  to  which  the  example  refers  is  a  'positive 
institution^  the  precedent  is  of  no  force  in  regard  to  its  merely 
accidental  circumstances.  In  relation,  for  example,  to  the 
Lord's  supper,  it  was  celebrated  in  an  upper  room,  with  un- 
leavened bread,  the  guests  reclining  at  the  table,  on  the  fifth 
day  of  the  week,  and  in  the  evening  of  the  day.  Three  of 
these  facts  are  expressly  mentioned,  and  the  others  are  un- 
doubted ;  yet  none  is  deemed  essential  to  the  due  observance 
of  the  ordinance. 

Most  of  the  meetings  of  believers  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  were  held  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (Acts  20. 
7  :  I  Cor.  II.  20).  Most  of  the  preaching  to  the  Jews  and 
others  who  worshipped  with  them,  was  on  the  seventh  day 
(Acts  13.  42  :  i8.  4  :  16.  13).  To  frame  our  example  in  this 
case  after  apostolic  example,  without  considering  the  reason 
of  tlieir  conduct,  is  plainly  to  confound  the  essential  and 
accidental  characteristics  of  their  obedience.  They  exhorted 
Christians  principally  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  because 
on  that  day.  Christians  only  attended  their  service.  They 
preached  on  the  Saturday  because  then  the  people  generally 
were  accessible. 

487.  It  is  important  to  observe,  that  in  all  those  cases 

(both  those  that  refer  to  moral  precepts,  and 
our  law  in  those  that  refer  to  positive  institutions),  the  duty 
au  cases.  q£  obedience  is  founded  on  the  command,  the  ap- 
phcation  and  extent  of  the  command  being  fixed  by  the 
phraseology  employed,  and  by  the  example  of  inspired  men, 
subject  only  to  the  rules  just  given. 


332  SCRIPTURE   DIFFICULTIES. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Principles  and  Eules  of  the  preceding  Chapters  illus- 
trated IN  THE  Quotations  of  the  New  Testament  from 
THE  Old,  and  applied  to  thuj  Solution  of  Scripture  Dif- 
ficulties. 

488.  Nearly  all  introductions  to  Scripture  treat  of  Scripture 
Scripture  dif-  difficulties  as  a  distinct  branch  of  inquiry.  There 
ficuities  re-  are  obvious  objections  to  this  order,  but  it  is  on 
rate  invesd-  the  whole  convenient  to  adhere  to  it.  So  far  as 
gation.  difficulties  illustrate  any  rule  of  interpretation,  or 

are  explained  by  it,  they  belong  to  interpretation  ;  but  as 
many  of  them  admit  several  solutions,  and  might,  if  placed 
under  rules,  bring  the  rules  themselves  into  question,  it  is 
better  to  discuss  them  apart.  The  very  existence  of  difficul- 
ties, moreover,  raises  a  point  which  it  is  important  to  exa- 
mine, and  this  can  be  done  with  advantage  only  in  a  separate 
chapter. 

Studied  in  their  right  place,  with  as  much  attention  as 
their  importance  demands  and  no  more,  the  difficulties  of 
Scripture  will  do  no  mischief  to  a  humble  prayerful  reader. 
They  will  even  stimulate  inquiry  and  strengthen  trust.  Those 
that  belong  to  interpretation  will  supply  decisive  evidences  of 
the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Bible,  and  those  that 
belong  to  doctrine  will  teach  humility  and  faith.  There  is 
true  harmony  though  it  lie  deep :  there  is  really  a  central 
point  whence  all  truth  appears  in  order ;  God  means  us  to 
reach  it  ultimately,  and  in  the  mean  time  to  make  the  attempt. 
That  attempt,  independently  even  of  its  ultimate  issues,  will 
bring  with  it  a  present  reward. 

Sec.  I.  Quotations  classified  and  examined  with  reference  to  the 
state  of  the  Text^  the  truths  and  evidences  of  Scripture,  and 
principles  of  Interpretation. 

489.  The  quotations  made  in  the  New  Testament  from  the 
New  Testa-  ^^^  ^^^^  ^  Subject  of  much  interest.  They  illus- 
ment  quota-  trate  the  state  of  the  original  text,  and  the  evi- 
the°oid?m-  dances  of  Scripture.  They  explain  ancient  types, 
portant.         history   and  predictions.     They  exempHfy  sound 


NUMBER   OF   QUOTATIONS :    THEIR  NATURE. 


J33 


principles  of  interpretation  ;  and  as  these  explanations  and 
illustrations  have  received  the  sanction  of  inspired  men,  they 
are  clearly  of  the  utmost  value. 

The  quotations  of  Scripture  may  be  studied  for  a  double 
May  be  stu-  purpose  ; — either  to  ascertain  the  verbal  variations 
died  for  va-     between  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  and  the 

nous  pur-  .  ' 

poses.  lessons  taught  by  it,  or  to  determine  the  spiritual 

truths  and  principles  of  interpretation  which  these  quota- 
tions involve.  To  this  two-fold  division  we  shall  adhere  in 
the  following  remarks. 

These  quotations  are  very  numerous,  in  all  263  ;  references 
Number  of  less  direct  amount  to  376,  or  together,  639.  Of 
quotations,     these  there  are  in — 


Quota- 

Refer- 

Quota- 

Refer- 

j 

Quota- 

Refer- 

tions. 
J7 

ences. 
4? 

Gal.     - 

tions. 

ences. 

Jas.  -    - 

tions. 
5 

ences. 

Matt.    - 

9 

10 

Mark     - 

17 

10 

Eph.    . 

4 

I  Pet.    - 

10 

9 

Luke     - 

19 

31 

PhU.    - 

2 

!  2  Pet.    - 

I 

9 

.John      - 

15 

19 

Col.      - 

— . 

^  1  John  - 



4 

Acts      - 

31 

21 

2  Thess. 

— 

2 

Jude      - 

— 

4 

Rom.     - 

52 

15 

I  Tim. 

I 

4 

Rev.      - 

I 

"5 

I  Cor.    - 

18 

1 

2  Tim.- 

I 

1 

2  Cor.    - 

9 

Heb.    - 

33 

44 

' 

Quotations  from  the  Pentateuch  amount  to  90,  and  refer- 
ences to  it  to  upwards  of  100  ;  from  the  Psalms,  71,  references. 
30  ;  from  Isaiah,  56,  references,  48  ;  from  the  minor  prophets 
about  30. 

Quotations  are  either  prophetic,  demonstrative,  explana- 
tory, or  illustrative :.  ^jrophetic,  including  those  that 
refer  to  Christ  and  the  gospel  immediately,  as 
Matt.  4.  15, 16,  or  typically,  i.  e.,  they  indicate  primarily  some 
typical  event  or  person,  and  then  some  other  event  or  person 
under  the  gospel,  as  John  19.  36 :  demonstrative,  proving 
some  statement,  as  John  6.  45  :  explanatory,  explaining  some 
statement  or  fact,  as  Heb.  12.  20 ;  and  illustrative,  when  ex- 
pressions are  taken  from  the  Old  Testament  with  a  new 
meaning,  as  Eom.  10.  18.  These  last  are  very  few.  Some,  of 
course,  are  both  demonstrative  and  explanatory,  i.  e.,  they 
explain  and  prove  by  examples  some  general  truth,  as  Gal.  3. 
1 1 .  Frophetic  quotations  referring  to  our  Lord,  or  his  church, 
amount  to  about  120. 


334  THEIR  UTILITY  FOR  CRITICISM. 

The  references  to  the  Old  Testament  can  be  fully  appre- 
ciated only  by  examining  the  LXX,  as  the  identity  of  expres- 
sion does  not  always  appear  in  the  Enghsh  version. 

The  quotations  are  generally  made  from  the  LXX  ;  some- 
times from  the  Hebrew,  in  opposition  to  the  LXX  ; 
°^  ™  ^*  and  still  more  frequently  they  express  the  general 
sense  of  both.  Sometimes  they  are  strict  and  verbal ;  some- 
times widely  paraphrastic  or  greatly  abbreviated ;  but  even 
in  these  instances  no  violence  is  done  to  the  general  meaning 
of  the  original. 

490.  Looking  first  to  the  phraseology  of  these  quotations, 
it  may  be  observed  : 

1 .  To  a  certain  extent  the  quotations  from  the  LXX  now 
Uses  of  this  found  in  the  New  Testament  may  be  applied  to 
study.  correct  the  text  of  that  version.  This  rule  apphes, 
because  the  New  Testament  text  has  been  more  carefully 
guarded  than  the  text  of  the  LXX.  On  the  other  hand  it  is 
not  of  extensive  application,  from  the  fact  that  the  New 
Testament  writers  do  not  care  to  copy  verbally,  and  often 
leave  the  text  of  the  LXX  altogether  for  the  Hebrew. 

2.  Very  occasionally  the  quotations  in  the  New  Testament 
may  be  apphed  to  correct  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old. 

In  Hab.  i.  5,  for  example,  for  **  among  the  heathen,"  read  "  ye 
despisers,"  as  in  Acts  13.  41,  i.e.  not  D'»'"|J3  B'goim,  but  D"'T3  B'zim. 
So  Isa.  29.  13,  and  Matt.  15.  8,  9:  Gen.  47.  31:  Heb.  11.  21:  Psa. 
40.  6:  Heb.  10.  5,  7:  Amos  9.  ir,  12,  and  Acts  15.  16:  Psa.  16.  10: 
Heb.  and  Acts  2.  27:  Hos.  13.  14,  and  i  Cor.  15.  55  (for  *'  I  will 
be,"  read  "  where.") 

3.  As  we  have  seen,  several  passages  in  the  Hebrew  may  be 
translated  in  the  same  way  as  the  quotations  in  the  New 
Testament.  As  a  rule,  the  LXX  takes,  in  these  instances,  the 
secondary  meaning  of  the  words  of  the  original,  the  English 
version  the  primary. 

In  Psa.  19.  4,  for  example,  the  English  version  translates  "line:'' 
the  LXX,  ''sound,"  and  so  in  Rom.  10.  18.  The  word  means  a 
"string  or  chord,"  and  thence  a  musical  or  other  sound.  So  in 
Isa.  28.  16,  and  i  Pet.  2.  6:  Isa.  31.  31-4,  and  Heb.  8.  9. 

After  all  these   corrections  have  been  made,  however,  a 


THEIR  VARIATIONS.  336 

Quotations  large  number  of  passages  remain  which  do  not 
give  rather     agree  with  the  exact  words  either  of  the  LXX,  or 

the  sense  °  , 

than  the  of  the  Hebrew.  About  one-half  of  the  quotations, 
howtve?ft*he  i^  ^^^t,  give  rather  the  sense  than  the  words.  In 
very  words.  ^11  (it  may  be  added),  the  sense  is  given,  even 
when  the  expressions  are  not  exact:  see  in  Rom.  15.  12: 
(Isa.  II.  10)  :  I  Cor.  2.  9  :  (Isa.  64.  3)  :  i  Cor.  i.  31  :  (Jer.  9. 
24).  Sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  the  whole  argument  is 
made  to  turn  on  the  very  terms  employed,  as  in  Heb.  3.  7-10 : 
Gal.  3.  16  :  I  Cor.  15.  45. 

491.  The  principle  on  which  these  quotations  are  made 
seems  to  be  the  same  as  a  competent  scholar  would  adopt  in 
quoting  the  present  Enghsh  version.  Wherever  the  Septua- 
gint  represents  the  meaning  of  the  original  with  sufficient 
accuracy,  the  inspired  writers  use  it,  but  in  particular  pas- 
sages they  translate  directly  from  the  Hebrew. 

Matthew,  for  example,  frequently  uses  the  LXX,  but  in 
passages  which  refer  to  the  Messiah  he  pays  special  attention 
to  the  original,  which  he  very  closely  foUows.  Paul,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  the  Hebrews,  quotes  nearly  always  from  the 
LXX.  and  generally  verbatim. 

492.  While  most  of  the  variations  between  the  New  Tes- 
Reason  for  tament  and  the  Old  are  explained  on  the  principle 
variations,  -tj^^t  it  is  rather  the  sense  than  the  words  that  ai-e 
quoted,  there  is  sometimes  an  obvious  purpose  in  the  variation. 

To  fit  a  quotation  to  the  context,  the  number,  or  the  person,  or 
the  tense,  or  the  voice,  is  changed,  Luke  4.  12  (Deut.  6.  16):  Luke 
8.  10  (Isa.  6,  9),  John  19.  36  (Exod.  12.  46). 

To  suit  the  argument,  or  to  suggest  an  additional  lesson,  the 
meaning  of  the  Heb,  is  nai-rowed  in  the  quotation,  the  larger  mean- 
ing including  the  less :  thus, 

In  Acts  3.  25,  Peter  in  quoting  Gen.  22.  18,  uses  '^kindreds," 
instead  of  "  nations,"  suggesting  to  his  Jewish  hearers  that  the 
Gentiles  were  their  brethren : 

So  in  Heb.  5.  10,  Paul  translates  a  word  (|n3,  cohen),  which  in  the 
5th  verse  he  had  translated  "priest,"  following  the  LXX,  by  a  word 
equally  accmrate,  but  better  suited  to  his  argument,  "  high  priest :'' 

In  Heb.  i.  6,  we  have  angels  instead  of  "  gods,"  as  in  Psa.  97,  7. 
The  original  means  "  mighty  ones,"  and  is  applied  to  God,  false 
gods,  angels,  and  generally  to  those  high  in  authority.  The  apostle 
takes  the  narrower  meaning,  and  omits  the  rest : 


336  THEIR  UTILITr   IN   DOCTRINE. 

In  Rom.  II.  26,  27,  the  word  ''Deliverer"  is  used  instead  of 
"  Redeemer."  After  Christ  had  appeared,  the  latter  term  in  this 
passage  would  have  been  ambiguous : 

So  in  I  Cor.  3.  20,  quoted  from  Psa.  94.  11  j  for  "men"  the 
apostle  reads  "  wise,"  and  in  Matt.  4.  20,  our  Lord  says  "worship," 
instead  of  "fear."     So  Rom.  14.  11. 

493.  Sometimes,  again,  parts  of  a  prediction  are  omitted, 
Reasou  for  because  not  required  by  the  argument,  or  because 
omissions.  likely  to  raise  a  question  which  the  inspired  writer 
did  not  at  the  time  intend  to  discuss. 

In  quoting  Zech.  9.  9,  for  example,  Matthew  omits  "  bringing 
salvation,"  as  that  fact  was  not  at  the  time  apparent. 

So  in  quoting  Jer.  31,  34,  Paul  omits  a  clause  which  contained  a 
promise  at  that  time  unfulfilled,  Heb.  10.  16.  So  Rom.  10.  15,  and 
2  Cor.  6.  17. 

494.  Sometimes,  again,  the  New  Testament  quotation  is 
.  more  clearly  exj^ressed  than  the  LXX,  and  some- 

the  variation  times  it  brings  out  the  idea  more  fully  even  than 
S^fentf      the  original  itself. 

more  com-  Compare,  in  illustration,  the  LXX  version  of 

Job  5.  13,  with  the  apostle's  quotation,  i  Cor.  3. 
19  ;  and  also  the  Heb.  LXX  and  English  version  of  Isa.  29. 
14,  with  I  Cor.  I.  19. 

While  therefore  the  general  principle  seems  to  be,  that  the 
inspired  writers  preserve  rather  the  thoughts  than  the  words 
of  the  original,  w^e  must  not  hastily  conclude  that  verbal 
variations  are  without  meaning  ;  still  less  that  such  variations 
are  inaccurate.  Nowhere  is  there  a  difference  of  sense,  and 
the  verbal  variation  is  often  itself  suggestive  of  instructive 
lessons. 

495.  The  quotations  in  the  book  of  Revelation,  which  are 
generally  indirect,  are  of  great  interest.  They  connect  the 
predictions  of  the  two  economies,  and  throw  light  upon  the 
meaning  of  the  symbolical  language  of  the  sacred  volume. 

496.  The  chief  instruction,  however,  to  be  gathered  from 
New  Testament  quotations  refers  to  the  truths  taught  by 
them.  They  illustrate  the  doctrines  and  ethics  of  the  ancient 
Scriptures,  and  of  both  dispensations ;  they  supply  evidence 
of  the  truth  of  Scripture  ;  and  they  suggest  important  rules  of 
Biblical  interpretation. 


TRUTHS  TAUGHT   IX  QUOTATIONS.  337 

I.  Life  by  faith,  salvation  through  Christ,  and  the  duty  of 
Salvation  by  hoHness  are  all  taught  to  the  Jewish  and  Gentile 
faith,  Christ's  church  from  the  ancient  Scriptures. 

deily,  and  ^ 

man's  iin-  Salvation  by  faith,  and  through  Christ  proved  by  quo- 
taught  in  the  tations  in  Rom.  i.  17:  Gal.  3.  6-9,   14,  16:  Horn.  4.  10. 
Old  Testa-  ^  I .   J  Pet.  2.  6,  7 :  John  8.  36.     Faith,  from  its  relation 
raent,  as  ,  .  ,     1    •      •  1  •  ■,        •  ^ 
shown  by  to  something  which  13  righteousness,  is  counted  as  nght- 

quotatious.  eousness,  Rom.  4.  3-8.  Men  are  condemned  through 
unbelief,  Heb.  3.  7-10.     See  also  Heb.  8.  9,  10. 

Election  of  grace,  and  the  promise  as  wide  as  the  fall,  Rom.  ir.  5  : 
10.  10. 

Holiness  essential,  consists  in  love,  and  is  enforced  by  Divine 
example,  2  Cor.  6.  16:  Matt.  22,  37-39:  i  Pet.  i.  16:  Matt.  23.  23. 

Grace  given  to  the  humble,  and  in  largest  measure  to  those  who 
use  it  best,  Jas.  4.  6. 

Present  temporal  blessing  connected  with  obedience  even  under 
the  gospel,  Eph.  6.  2,  3:  i  Pet.  3.  10,  11. 

The  passages  in  the  Old  Testament  to  which  we  have  re- 
ferred as  implying  the  Divinity  of  the  Messiah  and  the  agency 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  are  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  with  the 
same  view.     Bead  chap.  iii.  sec.  3,  and  mark  the  following. 

The  stone  of  stumbling  on  which  Israel  fell  is  said  in  Isaiah  to  be 
Jehovah  himself,  Isa.  8.  13,  14:  Rom.  10.  9,  ii:  9.  32,  33.  So  iu 
Isa.  45.  21-25,  the  speaker  is  called  Jehovah,  and  to  him  every  knee 
is  to  bow.  His  language  is  quoted  by  Paul,  Rom.  14.  11,  to  prove 
that  all  must  submit  to  Christ. 

The  vision  described  in  Isa.  6.  3-10,  is  spoken  of  by  John  as  a 
sight  of  Christ's  glory,  John  12.  41;  and  the  ''voice  of  the  Lord" 
which  spake  to  the  prophet  is  called  by  Paul,  the  Holy  Ghost, 
Acts  28.  25. 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (i.  6,  8,  10),  the  apostle  applies  to 
Christ,  Psa.  97.  7:  45.  6,  7:  102.  25-27;  in  all  of  which  passages 
the  person  spoken  of  is  described  as  the  ruler  of  the  world,  the 
unchangeable  Creator. 

That  the  ancient  church  believed  in  immortality,  in  the 
resurrection,  and  in  a  future  judgment  may  be  gathered  from 
Matt.  22.  32  :  Heb.  11.  5,  13,  14  :  i  Cor.  15.  55  (see  Jude  14. 
15)  and  the  various  passages  in  which  the  great  day  of  the 
Lord  is  named,  i  Thess,  5.  2  :  Rev.  6.  17  :  Joel  2.  31  :  Mai.  4. 
5  :  Psa.  17.  15  :  Job  19.  26  :  21.  10  :  Dan.  12.  2 :  Hos.  13.  14. 

497.  After  all,  however,  particular  quotations  give  a  veiy 

Q 


338  RULES   OF  INTERPRETATION. 

imperfect  idea  of  the  identity  of  the  principles  of 
go^sp?"^^      the  two  covenants. 

MTapped  up        "  The  entire  rehgious  system  of  the  Jews,  is  in 
Testament,     the  most  appropriate  sense  a  prophecy ;  and  the 

individual  passages  of  their  sacred  books  arc  merely 
the  strongest  expressions  of  that  spirit  which  enlivens  the 
whole  mass."    Davison. 

498.  2.  For  the  prophetic  evidence  suppHed  by  these  quo- 
^    ^      tations  see  §  182.     They  refer  in  part  to  the  person 

supply  "  of  our  Lord,  and  in  part,  to  the  progress  of  his 
evidencrof  church.  The  immediate  and  undoubted  prophecies 
the  truth  of  are  upwards  of  70  ;  and  the  typical,  with  such  as 
cnp  ure.  ^^^  either  typical  or  immediate,  amount  to  upwards 
of  50  more. 

499.  3.  The  rules  of  Biblical  interpretation  suggested  by 

these  quotations  are  highly  important. 

mterpreta-  rw,,         -,    -,  i    .      .  ,  i   .      ,i 

tion  sug-  I.  The  whole  gospel,  in  its  precepts  and  truths,  may 

gested  by        -^q  illustrated  and  proved  from  the  Old  Testament, 
quotations.  ^         ,  •        ti 

2.  Human  nature,  being  the  same  m  all  ages,  is  set 

forth  in  the  history  and  descriptions  of  the  Old  Testament. 

See  human  wickedness  described  in  passages  taken  from  Isaiah 
and  the  Psalms,  Rom.  3.  13-18. 

The  unbelief  of  ISI'oah's  time,  and  of  Lot's,  repeated  under  the 
gospel,  Luke  17.  27-29:  Matt.  24.  37. 

3.  The  principle  involved  in  Old  Testament  precepts  or  state- 
ments may  be  applied  inferentially  to  support  gospel  truths. 

See  John  10. 34.  If  magistrates  are  addressed  by  a  name  descriptive 
of  Divine  authority  (gods),  how  much  more  is  the  Son  of  God 
entitled  to  that  name. 

So,  from  Deut.  25.  4,  the  apostle  shows  that  the  labourer  is 
worthy  of  his  hire,  and  that  they  who  preach  the  gospel  may  live  of 
the  gospel,  i  Tim.  5.  18:  i  Cor.  9.  9. 

So,  from  Isa.  55.  3,  "I  will  give  you  the  sm'e  mercies  of  (?.  e.,  the 
favour  pledged  to)  David,"  viz.,  that  his  seed  should  sit  upon  his 
throne  for  ever,  the  apostle  concludes  that  Christ,  to  whom  it 
refers,  must  have  risen  from  the  dead.  See  also  2  Cor.  8.  i5>  -^^cts 
13.  34,  and,  generally,  Rom.  chaps.  9  to  15. 

4.  The  principles  involved  in  Old  Testament  history  may  be 
applied  in  the  same  way  to  the  experience  of  the  church  under  the 
gospel:  whether  that  history  illustrate  human  character,  or  God's 
dispensations,  Rom.  9.  7,  9:  Gal.  4.  22-31:  i  Cor.  10.  4:  Rom.  8. 
36:  I  Cor.  10.  i-ii:  Heb.  3.  7-ro;  10.  26-30. 


RULES   OP  INTERPRETATION.  339 

From  these  quotations,  it  cannot  justly  be  affirmed,  of  course, 
that  the  persons  referred  to  in  the  original  passages,  are  types  of 
those  to  whom  the  quotation  is  applied:  still  less  can  it  be  said 
that  in  these  quotations,  we  must  understand  by  the  persons  named, 
f.he  persons  intended  by  the  New  Testament  writer.  The  case 
(■[uoted,  is  simply  a  case  in  point,  proving  and  illustrating  by 
example,  a  particular  principle.  In  the  9th  of  Romans,  for  example, 
the  apostle  is  proving  that  in  all  ages  there  has  been  (what  his 
readers  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  gospel),  an  election,  even  of 
Jews,  according  to  grace:  and  he  establishes  this  conclusion,  by 
Bhowing,  that  not  all  the  descendants  of  Abraham  were  chosen,  but 
only  his  descendant  by  Sarah :  nor  all  the  descendants  of  Isaac,  but 
only  his  descendants  through  Jacob. 

5 .  Passages  in  the  prophets  which  contain  general  promises,  or  are 
descriptive  of  classes,  are,  of  course,  repeatedly  fulfilled.  They  are, 
in  fact,  general  principles.  See  the  quotations  of  Isa.  6.  9,  10  : 
see  Matt.  15.  8.  9:  ^cts  13.  41.  See  also  Isa.  54.  13:  Hab.  2.  4: 
Heb.  13.  5  (from  Joshua  i.  5). 

6.  Predictions,  properly  so  called,  may  have  a  double  fulfilment; 
a  fact,  of  which  vaiious  explanations  have  been  given. 

Sometimes,  for  example,  the  persons  or  things  are  types,  one 
of  the  other;*  sometimes  they  are  in  certain  aspects,  identical,^ 
and  sometimes  the  events  referred  to,  are  so  closely  blended,  as  to 
be  scarcely  distinguishable.*' 

°-  The  promise  to  Abraham,  for  example,  that  he  should  be  the 
father  of  a  numerous  seed,  is  applied  litei^ally  by  Moses,  Deut.  i.  10: 
by  Paul  it  is  applied  to  those  v/ho  are  partakers  of  his  faitli,  Rom. 
4.  18. 

^  In  another  epistle,  he  says  expressly,  that  the  seed  in  whom 
the  nations  are  to  be  blessed,  is  Christ,  and  then,  that  all  who  are 
Christ's,  are  the  seed  and  heirs  of  the  promise.  Gal.  3.  16,  29.  To 
Class  (a),  belong  such  passages  as  Exod.  12.  46  (the  paschal  lamb, 
John  19.  36),  and  the  promise  concei-ning  Solomon,  2  Sam.  7.  14; 
and  the  corresponding  Psalms,  as  132.  11.  To  (a)  or  (6),  belong^ 
Psa.  8.  2-6,  applicable  first  to  man  as  the  chief  of  God's  creatures, 
and  thence  to  our  Lord,  who  is  in  this  respect  identified  with  us,  or 
(it  may  be  said),  our  antitype:  Psa.  91.  11,  12,  applicable  first  to 
all  who  "  say  of  the  Lord  '  He  is  my  refuge' "'  (ver.  i),  and  pecu- 
liarly therefore,  to  Christ  :  and  various  Psalms,  which,  originally 
descriptive  of  the  afflictions  of  individual  believers,  have  their 
fullest  accomplishment  in  our  Lord,  Psa.  69.  9,  21,  25:  109.  8: 
41.  9:  ir8.  19,  20,  25,  26. 

"  Such  are  the  predictions  in  Isa.  40.  3-5,  where  the  coming  of 
our  Lord  in  the  flesh,  aud  the  final  extension  of  his  truth,  are 

Q  2 


340  SCRIPTURE  DIFFICULTIES. 

500.  If  it  be  said  that  this  double  fulfilment  (whatever  the 

explanation)  weakens  the  evidence  of  prophecy,  it 
fiUnent  con-  sliould  be  remembered  in  reply,  that  the  facts  on 
iusuuaivc''  ^hich  it  is  founded — ^the  typical  nature,  for  ex- 
ample, of  the  two  economies,  or  the  complete 
identity  of  Christ's  interests,  and  those  of  his  church — them- 
selves supply  both  evidence  and  consolation ;  while  many  of  the 
Psalms'*,  and  most  of  the  predictions  of  our  Lord,  taken  from 
the  prophets,  apply  exclusively  to  Him. 

Sec.  2.  Scn_pture  Difficulties. 

"  In  divinity  many  things  must  be  left  abrupt  and  concluded  witli  this : — Oh  the 
depth !  .  .  .  .  For  the  inditcr  of  Scripture  did  know  four  thiugs  which  no  man 
attains  to  know, — the  mysteries  of  the  kingdom  of  glory,  the  perfection  of  the  laws 
of  natm-e,  the  secrets  of  the  heart  of  man,  and  the  future  succession  of  all  ages." — 
Bacoix. 

501.  The  Bible  was  written  "for  our  learning,"  and  by  "in- 

spiration of  God,"  and  yet  it  is  confessed  that  its 
iusiKlnd  general  clearness  is  obscured  by  "  things  hard  to 
intended  for    "be  understood."'     Christians  are  often  harassed  by 

ourlearmng,  .         * 

and  yet  objections   deduced  from  them,  and   unbelievers 

make  them  an  excuse  for  rejecting  the  authority  of 
revelation.  What,  it  may  be  asked,  is  their  origin,  their 
solution,  their  use,  and  how  far  are  they  consistent  with  the 
character  and  aim  of  the  Bible  as  an  inspired  and  instructive 
book  ? 

502.  Their  origin,  it  may  be  answered,  is  sufficiently  plain. 

The  languages  in  which  the  Bible  was  composed 
Scripture  are  disused  ;  they  are  distinct  from  each  other,  and 
difficulties,  (^[ifferent  from  our  own  ;  the  expressions,  images, 
and  thoughts,  it  contains  belong  to  different  ages,  countries, 
and  persons  ;  the  manners  and  customs  it  describes  have 
passed  away  ;  its  topics  are  the  most  various  and  compre- 
hensive, including  the  history,  in  part,  of  all  nations  and  of 

blended ;  in  Mai.  3 .  1-3,  where  we  have  the  same  double  reference,  and 
in  Joel  2.  28-32.  Compare  the  New  Testament  quotations.  Of  the 
same  character  are  the  predictions  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
as  given  in  Matt.  24,  25,  where  are  represented  also  some  of  the 
awful  transactions  of  the  last  judgment. 

'•^  Psalms  2,  22,  45,  no;  and  probably,  40,  16.  and  72:  Psalms 
16,  22,  40,  embody  the  experience  of  the  suffering  Messiah ;  2,45, 
72,  and  no,  describe  his  victories  and  glory. 


THEIR   ORIGIN-.  341 

all  time3  ;  the  system  of  truth  it  reveals  is  to  influence 
both  worlds  ;  and  it  contains  precepts  and  disclosures  which 
refer  to  both,  exjjressed  necessarily  in  terms  taken  from  one 
only  ;  and  the  whole  revelation  is  included  in  a  brief  volume. 
Let  these  and  kindred  facts  be  remembered,  and  it  will  be 
seen  at  once  that,  to  give  within  so  narrow  a  range,  and  even 
to  give  at  all,  to  a  mortal,  finite  mind  amidst  the  changes  in- 
cident to  everything  human,  a  revelation  that  shall  be  free 
from  difficulty  is  impossible.  Difficulties  there  must  be^ 
such  as  need  a  larger  amount  of  inquiry  than  any  one  mau: 
can  give,  and  such  as  will  leave,  after  the  utmost  inquiry, 
much  to  be  hereafter  explained.  Either  Scripture  must  have 
been  written  without  reference  to  history  or  common  expe- 
rience, without  reference,  moreover,  to  anything  not  familiar 
to  every  man  of  every  age,  or  difficulties  must  abound  :  in  some- 
respects  they  do  abound  ;  but  it  is  the  darkness  of  the  readers, 
not  of  the  writers  which  creates  and  continues  them. 

503.  Comparing  the  sections  of  chap.  iv.  ;  chap.  i.  sec.  5, 

and  the  Introductions  of  Pai-t  ii.  ;  it  will  be  seen. 
cia^-ified^^  that  Scripture  difficulties  are  such  as  are  entailed 
upon  us,  (ist)  hyi  the  uncertainties  of  the  text  j 
(2ndly),  by  the  meaning  of  words  and  phrases,  the  connection 
of  arguments,  the  scope  and  authorship  of  particular  books  ; 
(3rdly),  by  the  customs  and  manners  of  the  age  and  country 
in  which  inspired  authors  wrote  ;  (4thly),  by  the  chronology, 
geography,  and  history  of  the  sacred  volume  ;  (5thly),  by  the 
apparent  contradiction  of  the  precepts  or  truths  of  revelation 
regarding  them  as  matters  of  interpretation  only  ;  and,  lastly, 
by  the  objects  with  which  revelation  is  conversant :  the  last 
description  including  the  difficulties  involved  in  the  whole 
range  of  spiritual  and  moral  truth  as  revealed  in  the  sacred 
volume. 

Let  us  briefly  illustrate  each  class  : 

504.  I.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  ascertain  the  reading  of 
Difficulties  in  the  inspired  text. 

°'"  Gen.  49.  6,  ''digged  a  wall"  ("I'it^,  shur),  but  there  Ls  no 
such  circumstance  mentioned  in  the  history,  and  it  would  have  been 
comparatively  innocent,  see  34.  25.  Some  read  ("l'"lK^,  shor),  an  ox; 
"they  houghed  the  oxen,"  but  this  is  not  true,  34.  29;  more  pro- 
bably "1C^,  sar,  a  prince:  in  their  WTath  or  self-will,  "they  slew  a 
prince."     So  the  S^'riac  version 


342  DIFFICULTIES   IN  PHRASES. 

505.  2.  After  the  text  has  been  fixed  there  are  difficulties 
in  the  explanation  of  words  and  phrases,**  the  cou- 
connecfion,  '  nection  of  arguments,^  the  scope  and  authorship  of 
and  scope.      particular  books,"  or  in  two  or  more  combined.'^'' 

Many  of  the  illustrations  in  chap.  iv.  sec.  6,  once  belonged 
to  this  class  ;  they  were  Scripture  difficulties,  and  the  solution 
of  them  is  the  result  of  modern  inquiry. 

(  ^  )  John  I.  16,  "grace  fok  grace,"  has  created  difficulty.  "  For 
the  benefits  of  the  law  we  have  the  blessings  of  the  gospel,"  Chrys., 
Beza,  Erasmus:  ''additional  grace  for  grace  properly  used,"  Le 
Clerc:  ''grace  on  account  of  the  grace  of  Chi-ist,"  Grot.:  "grace 
upon  grace,"  i.  e.,  abundance,  so  Dodd,  Wesley,  Olshausen:  probably 
correct,  though  a.vrt  (for),  has  not  this  meaning  elsewhere  in  the 
New  Testament.  It  may  be  a  Hebi-aiSta  for  py  al,  vpon,  and  there 
are  instances  of  this  meaning  in  classic  authors. 

Heb.  12.  17,  "though  he  sought  it  carefully  with  tears;"  if  it 
refers  to  the  nearest  antecedent,  it  means  "repentance,"  either  his 
own  or  his  father's,  Dodd.  ;  it  may,  however,  refer  to  the  remoter 
antecedent,  his  father's  blessing  ivXoyiav,  and  this  agrees  with  the 
history,  Gen.  27.  34. 

Heb.  9.  16,  "where  a  testament  is  (oLadi'jKv)  there  must  also  of 
necessity  be  the  death  of  the  testator,"  i.  e.  either  where  there  is  a 
will  the  testator  must  die  before  it  can  be  proved  or  take  effect ; 
so  the  English  version,  Guyse,  Stuart :  or,  where  there  is  a  covenant 
the  victim  whose  death  is  to  ratify  it  must  be  slain,  Mich.,  Mack., 
Dodd.,  Bloomfield. 

I  Cor.  II.  10,  "For  this  cause  ought  the  woman  (i)  to  have 
power,  (2)  on  her  head,  (3)  because  of  the  angels."  "To  have 
power  on,"  that  is,  say  some,  to  have  a  veil-cover-iug,  but  the  word 
never  has  this  meaning  elsewhere.  Others  understand  it  literally, 
and  then  (2)  by  "head"  they  understand  her  husband,  and  trans- 
late, "for  this  cause  should  she  have  power  in  or  through  the 
man,"  i  Tim.  2.  11 — 13,  (3)  "because  of  the  angels,"  i.  e.  either  evil 
angels  who  will  be  gratified  by  indecency,  or  good  angels  who 
observe  her  conduct,  Eec.  5.6;  or,  the  teacher  of  the  churches.  Rev. 
3;  or,  spies  sent  by  the  pagans.  "  One  of  the  very  few  passages  of 
Scripture  wholly  inexplicable,"  Barnes. 

When  the  language  is  figurative  the  difficulty  is  often  in- 
creased. 

Psa.  104.  I — 3,  for  example,  is  figurative,  and  the  expressions  may 
be  taken  from  nature,  or  they  may  be  taken  from  the  tabernacle ; 
light  referring  to  the  Shekinah,  the  curtain  referring  to  the  veil, 
the  beams  of  his  chamber  to  the  pieces  of  wliich  the  tabernacle  waa 


DIFFICULTIES   IX   CONNECTION.  343 

composed,  the  clouds  his  chariot  to  the  moving  of  the  Shekinah, 
and  cloud  when  the  ark  moved  ;  the  latter  verses  of  the  Psalm, 
however,  refer  to  nature. 

In  Ezekiel's  descriptions,  some  are  clear,  some  purposely  am- 
biguous. 

(*")  2  Pet.  I.  19,  "  a  more  sure  word  of  prophecy,"  than  what  ? 
"Surer  than  fables,"  verse  16,  Chandler;  others,  than  the  trans- 
figuration, Sherlock;  but  better,  "the  word  of  prophecy  confii-med," 
either  by  the  transfiguration  or  rather  by  New  Testament  fulfil- 
ments. Prophecy  was  as  a  lamp  in  a  dark  place,  the  fulfilment  in 
Christ  is  as  the  dawn. 

{^)  Of  the  difficulties  of  scope  and  authorship  the  Book  of  Job 
may  be  taken  as  an  illustration.  Some  reckon  it  very  ancient,  as 
early  as  Moses  or  earlier,  Michael.  Schult.  Lo\^'th;  others  modern, 
during  or  after  the  Ivings,  Heath,  Warbm'ton :  wiitten  by  Job  or 
Elihu,  or  some  contemporary,  so  Dupin,  Lowth,  Schult.  Lightfoot; 
translated  by  Moses,  so  Patrick,  Grey ;  or  written  by  him,  ]\Iichael. 
Lowth;  or  by  Solomon  or  some  contemporary,  Dupin,  Spanheim; 
or  by  Ezra,  Warburton:  some  regard  it  as  real  history,  Lowth, 
Schtilt. ;  others  as  an  allegory,  Michael.  Warburton :  its  scope  is  to 
give  an  example  of  patience,  Schult.  Grey;  to  show  that  affliction 
is  consistent  with  piety,  Lowth;  to  illustrate  God's  sovereignty, 
or  contradict  the  Manicheean  doctrine  of  the  existence  of  a  power 
of  evil  equal  to  God,  Sherl.;  to  comfort  the  Israelite  in  Egypt, 
Michaelis;  or  during  the  captivity.  Heath;  or  to  explain  the  change 
in  God's  providential  government  after  the  capti\ity,  viz.,  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  more  spiritual  system  for  the  system  of  earthly 
rewards  which  had  previously  prevailed,  Warburton.  It  may  be 
added  that  many  of  the  foregoing  ends  are  answered  by  this  Book, 
and  that  comparatively  recent  investigation  has  thrown  much  light 
upon  its  meaning. 

{^)  Sometimes  there  are  difficulties  both  in  the  words  and 
in  the  connection. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  words  of  Scripture  is  the  particle  tVa. 
The  question  involved  in  it  is  whether  it  means  only  in  order  that 
or  also,  icith  the  result  that.  If  the  former  be  its  only  meaning, 
then  it  always  expresses  the  purpose  or  view  with  which  a  thing  is 
done.  If  the  latter  be  one  meaning,  then  it  may  express  the  con- 
sequence of  an  act,  without  implying  intention  upon  the  part  of  the 
agent.  The  first  is  called  its  telic  (jeXos)  meaning,  and  the  second 
its  ecbatic  (iic-^alvco).  Authorities  are  divided.  Tittman,  Stuart, 
Robinson,  Burton,  all  maintain  that  it  is  used  in  both  senses;  Winer, 
Dq  Wette,  Olshausen,  that  it  is  used  in  the  first  sense  only.     The 


3-1-4  DIFFICULTIES  IX  HISTORY. 

telic  sense  is  no  doubt  most  consistent  ■with  classic  usage,  and  so 
the  word  is  generally  used  in  Scripture  ;  some  think  the  ecbatie 
pense  preferable  in  the  following  passages,  John  9.  2:  Luke  ir.  50: 
Eom.  II.  Ill  others  maintain  a  telic  sense  even  here. 

It  is  sometimes  used  also  to  express  not  the  chief  end  of  an  act, 
but  a  subordinate  one,  as  in  Rom.  5.  20:  Rom.  11.  32:  John  5.  20: 
I.  7:  15.6. 

This  looser  usage  is  probably  owing  to  the  employment  of  the 
word  by  the  LXX  in  passages  where  there  is  nothing,  either  in  the 
Hebrew  or  in  the  context,  to  indicate  a  telic  sense,  but  the  con- 
trary, Gen.  22.  14:  (LXX). 

(*)  Sometimes  there  are  difficulties  both  in  the  reading 
and  the  sense, 

Isa.  5  3  has  been  altered  by  transcribers  and  its  meaning  obscured. 
Mic.  5.  1-5,  quoted  in  Matt.  2.  6,  and  many  of  the  quotations  in  the 
New  Testament.  Isa.  3.  6,  7:  6.  10:  8.  12-18:  16.  1-7:  48.  16,  on 
which  see  Lowth, 

506.  (3.)  When  the  meaning  of  words  has  been  fixed,  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  understand  the  custom  to 
which  they  refer  and  the  reasons  for  it, 

Ecc,  II.  I :  ''Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  w^aters:  for  thou  shalt  find 
it  after  many  days  :"  "  Give  bread  to  those  in  affliction,"  Gill. 
*'Sow  thy  corn  -without  hope  of  harvest:"  that  is,  be  disinterested, 
ill  your  liberality,  Jebb.  "  Be  liberal  while  you  can,"  Bcothroyd. 
Rather,  exercise  a  large  faith  in  God;  act  in  your  gifts  and  efforts 
as  the  husbandman,  who  casts  his  rice  upon  the  waters  and  waits 
for  the  crop;  the  rice-grounds  being  imxndated  from  seed-time  till 
nearly  harvest.  Dr.  Clarke. 

Various  customs  are  mentioned  m  the  following  passages  in 
Isaiah,  and  create  difficulty;  all  of  them,  however,  are  explained  by 
Lowth,  in  his  notes,  Isa.  3.  16,  etc.:  49.  16,  23:  50,  i,  6:  51.  23: 
52.  2:  57.  6-9:  65.  3,  4- 

In  chronology  507.  (4.)  Difficulties  in  chronology  and  history 
and  history."    q^q  various. 

In  Gen,  4.  17,  the  early  building  of  a  city  by  Cain  has  created 
difficulty,  and  it  has  been  asked — who  inhabited  it?  A  little  calcu- 
lation, however,  will  show  that,  500  years  after  the  creation,  the 
descendants  of  our  first  parents  must  have  amounted  to  mauj 
hundred  thousand  in  all.     Dr,  A.  Clarke. 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  HISTORlt.  345 

Difficiilties  in  chronology  and  in  numbers  generally  have  often 
arisen,  as  we  have  seen,  from  false  readings,  the  similarity  between 
different  numeral  letters,  and  from  the  use  of  different  modes  ot 
reckoning. 

So  among  profane  authors.  Cyrus  reigned  thirty  years,  Cicero 
de  Div.,  i.e.,  from  his  joining  Cyaxares;  nine  yeai'S,  Ptol.  Canon^ 
i.  e.,  from  his  taking  Babylon ;  seven  years,  Xen.  i.  e.,  from  his  be- 
coming sole  monarch.  This  last  is  perhaps  Ezra's  I'eckoning,  Ez. 
I.  I.     Shuckford. 

508.  Historical  difficulties  are  of  two  kinds  :  such  as  arise 
on  comparison  of  different  parts  of  Scripture,  and  such  as 
arise  from  the  comparison  of  Scripture  with  profane  records. 

Sometimes  difficulties  arise  from  the  proper  names  of 
Scripture,  some  of  which  are  spelt  differently,''  or  the  re- 
ferring to  the  same  person  or  place  are  entirely  different.*" 

"  Eliam.,  Sam.,  Amiel.,  Chron.,  Nebuchad  =  nezzar,  =  rez2ar. 
Correct  such  from  pai-allel  passages,  ancient  versions,  and  Josephu.s. 

^  For  a  comparison  of  the  discrepancies  between  2  Sam.  5.  23  and 
Chron.  11,  see  Kennicott's  First  Dissertation. 

509.  (i.)  Comparing  parallel  and  apparently  contradictory 
historical  passages  of  Scripture,  the  following  solutions  are 
important : — 

(«.)  Facts  that  seem  contradictory  are  often  really  different. 
In  Matt.  I.  I,  we  have  our  Lord's  genealogy  thro\igh  Joseph;  in 
Luke  3.  23,  through  Mary.     See  Introd.  to  Gospels. 

(5.)  In  giving  the  same  nan-ative  different  historians  relate 
different  circumstances,  some  giving  more,  some  fewer  than 
the  rest ;  the  fuller  account  includes  the  shorter,  and  the 
shorter  does  not  contradict  the  fuller. 

Compare  Luke  2.  39,  with  Matt.  2.  22,  23,  where  they  agree: 
in  all  the  preceding  verses  they  differ,  though  without  contra- 
diction. 

Compare,  on  the  call  of  the  apostles,  Luke  5.  i-ii:  Matt.  4.  18- 
22;  Mark  i.  16-20.  Some  (as  Greswell)  place  the  passage  in  Luke 
later;  others  (as  Robinson)  deem  the  whole,  as  they  stand,  recon- 
cilable. 

Compare,  on  the  two  demoniacs,  Mark  5.  1-21:  Matt.  8.  28-9.  i: 
Luke  8.  26-40. 

(c)  The  same  remark  apphes  to  the  narrative  of  what  was 
iaid  on  some  particular  occasion,    one  historian  giving  the 

Q  3 


346  DIFFICULTIES   IN   HISTORY. 

very  words  and  another  the  sense,  or  each  a  different  part  of 
what  was  said,  or  varying  the  order  for  a  particular  reason. 

The  words  of  the  Supper;  the  titles  on  the  cross,  Matt.  19.  3-12; 
Mark  10.  2-12. 

(d.)  Things  said  to  be  done  by  one  man  are  elsewhere  said 
to  be  done  by  another  who  however  acted  on  his  behalf,*^  and 
sometimes  the  plural  is  used  when  the  remark  is  apphcable  to 
one  only.^     Here  there  is  no  contradiction. 

^  Matt,  8.  5,  6:  Luke  7.  2,  3.     Mark  10.  35,  and  Matt.  20.  20. 
''  Matt.  26.  8;  and  John  12.  4.     Matt.  27.  44,  aud  Luke  23.  39-42 

(e.)  Narrative  of  what  was  spoken  or  done  may  create  diffi- 
culty from  the  fact  that  general  expressions  'are  to  be  limited 
by  particular  ones,  obscure  expressions  to  be  explained  by 
those  that  are  plain. 

Matt.  10.  10:  Mark  6.  8:    Luke  9.  3. 

(/.)  The  narratives  of  Scripture  are  compiled  on  different 
principles  and  for  different  purposes.  Some  are  written 
chronologically  on  the  whole  or  in  particular  passages,  or  give 
incidents  in  groups.  The  principle  of  arrangement  must  be 
studied,  and  the  whole  harmonized  in  accordance  with  it. 

The  order  of  Mark  and  Luke,  is  generally  chronological.  Matthew 
gives  facts  and  parables  in  groups:  see  Har.  of  the  Gospels,  Pt.  ii. 
Sometimes,  however,  Matthew  gives  the  true  order,  and  indicates 
the  fact  by  the  terms  employed.  In  the  history  of  the  temptation, 
for  example  (Chap.  4),  he  affii-ms  the  order,  ''then:"  again,  Luke  4 
gives  a  different  order,  but  the  order  is  not  afi&i'med,  "and" — 

In  Gen.  i.  27,  the  creation  of  man  is  mentioned  briefly,  at  greater 
length  in  chap.  2.  7,  21,  and  so  as  to  create  an  apparent  contra- 
diction. 

The  order  of  the  Lord's  suppei',  and  the  betrayal  of  Judas  is  given 
by  John,  Matthew,  and  Mark;  between  Matthew  26.  25,  and  26: 
John  13.  26-35,  niust  be  iusei'ted,  and  Luke's  order  will  be,  Luke 
22.  21-33,   ^9-  20. 

So  the  true  order  of  Isa.  38.  21,  22,  may  be  gathered  from 
2  Kings  20.  7,  8. 

These  difficulties  are  augmented  by  the  present  aiTangement  of 
the  Psalms  and  prophecies.  See  chronological  arrangement  of  tlie 
whole,  Pai't  ii. 

(g.)  Sometimes  there  is  an  apparent  discrepancy  between 
an  original  narrative  and  the  reference  made  to  it  elsewhere, 


DIFFICULTIES   IX   HISTORY.  347 

and  in  that  case  there  is  generally  a  fake  reading,  or  some- 
times another  explanation. 

Mark  2.  25,  26,  ''in  the  days  of  Abiathar,"  see  i  Sam.  21.  i,  2; 
Ahimelech  was  the  priest:  not  a  false  reading;  not  about  the  time  of; 
rather  in  the  days  of  Abiathar,  afterwards  so  well  known  as  high 
priest,  and  who  was  present  at  the  time,  i  Sam.  22,  22. 

Matt.  23.  35,  Zachariah,  the  son  of  Barachiah,  see  2  Cliron.  24. 
21,  where  his  father  is  called  Jehoiada;  the  names  have  in  Hebrew 
substantially  the  same  meaning  (whom  Jehovah  cares  for  or  blesses); 
?.s  Uzziah  (the  strength  of  Jehovah),  is  called  also  Azariah  (whom 
Jehovah  helps),  2  Chron.  26.  i:  2  Kings  14.  21, 

Acts  7.  16,  ''which  Abraham  bought," — but  Jacob  bought  it. 
Gen.  23.  19:  Josh.  24.  32;  and  Jacob,  moreover,  was  buried  in 
Hebron,  not  in  Sychem,  Gen.  50.  13.  Read,  probably,  our  father 
i.  e.,  Jacob,  and  omit  Abraham. 

(A.)  Sometimes  the  reference  contains  more  than  the  ori- 
ginal narrative,  and  the  difficulty  is  removed  by  remembering 
that  the  earlier  inspired  historians  do  not  relate  all  that  hap- 
i:»ened. 

Joseph  fettered,  Psa.  105.  18:  the  saying  of  our  Lord,  Acts  20.  35  : 
an  appeai-ance  of  Christ  to  James,  i  Cor.  15.  7:  the  marriage  of 
Salmon  and  Rahab,  Matt.  i.  5,  is  not  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament. 
So  Jude  9.  14:  Rev.  2.  14. 

510.  (2,)  Comparing  the  narratives  of  Scripture  with  pro- 
fane records,  there  are  several  difficulties,  most  of  which, 
however,  have  long  since  yielded  additional  evidence  of  its 
truth. 

In  Luke  2.  2,  it  is  said,  that  a  taxing  was  first  made  when  CjTenius 
was  governor  of  Syria.  Greswell  and  Tholuck  translate,  this  enrol- 
ment took  place  before  Cyrenius  was  governor ;  Bui-ton  and  others, 
the  enrolment  (which  was  ordered  twelve  years  before),  first  took 
effect,  i.  e.  money  due  in  consequence  of  it  was  first  paid,  when 
Cyrenius  was  governor.  The  fact  is,  that  the  census  or  enrolment 
was  ordered  by  Augustus,  three  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ, 
but  the  tax  was  not  paid  till  twelve  years  afterwards,  when  Cyrenius 
was  president  of  Syria, 

See  others  in  Paley's  Evidences,  Part  h.  Chap.  6,  Religious  Tract 
Society,  p.  260.  The  works  of  Lai^dner  give  the  completest  view  of 
the  accordance  of  sacred  and  profane  records. 

Many  similar  difficulties  have  arisen  and  been  explained  by 
further  inquiry. 


348  DIFFICULTIES   IN   HISTORY. 

Daniel  mentions  four  kings  of  Babylon  and  Persia — Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Belshazzar,  Darius  the  Mede,  and  Cyrus.  The  first  is  well 
known,  the  second  is  mentioned,  though  by  other  names  ;  Laby- 
netus,  by  Herod,  ;  ISTabonadius,  by  Berosus  :  the  third  was  no 
more  than  nominal  king,  and  is  not  mentioned  by  any,  but  he 
is  the  Cyaxares  ii.  of  Xen.,  Prid.  Con.,  Book  2.  Cyrus  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Cambyses  ;  he  by  Smerdis,  and  he  by  Darius  Hystasper, 
Ezi'a  6.  I.  His  successor  was  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  the  Arta- 
xerxes  of  Nehemiah  ;  another  Artaxerxes,  and  two  other  kings  of 
the  name  of  Darius  filled  the  throne  before  the  empire  was  subdued 
by  Alexander,  B,  c.  331.  The  identity  of  the  names  and  the  confu- 
sion of  all  Persian  and  Assyrian  chronology,  combine  to  create 
several  difficulties :  but  careful  study  reconciles  most. 

See  additional  examples  in  Home,  2.  618,  in  Newton  on  the 
Prophecies,  and  in  the  connections  of  Prideaux,  Shuckford,  and 
Russell. 

511.  (5.)  There  are  apparent  contradictions  in  the  truths 
In  truths  and  ^^^  precepts  of  Scripture,  regarding  them  as 
precepts  as  matter  of  interpretation  only.  Between  a  literal 
interpreta-  expression  and  a  figurative  one  there  is  sometimes 
^^^°-  an  apparent  contradiction  which  is   removed  by 

explaining  the  two  harmoniously. 

Various  kinds      («•)  Sometimes  the  words  of  one  passage  must 
classified.        j^g  explained  figuratively. 

"  Ye  will  not  come,"  John  5,  40  ;  "  no  man  can  come  except  the 
Father  draw  him,"  John  6.  44.  The  first  implies,  when  compared 
with  other  passages,  that  to  have  eternal  life,  we  must  believe  that 
evei-y  one  who  hears  the  gospel  is  bound  to  believe  it  ;  that  men 
are  so  depraved  that  they  will  not  believe,  and  that  therefore  they 
are  condemned.  The  second  affirms  that  men  cannot  come.  "V\Tiat, 
then,  does  this  mean  ?  Is  it  want  of  power,  which  is  the  proper 
sense  if  they  cannot,  or  is  it  Avant  of  will,  which  is  the  figurative 
sense?  Both  senses  are  found  in  Scripture.  "  Ahi^dih.  could  not  &ee, 
by  reason  of  age."  So,  Jonah  i.  13.  ''Joseph's  brethren  could  not 
speak  peaceably  to  him."  "  How  can  ye,  being  evil,  speak  good 
things  ?"  where  the  dominion  of  a  strong  propensity  is  implied.  It 
is  to  this  latter  our  Lord  refers  ;  nothing  less  than  special  Divine 
agency  will  subdue  this  propensity  ;  and,  being  in  the  will,  it  is  our 
sin. 

So  in  all  the  passages  which  speak  of  God  in  expressions  accommo- 
dated to  the  weakness  of  human  conceptions. 

Compare  also  Matt.  11.  14,  with  John  i.  21. 


APPARENT  CONTRADICTIONS.  349 

Or  tlie  words  of  both  passages  need  to  be  explained  figu- 
ratively.    See  §  262. 

{k)  Sometimes  general  assertions  in  one  text  are  to  be  re- 
stricted by  others. 

In  Liike  16. 18  :  Mart  ^o.  11,  12,  divorce  is  forbidden  absolutely  ; 
but  in  Matt.  5.  32:  19.  9,  it  is  allowed,  though  for  adulteiy  only; 
Y.'hile  in  i  Cor.  7.  15,  the  believing  party  is  said  to  be  free  to  leave 
the  unbelieving  husband  or  wife  who  is  determined  to  separate. 

Restrict  and  explain  in  the  same  way  Gen.  13.  17  :  23.  17,  i3  : 
Acts  7.  5. 

(c.)  Sometimes  the  same  terms  are  used  in  different  senses 
in  different  texts,  and  it  is  difficult  to  know  how  to  restrict 
them  in  each. 

In  Matt.  18.  21,  22,  forgiveness  is  enjoined  absolutely:  in  Luke  17. 
3,  4,  on  repentance;  in  the  latter  the  word  is  used  in  a  different  sense 
(Gerard),  or  the  condition  of  repentance  is  presupposed  in  Matt.,  or 
the  phrase  in  Luke  means,  as  often  as  one  seeks  forgiveness  give  it. 

A  man  is  justified  by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  the  law,  Rom.  3. 
28  :  "  by  works  a  man  is  justified,  and  not  by  faith  only,"  James  2. 
24.  Paul  speaks  of  the  justification  of  the  ungodlij  in  relation  to 
theh  acceptance  by  God  ;  James  of  the  justification  of  the  godly  in 
relation  to  their  approval  by  God:  Fuller.  Or  Paul  of  justification 
in  the  sight  of  God  ;  James  in  the  sight  of  man  :  Hoadley  and 
Taylor.  Or  Paul  speaks  of  faith  Avith  its  effects,  James  of  mere 
assent:  Grofc.  Macknight.  Various  winters  restrict  various  words 
of  each  verse,  but  all  agree  that  some  restriction  is  necessary. 

So  in  I  Cor.  10.  33  :  Gal.  i.  10.     Prov.  26.  4,  5. 

Ex.  20.  5  :  Ezek.  18.  2c,  "visiting  the  iniquity  of  the  fathers 
upon  the  children  :"  "the  son  shall  not  bear  the  iniquity  of  the 
father,"  Either  God's  plan  towards  the  close  of  the  Jewish  dis- 
pensation was  changed  :  at  first  the  fathers  were  spared,  but  at  last 
fathers  and  sons,  and  not  sons  only,  were  to  suffer :  Fuller.  Or  the 
first  description  applies  only  to  those  "who  hate  him."  If  Judah, 
therefore,  in  the  days  of  Ezekiel  had  been  righteous,  they  would  not 
have  gone  into  capti\'ity  for  the  sins  of  Manasseh.  In  both  passages 
men  are  spoken  of,  not  as  individuals,  but  as  members  of  society, 
and  both  refer  only  to  this  life. 

(d.)  Sometimes  the  same  action  is  ascribed  to  different 
agents,  and  sometimes  different  and  apparently  inconsistent 
descriptions  are  given  of  the  same  object,  in  which  case 
either  the  action  is  described  in  terms  which  are  used  in 


350  DIFFICULTIES   IN   TRUTHS   REVEALED. 

different  senses,  or  there  is  a  sense  in  which  the  terms  are 
true  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  ascertain  which  is  the 
correct  solution.     See  pp.  316,  317. 

Christ  intercedes,  Rom.  8.  34  :  Heb.  7.  25,  as  does  the  Spirit, 
Rom.  8.  26,  27,  the  one  in  heaven  and  the  other  in  our  hearts. 
Christ  is  called  the  Comforter  (or  Advocate)  i  John  2.  i,  as  is  the 
Spirit,  John  16.  7.     The  one  is  within,  and  the  other  above. 

The  teaching  of  Scripture  on  the  coming  of  our  Lord  in- 
volves nearly  aU  the  difficulties  of  interpretation  to  which  we 
have  referred. 

512.  (6.)  After  all  these  difficulties  of  interpretation  have 
In  the  things  been  solvcd,  there  are  others  which  apply  to  the 
revealed.  tilings  revealed  or  commanded  in  Scripture,  and  it  is 
in  objections  founded  upon  those  difficulties  that  men  most 
indulge. 

(a.)  Many  passages  have  been  placed  under  this  head  which 
properly  involve  questions  of  interpretation  only. 

The  creation  of  the  rainbow  after  the  deluge,  and  of  the  sunaud 
stars  on  the  fourth  day,  are  probably  difficulties  of  interpretation 
only.  Most  Hebrew  scholars  affirm  that  the  original  means  simply 
that  the  sun  and  stars  were  made  or  constituted  on  the  fourth  day 
to  rule  the  day  and  the  night,  and  that  the  rainbow  was  made  or 
became  after  the  deluge  the  sign  of  the  covenant ;  both  were  created 
by  God,  but  had  existed  before,  and  were  only  then  employed  for 
these  purposes. 

Lev.  27.  28,  29,  has  been  quoted  as  authorizing  human  sacrifices, 
as  has  Jephthah's  treatment  of  his  daughter.  Judges  11.  34;  but 
human  sacrifices  were  expressly  forbidden,  Deut.  12.  30,  31  :  Ps.  66. 
3  :  Ps.  106.  37,  38.  All  who  even  touched  a  dead  body  were  im- 
clean ;  and,  moreover,  no  devoted  thing  could  be  sacrificed. 
Jephthah  probably  devoted  his  daughter  to  perpetual  virginity  ; 
and,  at  all  events,  the  act  is  not  commended. 

Predictions  are  sometimes  stated,  through  a  similar  error,  to  be 
ftilse,  2  Kings  8.  10.  Elisha's  answer  to  Hazael  ("j^  not  ^  lo).  The 
promise  to  Josiah,  2  Chron.  34.  28  :  35.  23.  The  history  of  Jonah, 
Some  assertions  that  the  last  day  was  near,  i  Cor.  10.  1 1,  etc. 

Expressions  in  the  Old  Testament  seem  to  imply  vindictive  feel- 
ing: but  some  of  the  expressions  are  figurative,  Ps.  10.  15  ;  some 
are  predictions,  only  the  tenses  being  indicative  future  rather  than 
imperative;  and  others  are  the  denunciations  of  Divine  justice 
against  transgressors,  Deut.  28. 


DIFFICULTIES    ENUMERATED.  351 

Some  actions  alleged  to  be  done  by  prophets  are  said  to  be  lidicu- 
ious  or  immoral :  but  they  were  either  symbolical,  or  were  repre- 
sented in  vision  only,  or  were  merely  related  by  the  prophet. 
Is,  20.  3,  naked  ;  i.  e.,  without  his  upper  garment,  Lowth  ;  or  in 
vision,  Rosenm.     Jer.  13.  4,  6,  a  vision  (Lowth);  Eze.  4;  Hos.  i,  2, 

Precepts  and  statements  are  interpreted  without  the  necessary 
restriction  or  explanation:  John  6.  5T-58,  eatmg  Christ's  flesh: 
Matt.  12.  36,  "idle  words"  pernicious,  calumnious:  Matt.  19.  23, 
"rich  man,"  "one  who  trusts  in  riches:"  Mark  10.  24.  Matt.  5.  30, 
cut  off  a  right  hand:  5.  39,  "Whosoever  shall  smite  thee  on  the 
right  cheek,  tuni  to  him  the  other  also ;"  both  spoken  comparatively, 
rather  do  this  than  commit  evil. 

All  these  passages  involve  important  truths  and  some  diflB,culty, 
but  the  difficidty  refers  to  interpretation  only. 

(k)  Of  difficulties  in  the  sense  of  Scripture  the  following 
These  ^^^  ^®  taken  as  a  sample, 

difflcuUies  i.  There  are  alleged  contrarieties  between  the 

mumera  e  .    ^^^  Testament   and  the  New,  and   between  the 
teaching  of  our  Lord  and  the  teaching  of  his  apostles. 

2.  There  is  said  to  be  much  that  is  impossible  in  the  his- 
tory of  creation,  and  in  the  attempt  to  trace  all  mankind  to  a 
common  origin. 

3.  Some  of  the  miracles, — the  history  of  the  fall,  of  Balaam, 
the  demoniacal  possessions  in  the  New  Testament,  for  example, 
• — are  said  to  be  incredible. 

4.  Much  was  wrong  in  the  applauded  characters  of  Old 
Testament  saints. 

5.  Extraordinary  commands  were  given  to  them,  as  to 
Abraham,  and  to  the  Israelites. 

6.  The  punishment  of  idolatry  with  death  seems  to  sanction 
persecution,  and  many  of  the  institutions  of  the  law  are  un- 
accountable. 

7.  Passages  from  the  Old  Testament  are  quoted  in  the  New 
in  altogether  unnatural  senses. 

8.  Some  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
as  a  remedial  system  are  mysterious. 

9.  Above  all,  the  existence  of  difficulties  in  the  Bible  is  in- 
consistent with  its  object  as  a  universal  revelation. 

513.  The  last  of  these  objections  we  proceed  to  examine 
first.      There  are,  confessedly,  difficulties   in  the 

Are  they  con-  /  .  ...        .         ... 

Bisteiit  with    Bible :  are  they  mconsistent  with  its  inspiration 
uispiration?'    ^^^  authenticity,  and  do  they  hinder  its  usefuhaess 


352  CLEARNESS   OF  SCRIPTURE  STATEMENTS. 

for  doctrine  or  teaching,  and  for  instruction  in  righteous- 
ness ? 

514.  Noticing  the  latter  part  of  this  question  first,  it  is 

quite  clear  that  the  Bible  reveals  in  passages  innu- 

ness  of  merable  and  unmistakable,  the  essential  principles 

Scripture.       ^^  ^^.^^^  ^^^  ^l^^y-    ^Ye  have  but  to   open  the 

New  Testament  in  almost  any  of  its  pages  to  draw  forth  a 
scheme  of  holiness.  The  spirituality  of  the  Divine  nature, 
and  of  all  acceptable  worship  (John  4.  24) ;  repentance  and 
remission  of  sins  in  Christ's  name  (Luke  24.  47) ;  salvation 
through  no  other  (Acts  4.  12) ;  the  duty  of  all  men  every 
where  to  repent  and  believe  (Acts  17.  30 :  Mark  1. 15) ;  eter- 
nal hfe  through  the  Son  ;  eternal  death  as  the  consequence  of 
unbelief  (John  3) ;  the  necessity  of  hohness  (Matt.  7.  21)  ; 
the  assurance  of  the  help  of  the  Spirit  to  control  our  corruption 
and  to  aid  our  infirmities.  All  these  truths  are  written  as  v;ith 
a  sunbeam  ;  that  "  he  may  run  that  readeth."  In  exerj  age, 
moreover,  the  great  end  of  the  Bible  as  a  religiously  instruc- 
tive book,  the  repository  of  saving  truth,  has  been  answered, 
Contrast  the  creed  of  the  meanest  Jew,  in  relation  to  God  and 
law,  with  the  errors  and  uncertainty  of  the  wisest  of  the 
heathen,  the  first  Tusculan  disputation  of  Cicero  with  the 
commonest  Christian  treatise-  on  immortality  and  the  resur- 
rection, and  the  difierence  will  at  once  appear.  The  heathen 
philosopher  falters  at  every  step,  and  dreads  the  very  conclu- 
sions to  which  his  reasonings  lead  him  ;  while  the  opinion  of 
the  Christian  is  already  formed  ;  his  only  difficulty  being  to  im- 
press his  own  heart  and  the  hearts  of  others  with  the  truth. 
By  the  leading  and  undoubted  precepts  of  Scripture  the 
guiltiest  may  be  "  throughly  furnished  for  every  good  work," 
and  by  its  doctrines  all  men  may  be  made  "  wise  unto  sal- 
vation." 

515.  But  do  not  these  difficulties  affect  the  authority  of  the 
Bible,  and  weaken  the  evidence  of  its  inspiration  ?  Can  a 
revelation  be  of  universal  authority  which  all  do  not  under- 
stand ;  and  is  it  really  a  revelation  where  so  much  is  con- 
cealed ? 

In  answering  this  question  it  might  be  said,  that  whatever 
we  know  of  the  works  of  God  in  nature  is  liable  to  the  same 
objection.  Bishop  Butler  has  shown  most  conclusively  that 
natural  religion,  revealed  religion,  and  the  providenc^of  God, 
together  with  every  known  law  of  human  duty,  are  allexposed 


difficulties:  tseir  object.  35i5 

to  the  same  difficulties.  There  is  in  all  an  obscurity  of 
..   .  meaning  and  deficiency  of  evidence,  a  mysterious- 

cuUies  in  all  ness  of  arrangement  and  treatment  that  bespeak 
Guds  works.  ^^^  state  to  be  one  of  incessant  discipline.  In 
truth  these  objections  apply  much  less  forcibly  to  Scripture 
than  to  our  daily  practice  ;  and  the  reasoning  which  seeks  to 
set  aside  the  Bible  would,  if  true,  rob  God  of  all  his  authority, 
a-nd  man  of  all  motives  to  virtue.  ...  It   might  be  aaid 

fui-ther  that,  so  long  as  customs  and  language 
avotdabie        change,  revelation  unless  given  to  each  nation  and 

to  each  age,  cannot  be  free  from  difficulty.  Cus- 
toms and  terms  are  now  obsolete  Vv^hich  were  once  familiar  ; 
facts  once  known  are  now  forgotten  ;  the  connection,  therefore, 
between  them  and  other  facts  is  lost.  The  result  is  a  degree 
of  ignorance  which  admits  no  conceivable  remedy,  except  what 
all  would  feel  to  be  inconsistent  with  our  present  condition. 
516.  But  we  go  further.     The  very  difficulties  of  Scripture, 

philological  and  historical,  afford  cogent  internal 
of  theDuTne  proof  of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
origin  of        Bible.    No  one  can  now  doubt  that  it  was  revealed 

bcnpture.  .  .  ,    .  . 

to  successive  generations,  and  in  ancient  tongues. 
The  solution  of  its  difficulties,  too,  has  been  gradual,  and  that 
for  the  best  reasons.  Each  age  has  its  own  temptations  to 
infidelity,  and  each  has  its  pecuHar  evidence.  Let  any  one 
read  the  Credibility  of  Lardner,  a  work  which  could  not  have 
been  written  in  the  age  of  the  apostles,  for  the  facts  on  which 
it  is  founded  were  later  than  their  times  ;  or  the  Horse  PauhnaB 
of  Paley,  or  the  Horae  Apostohcse  and  Horse  Evangelicae  of 
Birks,  on  the  apparent  discrepancies  and  real  agreement  be- 
tween the  statements  of  profane  and  sacred  history,  between 
the  Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  or  between  the  dif- 
ferent Gospels,  and  he  will  at  once  perceive  that  the  difficulties 
of  Scripture  create  an  internal  evidence  even  more  decisive 
than  the  external :  it  is  throughout,  the  apparent  discrepancy 
between  the  writers  themselves,  and  profane  records,  and 
their  obvious  independence  of  one  another  and  of  everything 
but  truth  that  forms  the  argument.  We  can  dispense  with 
nothing,  not  even  difficulties.  Every  element  (the  apparent 
discrepancy  among  the  rest)  is  essential  to  the  force  of  the 
whole. 
And  if  it  be  said  that  these  dii31culties  are  too  numerour:,  cr 


354  DOCTRINAL  DIFFICULTIES. 

that  the  solution  of  them  has  been  too  slow,  it  may  be 
answered  that  this  gradual  solution  is  necessary  in  order  to 
supply  to  each  age  fresh  evidence,  and  to  excite  continued 
interest  in  Scripture,  while  the  fact  proves  that  the  evidence 
of  the  Bible,  like  its  doctrine  is  for  aU  time. 

517.  From  the  study  of  philological  and  historical  diffi- 
Their  culties  we  procced  to  investigate  the  doctrinal, — 

uaturainoss  the  great  mysteries  of  godliness  and  iniquity,  "  the 
in  other  hard  things"  connected  with  salvation,  and  the 
respects.  veiled  or  dimly  disclosed  future.  How  obvious  are 
such  remarks  as  these  ;  men  are  fallen  ;  our  nature  is  depraved  ; 
our  intellect  is  darkened.  A  revelation  just  such  as  our 
moral  taste  approved,  could  not  fail  to  have  marks  of  an 
origin  much  lower  than  heaven.  We  are  finite  :  what  more 
natural  than  that  an  omniscient  being,  when  he  speaks  on 
matters  which  refer  to  eternal  interests  should  speak  occasion- 
ally what  we  but  partially  comprehend  :  certainly,  the  absence 
of  difficulty  (the  thing  pleaded  for)  in  a  communication  from 
what  professed  to  be  infinite  wisdom,  would  have  had  thrown 
upon  it  by  that  circumstance  a  strong,  if  not  an  unanswerable 
suspicion.     See  Objection  8. 

Let  it  be  added  that  these  difficulties  have  dignified  every 
kind  of  human  learning  by  rendering  all  eligible  to  the  service 
of  religion.  Historically,  the  study  of  classical  literature  in 
modern  times  began  with  the  study  of  the  Bible  ;  and  ever 
since,  sound  religion  and  true  learning  have  been  linked  in 
inseparable  bonds.  All  knowledge  is  thus  sanctified ;  and. 
however  individual  Christians  may  have  exposed  themselves 
to  the  charge  of  being  enemies  of  mental  improvement  it 
becomes  impossible  to  include  the  Christian  religion  itself  in 
this  rebuke. 

No  doubt  it  may  be  affirmed  in  reply  to  these  reasonings, 
that  the  existence  of  Scripture  difficulties  is  attended  with 
one  inconvenience  :  they  are  liable  to  excite  distrust  in  the 
minds  even  of  Christians,  that  is,  they  try  our  faith.  But  is 
not  this  again  an  evidence  in  their  favour  ?  AVhat  are  all 
the  dispensations  of  God  but  our  discipline  ?  What  is  life 
but  a  walking  by  faith  ;  that  is,  by  habitual  rehance  on  Him 
whose  ways  we  cannot  understand,  and  in  circumstances  that 
require  such  a  trust.  Perhaps  inspiration  mifjlit  have  re- 
moved all  difficulties  from  Scripture  though  we  cannot  tell 


HOW  SOLVED   OH   ANSWERED.  355 

liow  ;  but  certainly  we  should  have  lost  much,  and  gained 
little  by  the  change. 

Rules  for  Instead  of  answering  these  objections  in  detail 

fohingthem.  Jet  the  following  rules  be  marked  and  apphed. 
518.  (i.)  We  must  interpret  Scripture,  its  announcements, 
and  disclosures,  in  accordance  with  what  it  t)ro- 

Interpret  it       .  .         .       ,        ,  ^ 

aa  written      lesses  to  be  ; — an  mspu-ed  volume  designed  to  set 
ian^gi^gtbut  forth  the  scheme  of  salvation  by  Christ,  and  to 
byaDiviue     bring  men  unto  God.     So  far  as  it  is  hke  other 
books  written  in  the  language  of  man,  it  must  be 
interpreted  by  the  same  laws  as  other  books  ;  we  must  ever 
look  at  the  words,  the  context,  the  speaker  and  the  customs 
and  history  of  his  age ;  but  so  far  as  it  dififers  from  other 
books — being  inspired  and  intended  for  all  time,  every  pai*t  of 
it  fore-shadowing  or  plainly  exhibiting  the  cross,  we  must 
give  to  its  phrases  and  intimations  a  plenary  and  spiritual 
significance.      The   sacrificial    enactments   of    the   law,    for 
example,  considered   in   themselves  alone,  were  sanguinary. 
They  certainly  contain  no  intimation  that  they  prefigured  the 
death  of  our  Lord.     Their  ultimate  purpose,  however,  is  un- 
questioned ;   and  in  the  mean  time  they  taught  the  great 
doctrine  of  substitution,  to  some  probably  most  plainly  ;  and 
they  impressed  the  hearts  of  men  with  some  of  the  same 
sentiments  as  are  now  awakened  by  the  cross.     The  promise 
to  Abraham,  again,  has  no  such  terms  as  point  exclusively 
and  clearly  to  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  ;  and  such  a  promise 
found  in  Virgil  or  in  Homer  could  not  fairly  be  interpreted  as 
having  such  a  reference.     But  the  Christian  cannot  doubt  its 
meaning.    If  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures  did  not  foresee  aU 
the  truths  which  might  be  drawn  from  their  words,  God  the 
Holy  Spirit  foresaw  them  ;  and  the  business  of  interpretation 
is,  to  learn  his  pm-pose  and  end  in  what  was  revealed.     To 
explain,  therefore,  the  inspired  Scriptures  in  all  respects  as  if 
they  were  human  compositions,  with  no  wider  range,  and  no 
spiritual  rule,  is,  as  Lord  Bacon  has  expressed  it,  to  "  dis  - 
honour  the  Scriptures  and  injure  the  church."  See  Objection  7. 
519.  (2.)  As  doctrines  are  to  be  interpreted  in  accordance 
Jfo  solution     ^^^^  ^^^  comprehensiveness  of  Scripture,  so  no 
inconsistent    solution  of  a  difficulty  must  be  admitted  which  is 
tjon  to  be  ad-  "ot  in  accordance  with  the  great  fact  of  inspira- 
mjtted.  tion.     Many  compare  the  miracles  of  Moses  with 


356  HOW  SOLVED    OK   ANSWERED. 

the  prodigies  of  Livy,  or  the  writings  of  Ezekiel  with  those  of 
iEschylus,  or  the  doctrines  of  our  Lord  with  the  philosophiz- 
ings  of  Plato,  and  the  difficulties  in  each  case  may  be  removed 
in  the  same  way.  If  it  he  said  that  the  miracles  are  incre- 
dible, and  the  imagery  is  extravagant,  and  the  moral  reasoning 
is  fallacious  or  forced  ;  in  that  case  the  difficulties  are  re- 
moved on  principles  which  set  aside  the  authority  of  Scrip- 
ture. If  we  deny  inspiration  it  becomes  us  to  examhie  the 
evidence,  and  to  attend  to  the  moral  and  spiritual  truths  of 
the  Bible  ;  but  if  we  admit  its  inspiration,  our  solution  of  its 
difficulties  must  leave  that  glorious  characteristic  of  it  un- 
touched. Most,  therefore,  of  the  expressions  employed  in  the 
preceding  objections  (2,  3, 9)  must  be  rejected,  because  incon- 
sistent with  the  sj^irit  of  a  devout  humble  inquirer. 

520.  (3.)  Scripture  must  be  regarded  as  a  system  from 
Bible  a  beginning  to  end  ;  and  the  different  books  and 
whole:  sentences  must  be  interpreted  as  the  component 

and  connected  parts  of  a  great  whole.  AU  the  light  which 
the  first  page  throws  upon  the  last,  or  the  last  upon  the  first, 
may  be  freely  used  for  purposes  of  illustration  and  defence ; 
not  of  course  to  prove  that  every  passage  has  the  same  mean- 
ing, but  to  prove  that  all  have  the  same  end. 

This  rule,  it  will  be  observed,  does  for  facts  and  truths 
what  the  kindred  rule  on  the  analogy  of  faith  or  on  parallel 
passages  does  for  the  interpretation  of  the  words.  "  From  him 
that  hath  not  shaU  be  taken  away  even  that  which  he  hath," 
for  example,  is  the  sentence  of  our  Lord.  Separate  these 
words  from  the  context,  from  the  j^araUel  passage  in  another 
Gospel,  from  the  priuciple  of  the  Divine  government  which  they 
illustrate,  and  we  miss  their  sense  ;  explain  them  connectedly 
and  the  whole  is  clear.  So  of  Bible  truths.  The  sacrifice  and 
the  death  of  Abel,  viewed  in  themselves,  seem  not  more 
significant  than  the  good  deed  and  untimely  end  of  any  gocd 
man  ;  but  view  his  death  as  the  first  fruit  of  sin,  and  his 
sacrifice  as  an  evidence  of  the  true  nature  of  every  acceptable 
offering  ;  as  a  proof,  moreover,  how  conscious  demerit  ex- 
pressed itself  in  the  first  age,  and  how  deeply  it  felt  the  need 
of  vicarious  suffering,  and  the  whole  narrative  assumes  an 
aspect  of  importance  and  dignity.  Explain  in  the  same  way 
the  ordinances  of  the  law,  the  personal  history  of  many  an- 
cient saints,  and  incidents  in  themselves  trivial  become  fresh 


HOW  SOLVED   OR   ANSWERED.  357 

rfiarks  of  internal  credibility,  and  even  lessons  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  church  throughout  every  age. 

521.  (4.)  As  it  is  important  to  study  Scripture  connectedly, 
And  con-  it  is  even  more  important  to  study  it  in  its  true 
nocted.  connection,  and  in  that  alone.   A  false  system  may 

be  more  mischievous  than  no  system  at  all. 

The  plagues  of  Egypt,  for  example,  may  be  regarded  as  in- 
flicted only  for  the  dehverance  of  a  nation  from  slavery ;  in 
that  hght  they  may  seem  excessive,  and  some  of  them  even 
absurd.  Regarded  as  manifestations  of  Divine  power,  as  fore- 
shadowings  of  the  destiny  of  the  finally  impenitent,  or  of  the 
spoiling  of  principahties  and  powers  by  him  who  so  signally 
triumphed  over  them  in  his  cross,  as  public  rebukes  of  ido- 
latry, every  plague  being  inflicted  upon  an  idol  god,  as  confir- 
mations of  the  faith  of  the  Israehtes,  long  remembered,  their 
significance  is  plain. 

If  idolatiy  again  be  regarded  as  mental  error  merely,  or  if 
the  Jews  be  regarded  as  an  ordinary  community,  the  punish- 
ment of  that  sin  with  death  may  seem  severe.  Really  it 
was  a  penalty  inflicted  only  on  the  apostate  Israelite,  who 
had  repeatedly  accepted  Jehovah  as  his  chosen  king.  In 
a  theocracy  it  was  civil  treason  ;  and  the  great  purpose,  more- 
over of  the  whole  institution  was  to  redeem  our  race  from 
the  depraved  and  wretched  condition  which  that  sin  in- 
volved. 

In  the  same  way  the  truths  of  Scrij)ture  on  the  person  of 
our  Lord  derive  much  of  their  significance,  and  aU  their  con- 
sistency, from  the  miion  in  him  of  our  human  nature  with 
the  Divine.  Explain  them  on  the  supposition  that  he  was 
man  only  or  God  only,  and  they  appear  contradictory  :  com- 
bine both  views,  and  the  whole  is  harmonious  and  highly 
consolatory. 

To  find  fault  with  the  acts  of  ancient  saints,  and  to  con- 
clude that  the  record  of  their  faults  is  as  inconsistent  with 
the  Divine  origin  of  the  Bible  as  the  acts  themselves  were 
derogatory  to  true  rehgion,  imphes  a  false  theory.  Suppose, 
for  example,  that  the  object  of  the  Bible  be — the  revelation 
of  God  and  the  improvement  of  man,  and  the  objections  cease. 

Take,  as  an  instance,  the  deception  of  Jacob,  Gen.  27, 
33-35?  8-^^'  mark  its  lessons  in  relation  to  God  and  to  our- 
selves.    His  superiority  over  his  brother  and  his  inheritance 


.358  HOW   SOLVED   OR   ANSWERED. 

of  the  promise  had  been  foretold  at  his  birth.  Isaac,  Ee- 
becca,  and  Jacob  himself  all  probably  knew  of  this  prediction. 
In  spite  of  this  knowledge,  however,  Isaac  made  a  favourite 
of  the  elder  brother,  who  had  connected  himself  with  a 
heathen  family :  Jacob  had  so  httle  faith,  moreover,  in  the 
Divine  promise,  that  he  needlessly  removed  the  difficulty  of 
his  brother's  priority  by  purchase  :  Rebecca,  with  no  more 
faith,  induced  her  son  to  practise  the  deception  which  ob- 
tained him  the  blessing.  The  guilt  and  folly  of  this  whole 
transaction  soon  bore  then'  appropriate  fruits.  The  weakness 
of  Isaac  was  punished  by  the  ahenation  and  dispersion  of  his 
children.  The  recklessness  and  profanity  of  Esau  cost  him 
the  blessing ;  Rebecca's  unbehef  ended  in  her  becoming  de- 
pendent upon  the  son  she  had  wronged :  her  favourite  son 
she  never  again  saw.  Jacob  was  driven  from  his  home — 
was  himself  robbed  and  defrauded  by  Laban  ;  the  wife  he 
despised  became  the  mother  of  the  chosen  tribe,  and  in  the 
deception  of  his  own  children  he  learned  the  grievousness 
of  his  sin.  Above  all,  though  the  promise  was  ultimately 
fulfilled,  Jacob  himself  received  no  blessing  from  it.  Instead 
of  his  mother's  son  bowing  down  before  him,  he,  in  his  own 
person,  bowed  down  before  his  mother's  son,  and  at  the  close 
of  his  life  he  was  dependent  upon  his  children.  The  punish- 
ment, in  fact,  was  complete  :  nor  less  so  is  the  lesson.  It  may 
be  said  that,  nevertheless,  he  inherited  the  blessing ;  and  this 
is  true  :  for  the  gifts  of  God  are  without  repentance,  and  his 
choice  of  his  servants  is  founded  upon  no  personal  merit,  but 
on  reasons,  which,  in  most  cases,  as  in  this,  he  has  seen  it 
right  to  conceal.  It  may  be  said  also,  that  the  blessing  was 
secured  by  means  which  no  ingenuous  mind  can  commend  ; 
and  this  is  true  ;  but  the  objection  applies  to  providential 
deahngs  generally  as  much  as  to  Scripture.  Man's  sin  is  con- 
stantly overruled  for  God's  glory  ;  and  neither  the  responsi- 
bihty  of  man  nor  the  hohness  of  God  is  affected  by  the 
arrangement :  a  revelation,  in  fact,  without  such  incidents, 
would  be  neither  just  to  God  nor  true  to  man. 
522.  (5.)  It  becomes   us   to    distrust  the   conclusions  of 

human  wisdom  and  of  logical  reasoning,  whenever 
of  human""  applied  to  Subjects  beyond  the  reach  of  our  ex- 
wisdom  to  be  perience,   and   especially   in  matters   of  religioua 

truth.     Even  in  science  we  know  really  little  be- 


HOW  SOLVED   OR  ANSWERED.  35f> 

youd  what  we  have  observed.  "What  is  hght  ?"  and  "What 
is  power  ]"  are  questions  which  philosophy  has  not  yet  an- 
swered. We  speak  of  the  laws  of  gravitation,  and  affirm 
that  they  keep  the  planets  in  their  orbits  ;  but  gravitation 
(it  is  allowed)  is  itself  nothing  but  the  expression  of  a  uni- 
form fact.  The  origin  of  disease,  independently  of  second 
causes  and  symptoms,  is  entirely  unknown  ;  nor  can  any 
one  tell  how  contagion  or  infection  acts  upon  the  frame. 
The  most  probable  conclusion  to  which  even  philosophy  is 
pointing  is,  that  the  great  forces  in  this  universe  are  'put, 
forth  immediately  by  God.  Miracles  and  mysteries  every- 
where abound,  and  it  is  only  their  regularity  and  frequency 
that  destroy  our  surprise.  Combine  with  this  fact  the  fallen 
condition  and  inherent  littleness  of  man,  and  the  propriety  of 
the  principle  of  Lord  Bacon,  when  he  bids  us  reverently 
question  nature  and  not  dogmatize  on  her  processes,  will  ap- 
pear to  be  doubly  jast  when  apphed  to  the  Bible. 

523.  (6.)  Let  no  man  attempt  or  expect  the  explanation  of 
Expect  not  every  difficulty.  "  Of  the  dark  parts  of  Scripture," 
of\ii  diffi-^  says  Warburton,  "  there  are  two  sorts,  one  which 
cuUies.  rnay  be  cleared  up  by  the  studious  apphcation  of 

weU  employed  talents,  the  othsr  which  will  always  recede 
within  the  shadow  of  God's  throne,  where  it  would  be  impiety 
to  intrude."  "  The  last  step  of  reason,"  says  Pascal,  "  is  to 
know  that  there  is  an  infinitude  of  things  which  surpass  it." 
After  all  difficulties  have  been  solved,  and  every  word  of  the 
Bible  explained,  the  weightiest  difficulties  of  all  will  remain. 
The  origin  of  evil,  the  mystery  of  Divine  foreknowledge  and 
free-agency,  and  much  of  the  scheme  of  redemption  will  still 
exercise  our  faith.  We  shall  say  even  then,  as  it  is  our 
wisdom  to  say  now,  "  Oh  the  depth  of  the  riches,  both  of  the 
wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God !  how  unsearchable  are  his 
judgments,  and  his  ways  past  finding  out !" 

On  the  whole  of  this  Section,  see  Home  "  On  the  Apparent  Con- 
tradictions of  Scripture,"  Davidson's  ''Hermeneutics,"  Gerard's 
"Biblical  Criticism,"  and,  on  the  latter  pai-t  especially,  Benson's 
"Huiseau  Lectures." 


360      rRACTICAL  AND   INFERENTIAL  READING   OF  THE  BIBLE. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

On  TEE  Inferential  and  Practical  Reading  of  the  Bible. 

"  All  Scripture  is  practical  and  intended  to  minister  to  our  improvement  rather 
than  to  our  curiosity."— Arkold  ;  Sermons  (p.  2jq). 

"  I  know  not  a  better  rule  of  reading  the  Scripture  than  to  read  it  through  from 
beginuuig  to  end  ;  and  when  we  have  finished  it  once,  to  begin  it  again,  ^Vc  shall 
meet  with  many  passages  which  we  can  make  little  improvement  of;  but  not  so 
many  in  tlie  second  readuig  as  in  the  first ;  and  fewer  in  the  third  than  in  the 
second."— John  Newton,  (_vi.  418). 

524.  As  the  great  use  of  philosophy  is  the  "  endowment  of 
man's  hfe  with  commodities,"  so  the  great  use  of 
of  Scripture  ^  Scripture  is  the  increase  of  our  wisdom  and  hoU- 
is  to  apply  it.  jjggg^  To  gather  the  meaning  of  Scripture,  and 
sum  up  its  doctrines  is  to  accomphsh  but  part  of  the  purpose 
for  which  Scripture  was  given.  Every  precept  and  promise 
must  be  apphed.  Even  from  every  verse  we  may  gain  some 
accession  to  our  knowledge,  some  quickened  impulse  to  our 
feelings,  or  some  encouragement  or  guide  in  duty.  Meditation 
on  truth  wiU  reveal  its  fulness  ;  and  the  practical  applicability 
of  it  on  all  sides  will  at  once  surprise  and  reward  our  in- 
quiries. 

525.  By  the  practical  and  inferential  reading  of  the  Bible 
is  meant  that  study  of  the  sacred  page  which  de- 
bytheprac-  duccs  and  apphes  to  ourselves,  or  to  the  great 
ferentM""^'  questions  of  religious  character  and  experience, 
reading  of  the  truths  it  contains.  It  is  not  distinct  from  in- 
'  '^"P  ^^'-  terpretation,  it  is  rather  the  continuance  and  end 
of  it.  Interpretation  answers  the  question,  What  is  the 
meaning  of  the  words  of  a  particular  passage  ?  Systematic 
theology  decides  the  connection  between  that  meaning  and 
the  whole  system  of  truth.  The  inferential  and  practical  study 
of  Scripture  answers  the  question,  What  do  these  words  im- 
■plj,  and  what  truth  or  duty  do  they  illustrate  or  suggest  in 
relation  to  the  Divine  life  and  my  personal  history  ?  The 
foundation  of  such  study  is  the  perpetual  harmony  of  Divine 
truth,  and  the  practicalness  of  the  whole.  Its  pre-requisite 
is  a  general  knowledge  of  the  teaching  of  Scripture,  and  a 
Spirit  imbued  with  "  the  form  of  sound  words  in  faith  and 
love  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  "  (2  Tim.  1. 13).  With  these  pre- 
requisites it  will  be  easy  (so  closely  is  one  truth  connected 


LESSOXS  FROM  WORDS,  ETC.  361 

with  auotlier)  for  a  Christian  "  to  diffuse  himself,"  as  Francke 
expressed  it,  "  from  one  word  over  the  whole  Scripture." 

526.  In  drawing  such  inferences  from  Scripture  we  need 
Inferences  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  which  we  have  already  laid  down 
may  be  for  Scripture  interpretation. 

flrawn  from  _,        ^        ,        ^.^  ,.       ,,, 

various  The  words — the  words  m  their  place   m  the 

sources.  sentence — the  words  in  connection  with  the  scope 

of  the  writer — the  words  in  connection  with  other  parts  of 
Scripture — is  the  division  which  includes  all  the  inferences 
that  can  be  legitimately  drawn  from  the  teachings  of  Divine 
truth. 

527.  (i.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  the  ^i'ords  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

In  Rom.  14.  17,  we  have  a  description  of  the  ''kingdom  of  God:" 
such  is  the  gospel:  it  is  God's  reign;  it  originates  in  his  gi-ace;  it  is 
founded  upon  his  power;  it  will  illustrate  his  government. 

In  Heb.  3.  i,  Christ  is  called  the  "High  Priest  and  the  Apostle 
of  our  profession."  Each  word  is  significant;  he  was  first  selected 
and  ordained  of  God;  he  was  commissioned  and  sent  by  Him.  The 
guilt  of  rejecting  him  is  propoi-tioned  to  his  dignity.  The  efficacy 
of  his  salvation  is  secured  by  Divine  appointment.  He  is  High 
Priest  under  the  gospel;  therefore,  though  it  is  a  dispensation  of 
mercy,  we  need  sacrifice  and  acceptance,  and  are  dependent  for 
both  upon  him. 

528.  (2.)  Lessons  jnaj  he  drawn  h'om.  the  icords  in  their 2)Iace 
in  the  sentence. 

In  I  Pet.  5.  5,  we  are  commanded  to  be  clothed  with  humility, 
for  God  resisteth  the  proud.  Clearly  (1),  humility,  though  despised 
by  the  heathen,  is  a  Christian  grace.  (2).  Our  truest  ornament  (for 
this  the  Greek  word  for  "  be  clothed"  involves)  is  a  just,  that  is.  a 
humble  estimate  of  ourselves,  and  that  ornament  must  be  so  closely 
connected  with  ns  as  that  none  shall  be  able  to  tear  it  away  (so  the 
Greek  implies).  (3).  Eveiy  duty  may  be  enforced  by  a  reference  to 
God's  character.  (4).  Pride  is  a  public  conspicuous  sin  (so  the 
Greek  implies).  (5).  It  braves  God,  and  he  sets  himself  in  array 
against  it. 

So  in  Rom.  14.  1 7,  the  kingdom  of  God  is  described  as  righteous- 
ness, peace,  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost.  Hence  it  may  be  inferred 
(r),  that  peace  is  through  righteousness  only,  (2),  and  joy  is  the 
frviit  of  righteousness  and  peace;  (3),  that  a  righteousness  which 
brings  with  it  neither  peace  nor  joy  is  not  the  righteousness  of  the 
kingdom  of  God. 

R 


362  lesso:ns  from  scope,  etc. 

529.  (3.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  loords  in  connection 
with  the  context. 

Thus  in  Matt.  27.  52,  we  read  that  many  bodies  of  the  saints 
which  slept  arose,  but  (ver.  53)  it  was  after  the  resurrection  of  our 
liord;  he  therefore  was  the  first-fruits  of  them  that  slept,  and 
whatever  his  saints  received  they  owed  to  him. 

Contrast  i  Tim.  i.  15  with  ver.  4,  and  we  shall  gather  that  the 
legends  of  the  Jews  and  the  stories  of  the  Gentiles  are  compared  to 
fables,  the  gospel  to  undoubted  truth. 

530.  (4.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  the  sco;pe  either  of  tlie 
book  or  of  the  i3articular  passage. 

Compare,  for  example,  John  8.  51,  "If  a  man  keep  mj'- sayings 
he  shall  never  see  death,"  with  John  20.  31,  ''These  ai-e  written 
that  ye  might  believe  .  .  .  and  that  believing  j-e  might  have  life 
through  his  name,"  and  it  follows  that  faith  in  Christ  is  shoAvn  by 
obedience  to  his  w^ords;  that  faith  receives  not  only  his  sacrifice, 
but  his  teaching;  that  whoever  has  life  through  his  name  shall 
never  see  death.  Comparing  this  passage  with  the  immediate  object 
of  our  Lord  (which  was  to  prove  that  he  was  not  possessed  of  an 
evil  spii'it),  it  follows  that  a  doctrine  which  secures  eternal  life  is 
not  likely  to  be  false;  that  saving  truth  is  to  be  set  forth,  even 
before  those  Avho  calumniate  it;  and  that  though  Chiist's  teaching 
is  foolishness  with  men,  it  must  be  received  and  obeyed. 

531.  (5.)  Lessons  may  be  drawn  from  parallel  passages.  In- 
j'araiiei  stead,  liowevcr  of  multiplying  examples,  let  us  take 
passages.  ^  passage  and  apply  the  rules  now  given  to  illus- 
trate and  expound  it. 

532.  In   2  Tim.   i.   8,  we   read,   "Be   not  thou   therefore 

ashamed  of  the  testimony  of  oru-  Lord,  nor  of  me 
his  prisoner :  but  be  thou  partaker  of  the  afflic- 
tions of  the  gospel."'     The  meaning  of  the  verse  having  been 
iiscertained  ;  take  first  the  words  : 

1.  The  gospel  is  called  a  testimony.  It  is  therefore  not  an  un- 
supported assertion. 

2.  Of  this  gospel  the  Christian  is  not  to  be  ashamed.  Boldness 
in  giving  witness  for  Christ  is  often  required,  especially  in  tunes  of 
persecution. 

3.  This  boldness  is  not  unfounded  presumption,  but  a  rational 
assurance,  "Be  not  thou  therefore  ashamed." 

A.  The  gospel  is  the  testimony  of  our  Lord;  its  end  is  "to  be^r 


INFERENTIAL  READING  OF  THE  BIBLE.  363 

witness  of  Christ,  who  is  our  Lord."  Paul  and  Timothy  were  fellow- 
servants  (Phil.  I.  i),  and  therefore  stood  in  the  same  relation  to 
Christ  their  Lord,  whom  therefore  they  were  bound  to  obey. 

5.  Paul  was  His  prisoner;  men  had  confined  him,  but  he  was  not 
in  their  power,  nor  did  he  suffer  as  an  evil  doer. 

Secondly.  Take  each  word  in  connection  with  the  other 
words  of  the  sentence,  and  we  gather  such  inferences  as  these. 

1.  Not  to  partake  of  the  afflictions  of  the  gospel  when  called  upon 
to  share  them  is  to  be  ashamed  of  the  testimony  of  our  Lord. 

2.  lie  who  is  ashamed  of  suffering  Christians,  who  suffer  as 
Christians,  is  ashamed  of  Christ  himself. 

3.  Our  testimony  to  Christ  must  be  borne,  not  only  in  seasons  of 
prosperity,  but  in  seasons  of  affliction. 

4.  Even  in  his  bonds  Paul  preached  the  gospel. 

-, .  Paul  bore  a  consistent  testimony  to  the  truth,  and  yet  he  re- 
quii-ed  the  testimony  of  Timothy,  It  is  therefore  necessary  that 
the  testimony  of  God's  servants  should  be  multiplied. 

6.  A  timid  and  distrustful  heart  is  not  fit  to  bear  testimony  for 
Chi'ist,  nor  to  endure  affliction  for  his  cause. 

Thirdly.  Take  the  words  in  connection  with  the  context. 
The  general  object  of  the  apostle,  in  this  part  of  the  chapter 
is,  to  exhort  Timothy  to  undergo  affliction  for  the  cause  of 
Christ,  and  he  enforces  this  exhortation  by  cogent  arguments. 

Comparing  the  passage  with  the  fourth  verse,  we  conclude  that  the 
godly,  though  surrounded  by  calamity,  can  rejoice,  and  have  de- 
lightful communion  with  one  another. 

With  the  third  verse,  that  those  who  are  about  to  suffer  for  the 
testimony  of  Jesus  need  our  prayers  "  night  and  day." 

With  the  fifth  verse,  that  the  remembrance  of  a  pious  ancestry 
may  happily  increase  our  boldness  and  fidelity  in  seasons  of  per- 
secution. 

With  the  sixth  vei-se,  that  the  gift  which  a  minister  has  received 
from  God  is  to  be  stiiTcd  up,  in  order  not  only  to  teach,  but  to 
suffer. 

With  the  seventh  verse,  that  the  gifts  of  power  and  of  love  (to 
Chi'ist  and  the  souls  of  men),  and  of  a  sound  mind,  in  the  discharge 
of  arduous  duties,  all  bind  the  Christian  to  fidelity  in  suffering. 

With  the  ninth  verse,  that  the  remembrance  of  our  salvation,  and 
of  the  gi-ace  and  purpose  of  God  towards  us,  vnll  dispel  the  fear  of 
temporal  affliction. 

With  the  teriih  verae,  that  the  superioiity  of  the  gospel  dispensa- 

R  2 


364  IXFERENTIAL  READING   OF  THE   BIBLE. 

tion,  and  the  confirmation  of  our  faith  by  the  appearance  and 
resurrection  of  Christ,  should  make  us  the  more  willing  to  suffer: 
our  sufferings  are  not  for  a  cunningly-devised  fable,  but  for  the 
truth  of  God. 

Comparing  the  words  of  the  verse  with  the  words  of  the  preceding 
verses,  we  gather  other  lessons.  The  fear  of  persecution  is  one 
frequent  cause  of  apostasy.  Men  are  ashamed  of  the  testimom"  of 
Christ,  because  not  willing  to  be  partakers  of  the  afflictions  of  the 
gospel.  A  sound  mind,  or  real  wisdom,  is  seen  in  willingness  to 
endure  affliction  rather  than  deny  Christ.  Mere  worldly  prudence 
is  tested  and  discovered  by  affliction.  The  spirit  of  fear  is  injurious 
to  our  steadfastness,  and  is  not  God's  gift.  True  power  is  seen  in 
endurance  and  fidelity.  Love  has  such  influence  over  the  soul  that, 
were  we  exposed  to  the  severest  calamities,  or  even  to  death,  it 
will  keep  us  unmoved.  Apostasy  implies  feebleness,  coldness, 
folly;  for  steadfastness  is  the  fruit  of  power,  prudence,  and  love. 

Fourthli/.  If  we  look  to  the  scope  of  the  Epistle,  and  the 
circumstances  of  the  writer,  we  learn  other  lessons  equally 
important.  The  general  scope  of  the  Epistle  is,  that  Paul, 
now  the  prisoner  of  the  Lord,  asks  Timoth}-^  to  come  to  him, 
and  endeavours,  previously,  to  prepare  and  fortify  his  mind 
against  the  afflictions  which  at  that  period  threatened  the 
churches  at  Ephesus  and  in  Rome. 

Looking  at  Paul's  circumstances,  we  learn  that  one  who  is  im- 
prisoned for  Christ  may  still,  by  letter,  incite  others  to  sei've  him; 
and  that,  so  far  from  a  Christian  losing  his  consolation  through  im- 
prisonment, he  may  even  exhort  others  to  suflfer,  and  to  gather 
encouragement  from  himself:  that  in  affliction  we  should  take 
special  care  lest  others  be  discouraged  by  our  sufferings :  that  Ave 
may  ask  othei-s  to  share  our  sufferings  if  it  be  for  the  furtherance 
of  the  gospel,  but  that  we  must  first  fortify  their  minds  for  what 
they  may  have  to  bear:  that  Christians  may  be  tempted  to  apostasy 
by  calamity,  and  that  therefore  they  should  be  kindly  Avarned  and 
prayed  for  by  those  that  see  its  approach. 

In  looking  at  Timothy,  we  may  learn  that  a  Christian  should 
neither  accelerate  his  removal  from  one  sphere  of  duty  nor  defer 
going  to  another  through  fear  of  affliction :  that  he  ought  to 
strengthen  his  own  mind  for  what  may  befall  him :  that  the  danger 
of  others  ought  not  to  intimidate  him,  bvit  to  render  him  at  once 
pi-udent,  and  willing  to  undergo  similar  sufferings:  that  CA^en  in  the 
case  of  eminent  Christians,  Avhen  calling  them  to  the  sei-vice  of  God, 
it  may  be  important  to  remove  the  scruples  and  difficulties  they 
may  feel  iu  relation  to  the  call 


IXFERENTIAL  READING  OF  THE  BIBLE.  365 

In  looking  generally  at  the  scope  of  the  Epistle,  and  connecting 
it  with  the  words  of  the  text,  we  may  learn  such  lessons  as  these. 
In  sea,50U3  of  persecution,  the  spiritual  boldness  of  love  and  of  a 
sound  mind  is  peculiarly  required.  In  such  seasons  the  servants  of 
God  may  justly  stir  up  each  other  to  promote  the  common  cause; 
to  preserve  each  other's  fidelity  in  obedience  and  in  suffering.  Be- 
fore v/e  bid  another  to  engage  in  a  difficult  service,  we  must,  by 
prayer  and  exhortation,  seek  to  prepare  him  for  it.  The  qualifica- 
tions for  service  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ  are  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

The  f/th  source  of  inferential  reading  is  the  comparison  of 
a  passage  with  other  passages  throughout  the  sacred  writings. 
In  this  case  it  is  not  a  merely  verbal  parallelism  which  sug- 
gests the  lesson  but  the  parallehsm  of  thought  and  truth. 

Let  us  take  phrase  by  phi-ase.  ''Be  not  thou  therefore  ashamed." 
In  Rom.  I.  i6  and  Phil.  i.  20,  Paul  affirms  that  he  is  "not 
aishamed  of  the  gospel  of  Christ,"  and  it  is  the  same  boldness  he 
requires  in  Timothy.  Hence  it  may  be  said  that  faithful  teachers 
requii-e  of  others  what  they  themselves  know  is  not  impossible; 
and  again,  he  who  best  inculcates  patience  manifests  it  by  example 
befoi'e  he  enjoins  it  by  precept. 

"  Be  thou  partaker  of  the  afflictions  of  the  gospel." 
From  I  Thess.  3.  2-4,  we  learn  that  Timothy  had  been  sent  to 
Thessalonica  to  establish  and  comfort  the  church,  that  no  man 
might  be  moved  by  their  afflictions;  and  from  Rom.  8.  17  and  18, 
we  gather  that  participation  in  sufferings  is  essential  to  participa- 
tion in  glory.  Hence  we  may  infer  that  Timothy  was  specially 
bound  to  observe  what  he  himself  taught ;  and  that  the  prospect  of 
everlasting  blessedness  proportioned  to  our  holy  and  devoted  suf- 
fei-ing  may  well  repress  our  shame  of  present  affliction. 

By  comparing  the  second  clause  of  the  verse  with  other  passages 
lessons  equally  important  and  interesting  may  be  obtained.  See 
I  Cor.  4.  9:  2  Cor.  11.  15-33,  where  affliction  is  said  by  the  apostle 
to  be  the  seal  of  his  apostleship;  and  i  Pet.  4.  13  and  Col.  i.  24, 
where  Christians  are  exhorted  not  only  to  bear  afflictions,  but  to 
rejoice  in  them;  and  Rev.  12.  11,  where  the  end  of  affliction  is  set 
forth  in  the  blessedness  of  those  who  ai-e  now  before  the  throne. 
By  a  reference  to  i  Pet.  3.  13  and  4.  17,  it  ^vill  be  seen  that  even 
the  ungodly  are  not  free  from  sufferings,  and  that  the  surest  way 
of  avoiding  afflictions,  or,  if  it  cannot  be  avoided,  of  having  comfort 
in  it,  is  to  cherish  fidelity  as  Christians. 

533.  These  rules  are  of  extensive  use.     They  may  be  ap- 


366  INFEREN'TIAL  HEADING   OF  THE  BIBLE. 

plied  to  nearly  the  wliole  of  the  Bible  :  and  as  this 
kind  of  study  is  highly  instructive  it  may  be  well 
to  give  another  instance  or  two  of  the  apphcation  of  them. 

We  take  a  passage  from  the  history  of  our  Lord.  In  John  ii.  15 
we  read,  "I  am  glad  for  your  sakes  that  I  was  not  there  to  the 
intent  ye  may  beheve;  nevertheless  let  us  go  unto  him,"  The 
meaning  of  the  words  we  suppose  to  have  been  gathered  from  the 
general  usage  of  language  and  from  comparison  with  other  parts  of 
Scripture.  The  obvious  facts  of  the  passage  are  the  following. 
Christ  was  glad.  He  was  glad  for  the  sake  of  his  disciples :  he  was 
glad  that  he  was  not  there.  To  the  intent  that  they  might  believe. 
He  nevertheless  loved  Lazarus,  and  determined  to  restore  him,  and 
therefore  (said  he)  ''let  us  go  unto  him." 

1.  Chi'ist  was  glad. 

Joy  may  be  at  times  becoming;  on  connecting  this  l;xct  with 
verses  14,  35,  36,  we  infer  that  an  event,  in  itself  painful,  may  be  a 
source  of  joy  to  the  Christian;  or,  connecting  it  with  similar  facts 
in  Scripture,  it  may  be  gathered  that  our  Saviour's  joy  was  always 
foimd  in  what  contributed  to  the  good  of  his  disciples  or  to  the 
glory  of  His  Father. 

2.  He  was  glad /or  the  sake  of  his  disciples. 

That  a  benevolent  mind  finds  happiness  in  the  improvement  of 
others  is  one  obvious  inference;  that  some  of  the  dealings  of  Christ 
were  prompted  by  a  regard  to  the  welfare  of  his  disciples  is  another. 
Both  these  truths  are  in  the  sentence.  Looking  to  the  context,  we 
find  that  one  Christian  may  sometimes  suffer  for  the  good  of  others. 
Comparing  this  expression  with  other  parts  of  Scripture,  we  gather 
a  conclusion  more  general  still.  All  that  Christ  did  or  suffered  was 
done  for  the  sake  of  his  church.  Did  he  empty  himself  of  glory, 
and  come  into  our  world  in  circumstances  of  the  deepest  humiliation? 
"  Fur  our  sakes  he  became  poor."  Did  he  here  endure  sufferings 
more  diversified  and  intense  than  human  nature  had  ever  known? 
"  He  bore  our  griefs  and  he  carried  our  sorrows."  Did  he  devote 
himself  to  our  interests  and  sanctify  himself  for  the  work  of 
mediation?  It  was  for  our  sakes  and  that  we  might  be  sanctified  by 
the  truth  (John  17.  19).  Did  a  voice  from  Heaven  comfort  Him  ? 
**  This  voice  came,"  says  he,  "  not  because  of  me,  but  for  your 
sakes"  (John  12.  30).  Did  he,  after  he  had  suffered,  leave  the 
world?  It  was  because  it  was  expedient  for  us.  Is  He  now  at  the 
right  hand  of  the  Majesty  on  high?  It  is  that  if  any  man  sin  he 
may  have  "an  Advocate  Anth  the  Father."  Even  the  conduct  of 
his  providence  is  regulated  by  a  regard  for  the  interests  of  His 
church.     "  He  rebuked  kings  for  their  sakes."     He  spared  aucient 


I^'FERE^'TIAL   READING   OP  THE  BIBLE.  367 

Israel,  though  guilty,  and  He  tells  them  that  they  were  spared  for 
the  sake  of  his  true  servants  who  were  found  among  them,  Isa.  65.  8. 
More  comprehensively  still,  he  assures  us  that  all  things  are  for  our 
sokes,  that  life  is  oui-s  and  death,  and  things  present  and  things  to 
come,  Rom.  8.  28:  2  Cor.  4.  15. 

3.  He  was  glad  that  he  was  not  there,  i.  e.,  to  heal  the  sick. 

To  \vithhold  deliverance  may  be  a  blessing.  On  compaiing  this 
verse  with  verses  21  and  32,  where  Martha  and  Mary  expressed 
their  stsrprise  that  Christ  was  not  there;  and  again,  with  verses  44, 
45,  where  it  is  said  that  the  Jews  believed,  we  infer  that  Chi-ist's 
purpose  is  sometimes  accomplished  by  means  which  are  not  con- 
sistent with  the  expectations  of  his  disciples.  This  truth  is  taught 
in  a  limited  form  by  the  context.  Compai'ing  the  truth  thus  ascer- 
tained with  other  similar  histories,  we  gather  the  general  conclusion 
that  God's  ways  are  not  as  otir  ways,  nor  his  thoughts  as  our 
thoughts.  Joseph,  for  instance,  was  sold  into  Egypt  in  the  anguish 
of  his  soul,  and  amidst  the  lamentations  of  his  father.  In  Egypt,  he 
endm'ed  bitter  temptation  and  imprisonment,  yet  the  whole  of  his 
affliction  seems  now  to  have  been  part  of  the  Divine  plan,  and  was 
certainly  the  means  of  preserving  his  family  alive.  It  proved  ad- 
vantageous, moreover,  to  his  own  honour;  and  the  history  of  his 
trial  suggests  many  a  lesson  for  the  improvement  of  young  men  in 
every  age. 

The  sufferings  of  Job  must  at  fir.st  have  seemed  mysterious.  At 
the  close  of  his  history,  however,  all  is  explained ;  for  God  blessed 
his  latter  end  more  than  his  beginning,  gave  him  honour  in  propor- 
tion to  his  previous  afflictions,  and  has  handed  down  his  historj'  as 
a  permanent  lesson  of  patience  and  faith. 

The  three  Hebrew  youths  in  Babylon  were  found  faithful  among 
the  faithless,  and  for  their  conscientious  obedience  to  the  Divine 
law  were  thrown  into  the  fiery  furnace.  Was  God  there,  and  did 
he  interpose  on  their  behalf  ?  Not  in  the  waj^  we  might  have  hoped; 
but  in  his  own.  He  made  their  sufferings  the  means  of  giving  to 
his  church  a  new  promise  of  the  Messiah  (for  a  fourth  was  seen 
walking  'v\dth  them);  and  they  themselves  were  uninjured,  so  that 
even  the  smell  of  fire  was  not  upon  them.  In  the  end  too,  not  at 
the  beginning,  a  heathen  king  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  that 
no  god  was  able  to  deliver  like  the  God  of  the  Hebrews.  In  each 
of  these  cases  the  Divine  purpose  was  accomplished  by  a  process 
very  diffex^ent  from  the  expectation  of  the  sufferers.  The  folly  of 
judging  the  dispensations  of  God  during  their  operation,  and  the 
wisdom  of  waiting  till  the  day  when  all  shall  be  made  plain,  is 
equally  a  lesson,  of  this  part  of  the  verse,  and  might  be  illustrated 
in  the  same  way. 


368  INFERENTIAL  READING  OP  THE  BIBLE. 

4.  All  this  was  done  to  the  intent  that  the  disciples  might  believe, 
Christ,  therefore,  is  anxious  in  his  dealings  to  increase  ovir  faith. 
His  disciples  were  not  credulous,  as  has  been  supposed,  but  the 
contrary.  Their  faith  was  not  inclination,  but  conviction,  and  the 
result  of  evidence.  That  they  believed  the  things  they  describe, 
ought  therefore  to  add  to  the  weight  of  their  testimony.  Com- 
paring this  clause  with  ver.  45,  where  it  is  said  that,  as  the  result 
of  the  miracle,  many  of  the  Jews  believed,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
the  same  exhibition  of  Divine  power  which  is  adapted  to  increase 
a  believer's  faith  is  adapted  to  produce  conviction  in  the  undecided. 
Comparing  it  with  John  20.  31,  we  gather  that  the  miracles  of  the 
gospel  should  have  the  same  influence  upon  us  as  they  had  upon 
those  that  witnessed  them;  the  record  of  them  by  credible  wit- 
nesses making  them  standing  miracles.  Compai'ing  it  with  passages 
in  which  it  is  implied  that  the  disciples  had  believed,  we  gather 
that  faith  admits  of  increase;  and  comparing  it  with  Eomans  5.  i, 
where  Christians  are  said  to  be  "justified  by  faith:"  and  with  Acts 
26.  18,  where  they  are  said  to  be  "sanctified  by  faith;"  and  with 
Gal.  2.  20:  2  Cor.  i.  24,  where  faith  is  said  to  be  the  secret  of 
their  life  and  steadfastness,  we  gather  that  this  increase  of  faith  is 
thus  pi-eciovxs  in  the  esteem  of  our  Lord,  becavxse  it  brings  with  it 
to  the  Christian  an  increase  both  of  usefulness  and  of  peace. 
5 .  Christ  had  nevertheless  resolved  to  go  unto  him. 
His  case  might  seem  desperate,  but  it  was  not  beyond  the  reach 
of  Divine  power.  Christ  often  does  above  what  we  think.  The 
extremity  of  the  sufferer  was  the  opportunity  of  the  Redeemer. 

Comparing  this  verse  with  the  following,  it  is  plain  that  the 
words  of  our  Lord  are  often  misunderstood,  and  misunderstood 
through  unbelief. 

Comparing  this  clause  with  ver.  8,  we  learn  that  Christ  is  ready 
to  expose  himself  to  personal  peril  in  order  to  comfort  or  relieve 
his  disciples. 

Comparing  it  with  ver.  42-44,  we  gather  that  when  the  purpose 
of  affliction  is  answered  the  affliction  itself  is  removed.  From  the 
whole  verse  we  gather  that  God  speaks  to  us  in  the  afflictions  of 
others,  and  that  if  we  disregard  his  voice  we  are  the  more  likely  to 
be  chastised  ourselves. 

534.  Sometimes  the  student  of  Scripture  is  anxious  to 
ascertain  what  it  teaches  on  some  one  question.  In  which 
case  he  uses  each  jjassage  with  a  special  reference  not  to  all  it 
contains,  but  to  the  truth  which  he  is  investigating  :  an  ex- 
ercise which  combines  the  systematic  with  the  inferential 
study  of  the  Bible. 


IXFTRENTI^Ui  READING  OF  THE  BIBLE.  369 

If,  for  example,  he  wishes  to  obtain  a  full  view  of  what  is  taught  in 
Scripture  on  affliction,  he  examines  a  few  passages,  and  soon  finds 
that  they  begin  to  arrange  themselves  in  his  mind.  Some  treat  of 
affliction  generally,  some  of  the  afflictions  of  Christians,  and  some  of 
the  afflictions  of  the  impenitent ;  while  throughout  he  finds  truths 
and  duties  most  instructively  blended.  In  the  end  he  ascertains 
such  results  as  these : — 

Affliction: — Men  born  to  it.  Job  5.  6,  7.  Is  the  conseqiience 
and  a  punishment  of  sin,  Gen.  3.  16-19  '•  Prov.  i,  31  :  2  Sam,  12. 
14:  Ps.  89.  30-32  :  Is.  57.  17  :  Jer.  2.  14-17.  For  which,  how- 
ever, it  cannot  atone.  Is.  5.  25  :  Lev.  26.  14-39  '•  Lam.  3.  1-22  : 
Dan.  9.  16-19.  Is  appointed  by  God,  who  regulates  the  measui-e 
and  continuance  of  it,  Ps.  66.  11 :  Job.  i.  21 :  Lam.  l-H  :  2  Kings  14. 
26,  27:  Is.  9.  i:  Jer.  46.  28:  Gen.  15.  13,  14:  Jer.  29.  10.  Is  often 
deep  and  sevei'e,  Ps.  18.  4,  5 :  i  Pet.  4.  12.  But  tempered  with 
mercy  and  less  than  we  deserve,  Ps.  78.  38,  39:  Is.  30.  20:  Ezra 
9.  13. 

Affliction  is  often  blessed  to  the  Christian — showing  him  his 
errors,  Xumb.  21.  6,  7:  Luke  15,  16,  17.  Biinging  him  back  to 
God  and  keeping  him  there,  Ps,  78.  34:  Hos.  2.  6,  7:  Is.  10.  20i 
Ezek.  14.  10,  II.  Humbling  him,  trying  and  perfecting  his  pa- 
tience, faith,  and  obedience,  Eom.  5.3:1  Pet.  i.  7:  Jud.  3.  4: 
Heb.  II.  17.  Testing  and  exhibiting  his  sincerity.  Job  23.  10  : 
Prov.  17.  3.  Fitting  him  for  greater  usefulness  :  explaining  the 
Bible:  pm-ifying  the  heart,  Mai.  3.  23.  Tending  to  the  furtherance 
of  the  gospel.  Acts  8.  3,  4:  2  Tim.  4.  17.  Illustrating  the  power 
and  love  of  God,  2  Cor.  4.  7-1 1 :  John  9.  1-3 :  11.  4.  Ending,  when 
rightly  endured,  in  the  gi-eater  blessedness,  1  Pet.  4.  13,  14,  etc. 

Its  influence  is  exemplified  in  Joseph's  brethren.  Gen.  42.  21:  in 
Israel,  Deut.  8.  3.  5:  Da\id,  2  Sam.  16.  12:  Josiah,  2  Kings  22.  19: 
Hezekiah,  2  Chron.  32.  25,  26:  Manasseh,  2  Chron.  33.  12. 

In  the  case  of  the  impenitent,  affliction  is  multiplied  and  often 
sudden,  Ps.  32.  10:  16.  4:  Prov.  6.  15  :  Is.  30.  13.  Is  a  conse- 
quence of  impenitence,  Zech,  7.  11,  12:  Prov.  i.  24-33.  Is  of  itself 
ineSectual  for  conversion,  often  hardens  the  heart,  or  produces 
slavish  fear.  Is.  i.  5  :  Jer.  2.  30:  Neh.  9.  27-29;  Jer.  49.  5.  Is  no 
cause  of  fear  to  the  righteous,  Ps,  90.  i,  5.     Is  a  warning  to  others, 

1  Cor.  10.  5-11:  2  Pet.  2.  6,  God  will  be  glorified  in  it,  Eze.  28. 
22,  23. 

Its   influence   exemplified   in   Pharaoh,    Ex.   8.  8-15  :   Ahaziah, 

2  Kings  I.  1-4  :  Gehazi,  2  Kings  5.  27  :  Jehoram,  2  Chron.  21. 
12-19  :  Athaliah,  2  Chron.  22.  10  :  Uzziah,  2  Chron.  26.  19,  21  : 
Ahaz,  2  Chron.  28.  5-8,  22. 

The  AFFLICTED  CHFtiSTiAN  should  cxcrcise  resignation  and  pa- 

R  3 


370  INFERENCIS  :   PARABLES. 

tience,  Ps.  39.  9:  James  r.  4:  i  Pet.  2.  20.  Acknowledge  the  just- 
ness of  his  chastisements,  Mic.  7.  9.  Avoid  sin,  John  5.  14.  Trust 
in  God,  Ps.  71.  20  :  Ps.  56.  11.  Praise  him,  Ps.  35.  18  :  Ps.  56. 
8-12.  Take  encouragement  from  past  mercies,  Ps.  42.  4,  5  :  2  Cor.  i. 
10.  Remember  that  God  has  promised  that  in  time  of  trouble  He 
will  be  with  him  ;  will  support,  comfort,  and  finally  deliver  him, 
Is.  43.  2:  Ps.  27.  5,  6:  2  Cor.  7.  6.  Ps.  107.  13, 

The  AFFLICTED  CHRISTIAN  should  be  visited,  pitied,  protected, 
comforted,     and    I'elieved,    James  i.  27  :   Job  6.  14:  Ps.  82.   3  : 

1  Thess.  4.  18:  I  Tim.  5.  10. 

The  character  of  the  afflicted  Christian  is.ilhistrated  in  Joseph, 
Gen.  39.  20-23:  Moses,  Deut.  9.  18,  19:  Job  i,  22:  Eli,  i  Sam.  3. 
18:  Ezra,  Ezi'.  9.  5  :  Nehemiah,  ISTeh.  i.  i:  Daniel,  Dan.  9.  3-19  : 
Paul,  Acts  20.  22-24  :    2  Cor.   12.  7-9  :    Apostles,    i  Cor.  4.  9-13  : 

2  Cor.  6.  4-10. 

535.  Sometimes,  again  the  student  of  Scriptm-e  is  desirous 
of  investigating  the  history  of  Scripture  practically  with  re- 
ference to  some  particular  fact  ;  or  parables  with  reference  to 
their  scope  ;  and  then  the  question  is  what  is  taught  on  the 
subject  of  inquiry  by  each  phrase  or  verse. 

The  parable,  for  example,  of  the  Prodigal  Son  may  be  variously 
regarded  ;  either  with  Neauder,  as  an  exhibition  of  Pharisaism  and 
its  opposite,  or  Avith  Lisco,  as  an  exhibition  of  true  penitence,  and 
of  the  treatment  it  receives  from  God  and  man.  Taking  the  second 
view,  we  have  the  following  connection  of  thoughts  : — 

1.  We  have  the  necessity  of  repentance,  grounded  (Luke  15. 
11-32)— 

1.  In  the  state  of  preceding  sinfulness: — 

(a.)  Its  origin,  ver.   12.     Self-sufficient  waywardness:  give 

me,  father. 
(6.)  Its  nature,  ver.  13.     And  not  long  after, 
(c.)  Its  manifestation,  ver.  13.  And  there  wasted. 

2.  In  the  misery  conseqiient  upon  sin : — 

(a.)  The  man  has  still  a  desire  after  blessedness,  ver.  14. 
(6.)  And  feels  his  misery,  ver.  14.  Began  to  be  in  want, 
(c.)  And  seeks  in  vain  for  relief,  ver.  15.  Went  and  joined 

himself. 
(d.)  And  sinks  the  longer  the  deeper,  ver.  15.  Sent  to  feed 

swine. 
(e.)  Without  finding  the  longed-for  satisfaction,  ver.  16. 
xi.  The  nature  of  repentance  is  described  : — 

I.  The  sinner  comes  to  a  right  understanding,  ver.  17. 


INFERENCES  :   PARABLES.  371 

2.  Perceives  the  greatness  of  his  misery,  Ter.  1 7.  How  many,  etc. 

3.  Forms  a  good  resolution,  ver.  18.  I  will  arise. 

4.  Recognises  his  guilt,  ver.  18.  Father,  I  have  sinned. 

5.  Humbles  himself,  ver.  19. 

6.  By  faith  actually  returns,  ver.  20.  He  arose  and  came  to  hia 

father. 
iii.  The  results  of  repentance,  ver.  20-30. 

1.  In  reference  to  a  compassionate  God,  ver.  20-24. 

(a.)  God  descries  the  repentant  feeling,  ver.  20.  When  yet  a 

great  way. 
(6.)  Graciotisly  receives  the  sinner,  ver.  20.  Had  compassion, 
(c.)  Facilitates  the  execution  of  his  purpose,  ver.  21. 
{d.)  Heaps  upon  him  marks  of  love,  and  goodness,  ver.  22, 

(^.)  And  calls  for  a  general  expression  of  joy,  ver.  24. 

2.  In  reference  to  the  self-righteous,  ver.  25-32. 

(ci.)  Their   cold-hearted   envy  is   excited,  ver.    28.   He  was 

angry. 
(6.)  They  accuse  God  of  um-ighteousuess,  ver.  29,  ^o. 
(c.)  They  overlook  God's  gracious  goodness  to  themselve.'^, 

V.  31. 
((/.)  And  violate  the  obligations  of  mutual  love,  ver.  32. 
So,  in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus  we  have  worldly 
;mbelief,  Luke  16.  19-31 — 
i.  In  its  manifestations — 

1.  Insatiable  thirst  for  enjoyment,  vei-.  19.     Clothes  in  purple, 

lives  sumptuously, 
(a.)  It  seeks  all  sorts  of  enjoyment. 
(6).  It  seeks  in  these  all  its  satisfaction — eveiy  day. 
(c.)  It  regards  the  temporal  as  its  only  good. 

2.  Cold-hearted  uucharitableness,  ver.  20,  21. 
(a.)  It  despises  the  poor  as  woii;hles3,  ver.  20. 

(6.)  It  hardens  itself  against  the  rights  of  misery,  ver.  20. 
(c.)  It  gives  no  relief,  ver.  21. 
ii.  In  its  final  condition : — 

1.  It  is  fearfully  undeceived,  ver.  22,  23. 

(cif.)  In  regard  to  the  value  of  its  enjoyments,  ver.  23. 

(h.)  In  regard  to  the  value  of  salvation  now  imperfectly  ap- 
prehended. 

(c.)  In  regai'd  to  the  relation  between  Lazarus  and  God,  in 
Abi"aham's  bosom. 

2.  Its  sinful  misapprehensions  remain,  ver.  24. 

(j(.)  As  to  trust  in  descent  from  Abraham.   Father  Abraham. 


372  INFERENCES:  PARABLES. 

(6.)  As  to  imaginary  hopes  of  salvation.     Have  mercy, 
(c.)  As  to  its  unholy  preference  for  personal  comfort.     Dip 
the  tip,  and  cool  my  tongue. 
3.  It  is  self-condemned  by  an  evil  conscience,  ver.  25-31. 
(a.)  As  dealt  with  justly,  ver.  25. 
(b.)  As  incapable,  from  its  state  of  mind,   of  deliverance, 

ver.  26. 
(c.)  As  being  without  excuse. 

Because  no  want  of  means  of  grace,  ver.  27-29. 
Because  these  means  sufficient  for  salvation,  ver.  30,  3  r.* 

536.  The  results  in  these  examples  (which  might  be  greatly 
extended)  are  reached  in  an  order  dififerent  from  the  one  in 
which  they  are  now  given.  Here  we  have  first  the  result 
and  then  the  proof  passage  ;  but  in  investigating  a  subject 
we  turn  first  from  passage  to  passage,  and  then  state  their 
import  in  the  form  of  a  general  lesson.  The  text  and  the 
lesson  is  the  order  of  inquiry  ;  the  lesson  and  the  proof  is 
the  order  of  instruction. 

The  exercise  of  following  out  truth  in  this  way  is  one  of  the 
most  instructive  in  which  a  Christian  can  engage. 

537.  For  the  further  study  of  this  x^art  of  the  subject  see 
any  common-place  book  of  the  Bible — especially  "  Talbot's 
Bible,"  and  the  common-place  books  of  Strutt  and  Locke. 
"  Scripture  Texts  arranged,''  is  a  very  useful  manual  of  sub- 
jects classified  under  their  respective  heads  and  illustrated 
by  Scripture  examples. 

On  the  subject  of  this  chapter,  the  inferential  reading  of  Scrip- 
ture, see  llambach's  ^'  Institutiones  Hermeneuticse,"  lib.  iv.,  c.  3 ; 
Francke's  "  Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Scriptiires ;"  Claude's 
"Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sei-mon;"  and  especially,  for 
illustrations,  the  "Commentary"  of  Matth.  Hemy,  one  of  the 
richest  storehouses  of  evangelical  truth.  Felicitous  examples 
abound,  also,  in  the  writings  of  Rev,  R,  Cecil  and  Rev.  W.  Jay. 

"  See  Lisco  on  the  Parables. 


THE  BOOKS  OP  THE  BIBLE.  373 


PART  II. 

The  Books  of  the  Bible. 

Introductory. 

"  Though  many  other  books  are  comparable  to  cloth,  in  which,  by  a  small  pat- 
tern, we  may  safely  judge  of  the  whole  piece,  j'et  the  Bible  is  like  a  fair  suit  of 
arras,  of  which,  though  a  shred  may  assure  you  of  the  fineness  of  the  colours  and 
richness  of  the  GCUff,  yet  the  liangings  ne%-er  appear  to  their  true  advantage  but 
\vhen  they  are  displayed  to  their  full  dimensions  and  are  seen  together."— Boyle 
On  the  Style  of  Scripture. 

1.  We  now  come  to  the  study  of  the  books  of  the  Bible. 
Subjects         Ah-eady  we  have  considered — 

already  con-        The  general   divisions   of  Scripture :    the   two 

Testaments :  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  holy 

writings  of  the  Old  :  the  Gospels,  Epistles,  and  Acts,  and  the 

Hevelation  of  the  New :  chapters,  verses,  and  other  sections  : 

The  claims  of  Scripture  as  genuine,  as  authentic,  and  as 
inspired,  with  the  evidences  of  its  claims  (Chaps,  i.  ii.)  : 

The  pecuharities  of  Scripture  as  a  revelation  of  God,  of 
man,  and  of  the  plan  of  salvation  reconcihng  both,  securing 
at  once  peace  and  holiness  :  a  revelation  gradually  communi- 
cated, everywhere  consistent ;  taught,  however,  without  a 
formally-announced  system,  though  all  centring  in  the  cross 
(Chap.  iii.  1-5)  : 

The  principles  of  interpretation,  and  the  use  of  external 
helps  ;  the  spirit,  above  all,  in  which  inquiries  into  the 
meaning  of  Scripture  should  be  conducted  (iv.  especially  §  2) : 

The  systematic  study  of  Scripture  ;  the  best  methods  of 
applying  it  to  practical  hfe,  and  the  difficulties  of  various 
kinds  connected  with  all  these  questions  (v.  vi.  vii.). 

Having  thus  viewed  sacred  Scripture  as  a  whole,  we  pro- 
ceed to  examine  particular  portions  and  to  apply  more 
minutely  the  rules  and  principles  already  discussed. 

TJie  two  Parts  of  the  Bible.  ^ 

2.  The  Bible  is  composed  of  two  parts :    the  Old  Testa- 
The  two         ment  and  the  New.     The  second  containing  a  full 
pans  of  the     revelation  of  tne  Divine  will,  and  a  plan  of  salva- 
tion addressed  to  all.     The  first  containing  not  all 


374  USE   OF  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT. 

probably  that  God  revealed  in  early  times  to  our  race, 
but  as  much  as  he  deemed  it  necessar}^  to  preserve.  Every 
part  of  what  is  thus  revealed  being  "  profitable  for  instruc- 
tion, for  reproof,  for  rectification,  and  for  establishment  in 
righteousness,"    ' 

3.  The  use  of  the  first  Testament  is  highly  important :  and 
Use  of  the  ^  simple  statement  of  the  use  will  show  the  con- 
first,  nection  of  the  two. 

1.  Though  most  of  it  was  addressed  to  one  nation,  yet  it  enjoins 
much  on  man  as  man,  and  contains  principles  of  morality  which  are 
universal  and  eternal.  The  precepts  which  were  given  to  Adam, 
the  decalogue,  and  the  appeals  of  the  whole  book  illustrate  and 
enforce  moral  truth. 

2.  Much  of  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  history  of 
God's  government.  In  that  government  he  illustrates  his  own 
character  and  ours ;  and  whatever  advantage  an  inspired  record  of 
this  kind  can  give,  we  derive  from  this  part  of  the  sacred  volumes. 

3.  Further,  the  hopelessness  of  salvation  by  law  is  clearly  taught 
in  this  earlier  dispensation.  The  patriarchal  faith,  with  its  imme- 
diate or  traditional  communications  ended  in  a  corruption,  which 
not  even  the  Deluge  could  check.  Solemn  legal  institutes,  with 
rites  and  sanctions  most  instructive  and  awful,  failed  to  preserve 
the  people  from  idolatry,  though  the  Great  Legislator  himself  re- 
peatedly interposed;  and  when,  after  the  captivity,  idolatry  ceased, 
formalism  and  infidelity  extended  on  every  side,  and  at  length  pre- 
vailed (Part  ii.,  Chap,  iv,)  In  the  meantime,  the  power  of  natural 
religion  was  tried  among  the  heathen :  and  the  result  of  the  whole, 
the  result  of  an  experiment  carried  on  under  eveiy  form  of  govern- 
ment, amidst  different  degrees  of  civilization,  with  traditional  know- 
ledge and  immediate  light,  is  a  demonstration,  that  in  our  fallen  state, 
reformation  by  laic  is  hopeless,  and  that  unless  some  other  plan  bo 
introduced,  our  race  must  perish.  The  Old  Testament  was  given, 
therefore,  in  part  to  show  us  our  sins,  and  to  shut  us  up  unto  the 
faith  (Gal.  3.  23). 

4.  To  this  new  faith  it  is  also  an  introduction,  teaching  to  the 
spiritual  and  humble  under  the  first  dispensation,  more  or  less  of 
the  plan  of  salvation  to  be  revealed  under  the  second.  Hence  its 
types,  prophecies,  sacrifices;  hence  assurances  of  pardon  to  the 
penitent,  and  the  I'evelation  of  a  God  ready  to  forgive,  though  the 
procuring  cause  of  pardon,  the  provision  that  was  to  reconcile  justice 
and  mercy  is  not  fully  stated,  nor  was  it  fully  understood  till  the 
remedial  work  of  Christ  was  accomplished. 

Other  purposes  also  wore  no  doubt  answered  by  this  first  dispen- 


CONNECTION   OF  DIFFERENT   BOOKS.  3/5 

satiou.  A  knowledge  of  the  time  God,  which  might  otherwise  have 
diedawayy  was  preserved;  aud  the  effect  of  true  religion,  even  in  its 
less  perfect  foniis  was  illustrated;  but  the  foregoing  are  probably 
the  chief. 

The  relation  of  the  New  Testament  to  these  purposes  of 
The  New  the  Old  is  plain.  The  second,  or  new  covenant,  is 
'fifrfiuSenTof  ^  double  completion  of  the  first.  As  the  first  was 
the  Old.  a  covenant  of  types  and  predictions,  the  second 
fulfils  it ;  putting  the  fact  in  the  place  of  the  prophecy,  and 
in  the  place  of  the  shadow,  the  substance.  As  under  the 
first,  moreover,  the  revelation  of  God  and  of  duty  was  im- 
perfect, and  holiness  was  made,  or  became,  ceremonial,  na- 
tional, and  contracted,  the  second  filled  up  the  system  of 
truth  and  of  precept  which  was  thus  but  partially  disclosed, 
developing  and  explaining  it  with  more  of  spiritual  applica- 
tion, and  securing  for  it  in  a  richer  degree  the  influence  of 
the  Spirit.  In  a  double  sense,  then,  the  gospel  is  the  com- 
pletion (7rX//pwo-ic)  of  the  law.  ^ 

4.  Regarding  the  whole  Bible  in  its  connections,  we  are 
Summary  of  prepared  to  trace  the  continual  development  of 
the  whole.      Divine  truth  in  its  different  parts. 

In  the  first  eleven  chapters  of  Genesis,  and  in  Job,  we  have  the 
outlines  of  the  patriarchal  religion;  in  the  later  chapters  of  Genesis, 
the  history  of  the  transition  from  it,  to  the  temporary  and  typical 
dispensation  of  the  law.  In  the  other  books  of  the  Pentateuch, 
we  have  the  moral  law,  illustrative  ati  once  of  God's  character,  and 
of  human  duty;  the  ceremonial,  with  its  foreshadowings  of  the  great 
atonement;  and  the  ckil,  the  means  of  the  preservation  of  the  other 
two.  In  the  settlement  of  the  Jews  under  Joshua,  whether  con- 
sidered in  itself,  or  as  an  emblem  of  the  future ;  in  the  apostasy  of 
the  Jews,  their  punishment  and  deliverance  under  the  Judges;  in 
the  establishment  of  the  prophetic  and  kingly  offices  of  later 
BOOKS,  in  addition  to  the  priestly ;  and  in  the  unchanging  yet  diver- 
sified tenor  of  God's  providence  to  his  separated  peojjle,  we  have 
our  knowledge  of  the  Divine  character  and  pui'pose  varied  and  aug- 
mented. In  the  PsAJ^MS,  we  have  the  utterances  of  devout  hearts, 
and  much  that  is  predictive  of  Him  in  whom  all  devout  hearts  trust. 
In  the  WORDS  of  Solomon,  we  learn  both  the  wisdom  and  the  vanity 
of  the  world,  and  are  led  forward  to  that  world  where  there  is  neither 
vanity  nor  vexation,  and  are  at  the  same  time  conducted  beyond  the 
maxims  of  worldly  prudence,  to  Him  who  is  the  eternal  wisdom. 
la  his  nuptial  song,,  v/e  see  God  in  a  new  relation  to  his  cliurch,  ut> 


376  CONNECTION   OF  DIFFERENT   BOOKS. 

longer  lier  Lord  (Baali),  but  her  husband  (Ishi).  In  Isaiah,  wc 
have  Messiah,  as  prophet,  sacrifice  and  king,  gathering  from  scenes  of 
the  captivity  descriptions  of  a  double  deliverance.  In  Jeremiah, 
the  same  scenes  are  revealed,  though  dimly,  and  as  in  a  cloudy  and 
dai'k  day.  In  Ezekiel,  the  shadowy  priesthood  of  the  Jews  is 
eulai'ged  into  a  more  glorious  and  spiritual  worship :  and  in  Daniel 
we  see  the  termination  of  all  kingly  power  in  the  never  ending 
empire  of  the  Messiah.  The  minor  pi'ophets  present  the  same  views 
of  the  Divine  government,  either  in  Providence  or  in  grace,  and 
Malachi  closes  the  old  revelation  with  predictions  of  the  coming 
appearance  of  the  Sun  of  righteousness.    ~ 

In  the  New  Testament,  Matthew,  after  a  silence  of  the  prophetic 
spirit  for  400  years,  connects  the  ancient  Scriptui'es  with  the  more 
recent,  and  completes  prophecy  by  pointing  out  its  fulfilment  in 
Christ.  Luke  reveals  Him  as  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles; 
Mark,  as  the  mighty  God;  John  as  the  everlasting  Father,  and  as 
the  Prince  of  peace.  The  Acts  continue  the  illustration  of  the  ful- 
filment of  ancient  predictions,  and  connect  the  facts  of  the  gospel 
history  with  the  Epistles.  Each  Epistle,  while  giving  most  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  gospel,  embodies  distinctly  some  particular  truth. 
The  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  exhibit  the  self-evidencing 
power  of  the  gospel  in  the  hearts  of  believers,  and  set  forth  the 
antecedents  and  result  of  the  second  coming.  The  Epistles  to  the 
Corinthians  explain  Christian  unity,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  re- 
suri-ection.  The  Epistle  to  the  Eomans  gives  to  those  whom  Paul 
had  not  then  visited,  a  full  view  of  the  gospel  without  reference  to 
any  previous  communication,  enlarging  most  on  the  great  truth  of 
"  justification  by  faith."  The  simplicity  of  that  faith,  and  its  in- 
dependence of  the  law,  in  opposition  to  the  legality  of  Judaizing 
teachers,  is  maintained  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  The  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  shows  the  connection  between  the  Christian  faith 
and  the  law;  James  and  John  (i  Ep,),  the  connection  between 
the  Christian  faith  and  practical  holiness;  while  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  shows  that  language  is  unequal  to  express  the  fulness 
which  is  communicated  in  all  abounding  grace,  from  the  Head  to  tho 
body.  Other  Epistles  treat  of  specific  duties  or  truths,  and  the 
system  of  revelation  is  completed  by  the  Apocalypse,  which  unites 
and  closes  the  prophecies  that  go  before,  and  introduces  the  chui'ch 
after  all  her  ti'ials  and  changes,  first  into  millennial  I'est  on  earth, 
and  then  into  never  ending  blessedness  in  Heaven.^ 

The  volume  that  speaks  of  these  topics  may  be  doRcribed 
lloaily  one  ^^  Consisting  of  tico  parts ;  but  they  form  really 
book.  ,^;^g  Iq(j]^  .  rj^Y^^  j^i^Q  truths  it  reveals  are  ever  the 

'^  See  Douglas  on  the  "  Truths  of  Religion." 


BOOKS  :   HOW  CLASSIFIED.  377 

same,  dimly  seen  or  fully  disclosed,  according  to  their  position 
in  relation  to  the  cross. 

5.  It  becomes  us,  then,  duly  to  appreciate  both  Testaments. 
Importance  Study  the  Old  to  see  what  God  has  done,  and 
and  iiife-  what  therefore  he  is.  See  in  it  a  solemn  protest 
Old  j'csta-  against  idolatry  ;  a  proof  that  none  can  be  justified 
ment.  -^^  ^]^g  deeds  of  the  law ;  a  gradual  disclosure  of 
the  Divine  will  and  of  the  plan  of  redemption.  Prize  it  for 
these  reasons,  but  remember  also  that,  as  contrasted  with 
the  New,  inspired  writers  speak  of  it  in  depreciating  terms. 
They  call  it  "darkness,"  "flesh,"  "letter,"  "bondage,"  "the 
elements  of  the  world"  (Gal.  4.  3),  while  the  gospel  is 
"light,"  "spirit,"  "liberty,"  "a  heavenly  kingdom."  Im- 
portant principles  of  interpretation  are  thus  suggested,  nor 
less  the  peculiar  obligations  of  our  position.  It  is  now 
doubly  binding  upon  us  to  be  complete  in  all  His  wiU.  Our 
dispensation  is  light,  let  us  be  wise  :  it  is  spirit,  let  us  be 
holy :  it  is  power,  let  us  be  strong. 

6.  The  thirty-nine  books  of  the  Old  Testament  may  be 
Old  Testa-      arranged  on  different  principles.     Sometimes  they 
di^-d'd*^^^      are  classed  according  to  their  contents  :    the  Pen- 
tateuch, the  historical  books,  the  poetical  books, 

and  the  prophets.  This  division  is  sufficiently  accurate, 
though  several  of  the  books  belong  to  two  or  more  classes, 
and  the  division  has  not  been  uniformly  observed.  Some- 
times they  are  classed  in  the  order  of  time  ;  and  as  much  01 
the  meaning  of  Scripture  is  elicited  by  the  chronological 
study  of  the  different  books,  we  shall  arrange  theai  in  this 
order,  not  overlooking,  however,  the  difference  of  object  and 
of  contents  on  which  the  other  division  rests. 

The  importance  of  specific  introductions  to  each  of  the 
importance  ^ooks  of  the  Bible  must  not  be  disregarded.  Such 
of  specific  in-  introductions  will  often  prove,  as  Bishop  Percy 
has  observed,  "  the  best  of  commentaries,  and  fre- 
quently supersede  the  want  of  any.  Like  an  intelligent 
guide,  they  direct  the  reader  right  at  his  first  setting  out, 
and  thereby  save  him  the  trouble  of  much  after  inquiry  ;  or, 
Hke  a  map  of  the  country  through  which  he  is  to  travel,  they 
give  him  a  general  view  of  his  journey,  and  prevent  his  being 
afterwards  bewildered  and  lost." 

We  begin  with  the  Piehtateuch  and  the  book  of  Job. 


373  THE   PENTATEUCH. 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Job. 
Sec.  I.   Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the  Pentateiicli. 

7.  All  complete  copies  of  Holy  Scripture  begin  with  the 

Pentateuch.  It  was  called  by  the  Jews  "  the  law," 
or,  more  fully,  "the  five-fifths  of  the  law;"  or 
simply,  the  fifths  ;  a  single  book  being  called  "  a  fifth."*  The 
several  books  take  their  names  in  Hebrew  from  the  first 
word  or  words.  The  English  names  are  taken  from  the 
Greek  version,  and  indicate  in  part  the  subjects  of  which 
they  treat.  Pentateuch  means,  in  Alexandrian  Greek,  "the 
five  volumes ;"  a  name  first  used,  as  was  probably  the  divi- 
sion into  five  books,  by  Alexandrian  critics.'' 

8.  That  Moses  was  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  is  the 
^  .  testimony  of  all  tradition,  both  Jewish  and  heathen ; 
proved  from  and  this  testimony  is  sustamed  by  the  record  it- 
Scripture  and  ^^^^  e     rpj^^  ^^^^  jg  quotcd,  moreover,  by  nearly  all 

the  sacred  writers  as  his  work,**  and  is  appealed  to  as  genuine 
and  authentic  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles."  The  Old 
Testament  quotations  begin  with  Joshua,  B.C.  145 1,  and  ex- 
tend over  more  than  a  thousand  years,  B.  c.  430.  Indeed,  the 
coincidences  between  the  Pentateuch  and  the  later  books  are 
so  numerous  and  exact,  that  the  sense  of  the  law  might  have 
been  gathered,  if  the  law  itself  had  perished,  from  other  parts 
of  the  Bible  ;  every  allusion  in  the  later  books  having  also  its 
corresponding  passage  in  the  Pentateuch.^ 
"  „nr\  ^^D^n  n^pn  vo^n,  and  |>E^G)n. 

''  Havernick.     reCxos  ordinarily  means  an  implement. 

«=  Deut.  31.  9,  24,  26:  Exod.  17.  14:  24.  4-7:  34-  27,  28:  Numb. 
33.  2:  Deut.  28.  58-61. 

d  Josh.  I.  7,  8:  23.  6:  Comp.  24.  26:  8.  3-,  34:  i  Kings  2.  3: 
2  Kings  22.  8:  2  Chron.  34.  14. 

^Matt.  15.  4:  5.  17,  18,  etc. 

f  2  Kings  14.  6,  and  Deut.  24.  16.  2  Kings  23.  2-25,  and  Lev.  26. 
3-45:  Deut.  27.  II  to  28.  68.  Ezra  3.  2-6,  and  Lev.  chaps.  6.  7. 
Neh.  I.  7,  8:  and  Lev.  26:  Deut.  4-  26,  27.  Isa.  i.  9,  a^id  Gen. 
19.  2-4.  Isa.  11,  and  Exod.  15.  2.  Micah  6.  5,  and  Numb.  22.  5,  etc. 
Amos  2.  9,  and  Numb.  21.  21-24.     Amos  4.  ii,  and  Gen.  19.  24,  i-S- 


GENUINENESS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH.  37^ 

The  testimony  of  profane  history  is,  of  course,  much  later 
From  profane  than  Scripture.  Mahomet  (a.  d.  569)  maintained 
history.  ^^igj^  Moses   was  inspired,   and    the    Jewish  law 

divine.  Julian,  the  apostate  (331),  acknowledged  that  per- 
sons instructed  of  God  once  Uved  amongst  the  Israehtes,  and 
maintained  both  the  genuineness  and  the  authenticity  of 
these  books.  Porphyry  (233)  admits  their  genuineness,  and 
contends  for  the  truth  of  Sanconiathon's  accounts,  from 
their  accordance  with  the  Mosaic  history.  Nicolaus  of 
Damascus,  an  eminent  orator,  and  Strabo,  both  contem- 
poraries of  Augustus,  ascribe  the  Pentateuch  to  Moses ;  as 
do  Tacitus,  Juvenal,  and  Longinus  (a.  d.  273). 

Internal  evidence  corroborates  this  view.  (i).  The  books- 
intornai  """^^^^  evidently  written  by  a  Hebrew,  speaking  the 
evidence  of  language  and  cherishing  the  sentiments  of  hi& 
genum  ne&s.  ^^g^^.-^^^^  ^2).  They  Were  written  by  a  Hebrew 
acquainted  with  Egypt  and  Arabia,  their  customs  and  learn- 
ing -^  But  Egj'ptian  learning  was  carefully  concealed  from 
foreigners  (Her.  ii.  c.  3,  100,  loi,  164,  168).  The  priests 
alone,  and  the  royal  family,  who  were  reckoned  as  priests,, 
had  access  to  it.  To  this  class,  therefore,  the  writer  must 
have  belonged.  ■  (3).  There  is,  moreover,  an  exact  correspond- 
ence between  the  narrative  and  the  institutions,  showing 
that  both  had  one  author.  The  laws  are  not  given  in  the 
form  of  statutes,  but  are  mixed  with  narrative,  and  ai'o  in- 
serted as  the  exigencies  requiring  them  arose.  They  are 
often  briefly  sketched,  and  afterwards  repeated  at  greater 
length,  with  such  modifications  as  were  demanded  by  altered 
circumstances.''  (4).  Xo  less  remarkable  is  the  agreement 
between  the  style  of  the  different  books  and  the  circum- 
stances of  Moses.  In  the  earlier  narrative  of  Exodus  and 
Numbers,  the  style  is  broken  and  abrupt.  In  Deuteronomy^ 
it  is  continuous  and  parental.  The  history  of  the  antedi- 
luvians is  brief  and  simple  ;  of  the  Jews,  full  and  explicit ; 
and  the  whole  exhibits  the  unity  of  design  which  bespeaks  a 
single  author. 

■*  See  Gen.  13.  10:  40.  11,  16:  (see  pp.  380-1),  42.  9:  47.  20-6: 
Deut.  ir.  id:  Numb.  13.  22. 

^  Compare  Exod.  21.  27,  and  Deut.  15.  12,  17.  Numb.  4.  24-33, 
:ind  7.  1-9.  Lev.  17.  3,  4,  and  Dout.  12.  5,  6,  21.  Exod.  22.  26, 
aivl  Deut.  24.  6,  10-15. 


380  AUTHENTICITY   OF  THE  PENTATEUCH . 

The  first  doubt  expressed  on  this  question  in  England  was  by 
Thomas  Hobbes,  A.  D.  1650,  at  least  three  thousand  years  after  the 
fii'st  publication  of  the  Pentateuch.  Nor  were  doubts  expressed  by 
any  known  writer  earlier  than  the  13  th  century. 

9.  The  evidence  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch  is  no 
.    ,      .  .      less  decisive  ;  though,  as  many  of  the  events  are 

Authenticity.  lu-l-  -ii 

recorded  only  here,  it  is  necessarily  less  compre- 
hensive than  similar  evidence  in  the  case  of  ordinary  history. 
Its  state-  Several    of    the    historical  statements    of   the 

lirnied »"""     Pentateuch   are   confirmed    by  the   traditions   01 
tradition.        aiicieiit  nations. 

In  proof  of  its  general  accuracy,  Josephus  appeals  to  various 
jiublic  records,  and  to  books  extant  in  his  time  (a.  d.  70,)  confirming 
in  this  way  the  history  of  the  flood,  of  the  delivery  from  Egypt,  and 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Canaanites.  Creation  completed  in  six 
distinct  days,  or  in  six  distinct  periods,  the  division  of  time  into 
weeks,  the  seventh  day  being  hol}^,  the  state  of  innocency  or  the 
golden  age,  the  promise  of  a  Mighty  Deliverer,  the  flood,  the  ark — 
are  traditions  preserved  among  nearly  all  nations,  and  have  been 
shown  to  exist  in  the  East,  though  strangely  disguised,  in  the  very 
age  when  Moses  lived.  Faber's  Horaj  Mosaics,  i.  1-136;  Graves  on 
the  Pentateuch,  i.;  Sir  William  Jones's  "Works,  and  Maurice's  Hin- 
dostan.  See  other  traditions  in  S.  Turner's  Sacred  History,  i.,  and 
Kitto's  Daily  Bible  111.  Antedil.  and  Patriarchs. 

A  new  kind  of  proof  has  sprung  up  in  our  own  days.  It  has  been 
said,  for  example,  that  the  following  customs,  or  allusions,  are 
Asiatic,  and  not  Egyptian,  or  are  later  than  the  exode:  building 
with  bricks,  Exod.  i.  14;  keeping  asses — animals  odious  to  the 
Egyptians ;  the  presence  of  eunuchs,  implied  in  the  name  given  to 
the  captain  of  the  guard,  Gen.  37.  36;  the  freedom  of  domestic  life 
implied  in  Gen.  39;  the  use  of  wine,  which  Herodotus  says  was  not 
made  in  Egypt;  of  rings  and  other  ornaments,  41.  42;  the  appoint- 
ment of  stewards,  43.  16,  19:  44.  r ;  the  custom  of  sitting  at  table, 
43.  32.  All,  howevci',  have  been  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of 
ancient  Egyptian  monuments.  Biicks  are  still  found  with  ths 
names  of  the  oldest  Egyptian  dynasties  stamped  upon  them.  To 
the  art  of  wine-making,  llosellini  devotes  a  section  of  his  work;  and 
upon  the  very  monuments  whence  his  ilkistrations  are  taken  appear 
eunuchs,  stewards,  oi^naments,  and  entertainments,  exhibiting  habits 
of  social  intercourse,  and  modes  of  sitting,  such  as  the  Pentateucli 
implies. 

That  the  Egyptians  shaved.  Gen.  41.  14,  and  carried  burdens,  not 


authenticity:  external  evidence.  3S1 

ou  the  shoulder,  but  on  the  head,  40.  16;  that  shepherds  were 
treated  with  great  contempt— the  butts  of  Egyptian  wit;  that  caste 
existed;  that  foreigners  were  natm-alized,  by  clothing  them  in  the 
celebrated  Egyptian  linen,  Gen.  41.  42  ;  are  facts  confirmed  by 
ancient  sculptures,  or  expressly  mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  peculiar 
to  Egypt. 

See  Hengstenberg's  ' '  Egypt,  and  the  Books  of  Moses." 

The  statements  of  the  Pentateuch  are  confirmed,  more- 
By  various  over,  bj  the  facts  of  history  (a),  ethnography  (&), 
facts.  a^Q(j  geology  (c),  so  far  as  these  have  been  clearly 

ascertained. 

(a).  Ko  nation  has  credible,  or  even  intelligible,  records  ex- 
tending earlier  than  the  flood.  The  dynasties  of  Egypt  run  up,  ou 
the  largest  interpretation,  no  higher  than  b.  c.  2200  (Champollion), 
The  I'eign  of  Yoa,  the  fix'st  Chinese  emperor  mentioned  by  Con- 
fucius (B.  c.  450),  cannot  be  earlier  than  b.  c.  2500;  nor  is  there  any 
historical  certainty  till  the  year  B.C.  782  (Klaproth).  The  cele- 
brated chronology  of  India  reaches  no  higher  than  b.  c.  2  25  6,  and 
then  we  have  Buddha  himself,  the  representative,  perhaps,  of  Noah 
Col.  Tod.)  Such  is  the  testimony  of  witnesses  who  have  examined 
the  most  ancient  chronological  systems  avowedly  without  any 
leaning  to  the  Pentateuch. 

(6).  Ethnogi-aphy  in  its  threefold  division,  philological,  physio- 
logical, and  ethical,  is  equally  in  favour  of  the  Mosaic  account. 
The  mythological  systems  of  India,  China,  Greece,  and  Scandinavia, 
are  really  identical  (Sir  W.  Jones) ;  while  Shemitic  nations  are  all 
monotheistic,  indicating,  in  each  case,  identity  of  origin.  All 
known  languages,  it  is  admitted,  are  reducible  to  a  few  families: 
the  Indo-Europrean,  the  Shemitic,  the  Ugro -Tartarian,  the  Malayan, 
the  Transfengetic,  which  are  chiefly  monosyllabic;  the  American, 
and  the  African.  Chev.  Bunsen  and  Mr.  Schtin  have  already  traced 
the  Egyptian,  and  several  of  the  African  dialects,  to  a  Shemitic 
origin.  The  American  languages  are  proved  to  be  chiefly  Asiatic, 
and  the  ablest  scholars  find,  among  all,  such  affinities  as  bespeak 
original  unity  (so  Humboldt,  Klaproth,  F.  Schlegel,  Balbi,  Herder). 
Philologically  and  physiologically,  "the  human  race,"  says  the 
last-named,  ''is  a  progi-essive  whole,  dependent  upon  a  common 
origin."  "With  the  increase  of  knowledge  in  every  direction,"  is 
the  last  testimony  of  Dr.  Pritchard,  ''we  find  continually  less  and 
less  reason  for  believing  that  the  diversified  races  of  men  are  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  insuperable  barriers." 

(c).  Nor  is  geology  an  unimportant  witness.     One  of  its  clearest 
3eseon3  is  the  recentness  of  the   "last  great  geological  change." 


382  AUTHENTICITY  :   INTERNAL   EVIDENCE. 

The  present  state  of  the  globe  "  caiiuot  date  much  farther  than  five 
or  six  thousand  years"  (Saussure,  Cuvier,  De  Luc.) 

Independently,  even,  of  external  evidence,  the  internal  is 
Internal  itself  decisive.  The  artlessness  of  the  style,  the 
evidence.  frequent  genealogies,  the  impartiality  of  the  author 
in  recording  the  faults  of  the  Jews  and  his  own,^  are  all 
obvious.  Add  to  this,  that  Judaism  is  founded  upon  the 
supposed  truthfulness  of  these  records.  They  give  the 
history  of  Jewish  institutions,  and  the  reasons  for  the  ob- 
servance of  them.  If  there  be  a  forgery,  when  could  it  have 
been  executed  ?  Not  when  the  version  of  the  LXX  was 
made  (b.  c.  275).  Not  on  the  return  from  Babylon  (b.  c.  536), 
Ez.  2.  62.  Not  on  the  division  of  the  kingdom  (975).  Not 
in  the  days  of  Samuel  (1095).  Not  in  the  four  hundred  years 
preceding.  For  at  each  successive  era  there  were  thousands 
interested  in  detecting  the  forgery,  and  in  setting  aside  the 
burdensome  and  pecuhar  institutions  founded  upon  it.  To 
suppose  that  any  man  could  secure  the  observance  of  Circum- 
cision, of  the  Passover,  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  or  of  Taber- 
nacles, on  the  plea  that  these  rules  had  been  observed  from 
the  first,  and  for  the  reasons  assigned,  when  it  must  have 
been  known  that  this  statement  was  untrue,  is  to  suppose  a 
greater  miracle  than  any  the  record  contains.  And  these 
institutions  had  their  origin,  it  will  be  noticed,  not  in  the 
ordinary  events  of  the  history,  but  in  the  miracles :  so  that 
by  them,  not  only  the  history,  but  each  miracle  is  con- 
firmed.'' 

10.  It  may  be  added,  that  it  is  supposed  by  some  wTiters 
^ra,.;«„c         that  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  used  various 

>  a.1  lulls 

.locuments  ancient  documents  in  preparing  this  volume, 
emp.oje  .  jjg^jQ  quotations  from  other  books,  and  hence, 
perhaps,  the  different  names  applied,  in  different  parts,  with 
marked  uniformity  to  God. 

In  Numb.  21.  14,  15,  for  example,  the  "book  of  the  wars  of 
Jehovah"  is  quoted,  and  in  ver.  27-30  is  an  extract  from  a  war- 
song  of  the  Amorite.g.     So  in  Gen.  1.-2.  3,  the  name  applied  to  God 

"  See  history  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob;  also  Deut.  26.  5:  Exod, 
2.  14:  Numb.  20.  10-13. 

*»  Graves  has  expanded  this  argument  with  gi-eat  force :  "  Locturei; 
en  the  Pentateuch,"  i.  ii. 


PENTATEUCH   EPITOMIZED.  383 

13  uniformly  God  (QTIPK  Elohim).  In  Gen.  2.  4-3,  it  is  Jehovah- 
God.  In  chap.  5,  it  is  God  only,  except  in  ver.  29,  where  a  quotation 
is  made.  In  Gen,  6-9,  God  and  Jehovah  are  used  indiscriminately 
everywhere,  except  in  9.  29,  where  a  quotation  is  made;  and  iu 
chaps.  12,  13,  Jehovah  only.  In  chap.  14,  a  new  name  is  introduced, 
''God  most  High,"  and  is  used  thi-oughout  the  chapter. 

This  opiuiou  was  first  advanced  by  Vitringa,  Obs.  Sac.  i. 
chaj).  4,  §  23,  and  has  been  advocated  by  Calmet,  Home,  Pye 
Smith,  Stuart,  and  others.  The  errors  and  refinements  of 
some  modern  writers  have  brought  it  into,  perhaps,  unde- 
served discredit. 

AndacMi-  n^  There  are  also  passages  which  must  have 

the  original     been  added  after  the  death  of  Moses. 

narrative. 

Deut,  34  records  his  death  and  burial.  Gen.  36,  31-39  gives  a 
.supplementary  list  of  Edomitish  chiefs,  and  in  several  passages  the 
later  designation  of  a  place  has  been  substituted  for,  or  is  given 
Avith  the  original  name,  as  in  Gen.  14.  14,  where  Dan  is  put  for 
Laish  (see  Josh.  19.  47):  so  Gen.  13.  i3  (Josh.  14.  15):  Gen.  13.  3 
(Gen.  28.  19):  14.  2,  7,  8:  Deut.  3.  9:  4.  48. 

12.  In  tne  Jewish  canon,  the  Pentateuch  is  kept  distinct 
True  nature  ^^^  ^^^  I'^st  of  Scripture,  as  it  is  the  basis  of  the 
of  thePenta-  theocracy.     The  title  "law"  describes   the   prin- 

teuch. 

cipal  subject  of  the  books,  though  their  true 
central  point  is  the  covenant  relation  between  Jehovah  and 
Israel.  The  whole  of  the  Old  Testament  is,  indeed,  the 
history  of  that  covenant,  of  the  preparation  for  it,  and  of  its 
progressive  development,  till  it  gave  place  to  the  gospel. 
Briefly  13-  The  events  recorded  in  these  books  may  be 

epitomized,     arranged  as  follows  : —  ^ 

Genesis. — The  Creation,  i,  2:  the  fall  and  antediluvian  world,  3-6: 
the  deluge,  7,  8,  a  consequence  of  wickedness:  the  blessing  of 
Xoah  and  the  re-peopling  of  the  earth,  9,  10:  the  dispersion,  11: 
call  and  history  of  Abraham,  12-25:  of  Isaac,  26,  27:  of  Jacob, 
etc.,  to  the  death  of  Joseph,  28-50, — A  period  of  2369  years  (or 
of  3619,  Hales). 

Exodus. — The  Israelites  after  Joseph's  death,  i :  birth  and  training 
of  Moses,  2-6:  the  Exode,  7-15.  21:  first  year's  journey,  their 
covenant,  moral  and  other  laws,  the  tabernacle,  15.  22-40. — A 
period  of  145  yepxs. 

Leviticus.— Laws  on  sacrifices,   1-7:  on  the  Letitical  px-iesthood. 


384        PENTATEUCH,  AND  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 

8-10:    on  purifications,   11-22:   on  festivals,  etc.,   23-27. — One 

month. 
Numbers. — Events  from  the  ymmbermg  of  the  people,  1-4:  in  the 

second  year  to  the  thirty-ninth  year,  several  laws,  5-10.  10:  and 

the  journeys  of  the  Israelites,  10.  11-36. — Nearly  39  years. 
Deuteronomy,  or  the  law  repeated,  has  seven  parts,  giving — 

1.  A  summary  of  privileges   and  history  of  the  Isi'aelites, 

1-4.  40. 

2.  A  summary   of  their  laws,  moral,  civil,   and  ceremonial, 

4.  40-26. 

3.  Directions  as  to  what  is  to  be  done  after  crossing  Joixlan, 

including  the  blessings  and  curses,  27,  28. 

4.  Exhortations  to  obedience,  29,  30. 

5.  A  narrative  of  events  subsequent,  with  the  song  of  Moses, 

31,  32. 

6.  The  benediction  of  Moses,  33;  and 

7.  An  account  of  his  death,  34. — A  period  of  five  or  eight  weeks. 

_Jxf  Sec.  2.  The  Booh  of  Job. 

14.  This  book  takes  its  name  from  the  venerable  patriarch 
whose  history  it  records.  Its  antiquity,  and  the  brevity  of 
its  style,  make  it  confessedly  difficult  of  interpretation.  But 
these  difficulties  seldom  refer  to  topics  of  religious  im- 
portance. 

As  Job  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  in  connection  with  other 
known  saints  (Ezek.  14.  14  :  Jas.  5.11},  it  may  be 
safely  concluded  that  he  was  a  real  person,  and 
that  the  narrative  is  no  fiction.  This  conclusion  is  sustained 
by  the  details  given  of  persons  and  places,  and  by  other  in- 
ternal evidence.  Uz,  the  country  which  he  inhabited,  was 
probably  in  the  north-east  of  Arabia  Deserta. 

The  age  in  which  Job  lived  is  a  question  that  has  created 
■\Mienhe  much  discussion.  The  most  probable  opinion 
lived.  fixes  it  as  earlier  than  Abraham.     The  book  may 

be  read,  therefore,  between  the  nth  and  12th  chapters  of 
Genesis,  as  a  supplement  to  the  concise  record  of  the  early 
condition  of  our  race,  given  by  Moses. 

The  arguments  adduced  in  support  of  the  latter  opinion 
are  as  follows,  (i.)  The  long  hfe  of  Job,  extending  to  200 
years.  (2.)  The  absence  of  any  allusion  to  the  Mosaic  law, 
or  the  wonderful  works  of  God  towards  Israel  in  their  de- 
parture   from    the   land  of  bondage,   and  their  journey   to 


job:  date  and  authobjship.  385 

C^anaan  ;  whicli  are  constantly  referred  to  by  the  other  sacred 
writers,  as  illustrating  the  character  and  government  of 
Jehovah.  (3.)  The  absence  of  any  reference  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha ;  which  memorable  event  oc- 
curred in  the  vicinity  of  the  country  where  Job  resided  ;  and 
which,  as  a  signal  and  direct  judgment  of  the  Almighty  upon 
the  wicked,  would  hardly  have  been  omitted  in  an  argument 
of  this  nature.  (4.)  The  worship  of  the  sun  and  moon  being 
the  only  form  of  idolatry  mentioned  ;  which  was,  without 
question,  the  most  ancient,  chap..  31.  26-28.  (5.)  The  man- 
ners and  customs  described,  which  are  those  of  the  earliest 
patriarchs.  (6.)  The  religion  of  Job  is  of  the  same  kind  as 
that  which  prevailed  among  the  patriarchs  before  the  Mosaic 
economy.  It  is  the  religion  of  sacrifices  ;  but  without  any 
officiating  priest,  or  sacred  place.  (7.)  To  these  arguments 
Dr.  Hales  has  added  one  derived  from  astronomy,  founded  on 
chaps.  9.  9,  and  38.  31,  32.  He  states,  that  the  principal 
stars  there  referred  to,  appear,  by  a  retrograde  calculation,  to 
have  been  the  cardinal  constellations  of  spring  and  autumn 
about  B.  c.  2130,  or  about  184  years  before  the  birth  of 
Abraham. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  if  Job  lived  between  the  deluge 
and  the  caU  of  Abraham,  we  have  an  additional  i)roof  that 
God  has  never  left  the  world  without  witnesses  to  his  truth. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  think  they  detect  allusions  to  the 
destruction  of  Sodom,  etc.  in  chap.  15.  34 :  18.  15 :  20.  26 ; 
and  adduce  the  coincidence  of  many  names  occurring  in  this 
book,  with  those  of  some  of  Abraham's  descendants,  through 
Ishmael  and  Esau,  as  indications  of  a  somewhat  later  age. 
By  some  of  these  writers  it  is  assigned  to  the  earlier  period 
of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt. 

Respecting  the  author  of  the  book,  a  difference  of  opinion 

prevails.     Some  ascribe  it  to  Job,  others  to  Elihu  ; 

and  others  to  Moses.      Whoever  was  its  author, 

its  canonical  authority  is  proved  by  its  place  in  the  Jewish 

Scriptures,  and  the  recognition  of  the  whole  collection  by  our 

Lord  and  his  apostles. 

15.  The  book  may  be  divided  into  three  parts  : — 

Contents  i.  The  historical  introduction  in  prose,  i.  2,,  giving  a 

aan-ative  of  sudden  and  severe  affliction,  borne  with 
exemplary  patience, 
ii.  The  argument  or  controversy,  in  poetry,  in  five  divisions; 

S 


38G  J013  :    CONTENTS    AND   OBJECT. 

1.  The  first  series  of  discussions,  comprising  Job's  complaint,  3.; 

the  speech  of  Eliphaz,  4,  5.;  and  Job's  answer,  6.  7.;  of 
Bildad,  8.;  and  Job's  answer,  9.  10.;  of  Zophar,  11.;  and 
Job's  answer,  12.-14. 

2.  The  second  series,  comprising  the  speech  of  Eliphaz,  15.;  and 

Job's  answer,  16.  17.;  of  Bildad,  18.;  and  Job's  answer, 
19.;  of  Zophar,  20,;  and  Job's  answer,  21. 

3.  The  ^/a>(i  series,  comprising  the  speech  of  Eliphaz,  22.;  and 

Job's  answer,  23.  24,;  of  Bildad,   25.;  and  Job's  answer. 

26.-31. 

The  question  discussed  thus  far  is,  whether  great  suffering  be  not 

an  evidence  of  great  guilt.     Job's  friends  affirm  it,  and  exhort  him 

to  repent  and  reform.     Job  denies  it,  appeals  to  facts,  and  complains 

bitterly  of  his  friends  for  aggravating  his  distress  by  false  charges. 

4.  The  speech  of  Elihu,  32.-37. 

Elihu  maintains,  that  aflBictions  are  meant  for  the  good  of  the 
sufferer;  even  when  not  properly  the  consequences  of  sin;  he 
reproves  Job  for  justifying  himself,  rather  than  God,  and  vindicates 
the  Divine  character  and  government, 

5.  The  close  of  the  discussion,  by  the  address  of  the  Almighty 

(not  condescending  to  explain  his  conduct,  but),   illus- 
trating his  power  and  wisdom,  3 8. -4 1.;  and  Job's  response 
and  penitential  confession,  42.  1-6. 
iii.  The  co«c/hs/oh  in  prose,  42.  7-17,  giving  an  account  of  Job's 
acceptance  and  prosperity. 

16.  The  precise  olyject  of  the  book  has  given  rise  to  much  dis- 
cussion. Mercenary  selfishness  was  the  charge 
so  jec  ,  ]3pQug]^^3  against  Job,  i.  In  the  end  the  charge  is 
disproved.  Job  is  assured  that  the  Judge  of  all  the  eai-th 
will  do  right,  and  resolves  still  to  trust,  though  God  should 
slay  him,  19.  23-26.  The  nature  and  power  of  faith  are  thus 
illustrated,  as  is  the  identity  of  true  piety  in  every  age- 
Such  perhaps  was  one  chief  object  of  the  inspired  waiter  in 
this  composition.  The  book,  moreover,  displays  the  Provi- 
dence of  God  in  its  inscrutableness  and  mercy,  and  sets  forth 
in  unrivalled  magnificence  the  glory  of  the  Divine  attributes. 
It  illustrates  human  depravity."  exhibits  faith  in  a  coming 
Iledeemer  and  a  future  life,''  speaks  of  sacrifice  as  the  ap- 
pointed means  of  acceptance,''  and  shows  the  benefit  of  inter- 
cossory  prayer.^ 

Not  all,  of  course,  that  even  Job  said  in  these  discussions, 

°  33-  8,  9:  34.  5,  9.  35-  ^  i9-  25-29:  33.  23-28. 

•^  T.  9:  42.  8.  ^  42.  8,  9. 


JOB  :   LESSONS  :   HEBREW  POKTRT.  387 

is  to  be  commended.  The  principles  advanced  are  sometimes 
erroneous,  and  sometimes  also  the  conclusions.  Inspiration 
describes  accurately  what  was  said  or  done,  without  neces- 
sarily sanctioning  either. 

1 7.  The  practical  lessons  suggested  by  the  book,  are  obvious 

and  important.  Copy  Elihu's  humility.  Though 
able  to  speak  best,  he  spoke  last.  Uncharitableness 
is  of  the  devil  (i.  9,  10).  Its  origin,  no  less  than  its  unlove- 
liness,  should  put  us  on  our  guard  against  it.  .  ,  .  Perfect 
and  upright  men  are  among  the  first  to  confess  their  vileness 
(i.  I  :  40.  4  :  42.  6).  Our  progress  in  holiness  may  be  mea- 
sured by  our  humihty.  .  .  .  What  wisdom  is  needed  to  con- 
duct controversy  wisely,  when  even  Job  failed.  .  .  .  How 
needful  is  a  specific  revelation,  when  even  good  men,  with  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  God,  and  of  many  principles  of  his 
government,  misread  the  lessons  vvTitten  upon  his  works. 
To  correct  human  misapprehension  on  such  questions,  God 
had  himself  to  interpose. 

Sec.  3.   On  Ilehrew  Poetry  ancC  the  Poetical  Books. 

18.  As  Job  is  the  earhest  of  the  poetical  books  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  it  may  be  convenient  to  make  here  a  few 
pcetry.  remarks  on  the  nature  of  Hebrew  poetry. 

The  division  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  usually  called  the  poetical 
books  comprises  Job,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs;  some  adding  Eccle- 
siastes  and  the  Song  of  Solomon.  In  point  of  date,  some  portions 
of  them  are  earlier,  and  others  are  latei',  than  many  parts  of  the 
historical  books;  but  they  are  classed  by  themselves,  as  being 
almost  wholly  composed  in  Hebrew  verse.  In  the  Jewish  Canon  ot 
Scripture,  they  are  included  in  the  Hagiographa,  or  Holy  Writings. 
The  writings  of  the  prophets  are,  for  the  most  part,  also  in  a 
poetical  form. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  is  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  employment  of  it  in  the  noblest  service,  that  of  religion.  It 
presents  the  loftiest  and  most  precious  truths,  expressed  in  the 
most  appropriate  language. 

There  is  so  miich  uncertainty  respecting  the  ancient  pronunciation 
of  the  language,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
ilebrew  versification.  But  much  light  has  been  thrown  upon  the 
subject,  in  later  times,  by  Lowth,  Jebb,  and  other  scholars.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  Hebrew  poetry  may  be  described  generally 
as  consisting  in  the  ornate  and  elevated  character  of  the  style,  in 
the  use  of  certain  words  and  fonns  of  words,  in  the  sententioas 

s2 


388  HEBREV;   POETRY. 

manner  of  expression,  and  in  certain  peculiarities  in  the  structure 
and  combination  of  the  sentences.  These  peculiarities  appear  in 
the  following  artificial  fomns. 

There  is  sometimes  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  whole 
poem;  each  line  commencing  with  one  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
or  every  altei'nate  vei'se  beginning  with  a  succeeding  letter,  or  a 
series  of  verses  with  the  same  initial  letter:  see  Psa.  119  and  Lam.  j. 
In  Psa.  119,  in  the  original,  eight  verses  in  succession  begin  with 
the  same  letter,  followed  by  eight  more  beginning  with  the  suc;- 
ceeding  letter;  and  so  on,  through  the  alphabet,  dividing  the  whole 
Psalm  into  alphabetical  strophes.  There  are  twelve  of  these  alpha- 
betical poems  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Another  artificial  form  of  poetry  appears  to  have  consisted  in  the 
repetition  of  the  same  verse  or  sentiment,  at  somewhat  distant  in- 
tervals, or  after  a  certain  number  of  verses,  as  in  Psa.  42.  5,  11: 
43.  5:  107.  8,  15,  21,  31:  Isa.  9.  12,  17,  21:  10.  4:  Amos  i.  3,  6, 
9,  II,  13:  2.  I,  4,  6. 

But  the  most  striking  peculiarity  of  Hebrew  poetxy  is  what  Lowth 
entitles  parallelism;  that  is,  there  is  a  certain  correspondence, 
either  as  to  thought  or  language,  or  both,  between  the  members  of 
each  period.  Sometimes  the  secondary  expression  is  little  more 
than  an  echo  of  the  first:  sometimes  it  adds  to  it  a  new  idea;  and 
often  greatly  excels  it  in  force  and  beauty :  sometimes,  to  heighten 
the  impression,  the  main  idea  is  expressed  in  contrast  Avith  some 
other.  It  is  in  a  gi'eat  measure  owing  to  this  structui*e  of  the  sen- 
tences that  our  translation  of  these  books  has  so  much  of  a  poetical 
cast;  for  being,  for  the  most  part,  literal,  it  retains  much  both 
of  the  form  and  of  the  simple  beauty  of  the  Hebrew. 

This   poetical   parallelism  admits  many  varieties,  more  or  less 

defined.     The  following  classification  will  illustrate  the 
Parallelism.         -,  .     . 
subject. 

1.  Some  pai-allelisms  are  gradational  or  synonymous. 

2.  Others  are  antithetic:  see  chap,  iv.,  sec.  3,  par.  286. 
Occasionally  we  meet  with  a  double  synonyme  and   a   double 

antithesis;  as  in  Isa.  i.  3,  19,  20. 

A  double  antithetical  form  of  the  parallelism  is  not  uncommon 
in  the  Prophets.  A  very  beautiful  parallelism  of  this  kind  occurs 
in  Hab.  3.17,  18.     See  also  Isa.  9.  10. 

3.  A  third  form  of  parallelism  is  the  synthetic,  or  constructive.  In 
this  form,  word  does  not  answer  to  word,  nor  sentence  to  sentence, 
either  as  of  an  equivalent  or  as  of  an  opposite  meaning;  but  there  is 
a  correspondence  and  similarity  between  the  difierent  propositions 
in  respect  of  the  shape  and  turn  of  the  whole  sentence.  This 
j»pecies  of  parallels  includes  such  as  do  not  come  within  the  t\v<^ 
former  classes;  and  its  variety  is  very  great. 


TARALLELISM.  389 

In  this  kind  of  parallelism,  the  writer,  instead  of  merely  echoing 
the  former  sentiment,  or  placing  it  in  contrast,  enforces  his  thought 
by  accessory  ideas  and  modifications,  generally  preserving  through- 
out a  correspondence  of  form  between  the  different  parts.  As  ex- 
amples, see  Job  3.  5-9:  Psa.  148.  7-13:  Isa.  i.  5-9:  58.  5-8. 
Instances  of  this  kind  of  parallelism  are  found  in  abvmdance  in  tne 
Scriptures,  and  especially  in  the  Prophets. 

Respecting  these  diffei-ent  species  of  parallelism,  Bp.  Jebb  re- 
marks, that,  separately,  ''each  kind  admits  many  subordinate 
varieties;  and  that,  in  combinations  of  verses,  the  several  kinds  are 
perpetually  intermingled;  circumstances  which  at  once  enliven  and 
beautify  the  composition,  and  frequently  give  peculiar  distinctness 
and  precision  to  the  train  of  thought." 

It  may  be  added  that,  according  to  the  theme  and  divisions, 
Hebrew  poetry  is  lyric,  as  in  the  Psalms ;  epic,  as  in  Job ;  didactic,  as 
in  the  Proverbs;  pastoral,  or  idyllic,  as  in  Canticles;  and  pro- 
phetical, as  in  the  earlier  prophets.  Occasionally,  we  have  rhyme, 
though  probably  not  designed  by  the  poet.  Gen.  4.  23  :  Job  6.4,  7, 
9,  13,  22,  29. 

In  reading  the  Bible,  it  is  very  desirable  to  understand  the  laws 
of  poetic  parallelism;  for  these  often  furnish  important  facilities  for 
interpretation.  As  one  member  oi  a  sentence  frequently  expresses 
the  same  sense  as  its  parallel,  difficult  words  and  phrases  are  thus 
rendered  susceptible  of  easy  explanation. 

In  the  Paragraph  Bible  (Pteligious  Tract  Society),  the  poetical 
parts  of  Scripture  are  printed  according  to  the  order  of  the  original, 
in  parallelisms.  These  parallelisms,  indeed,  are  not  always  indi- 
cated in  the  mode  of  ijrinting  the  Hebrew  text  (except  in  Exod.  15  : 
Deut.  32:  Judges  5:  and  2  Sam.  22);  but  the  lines  may  always  be 
marked  by  attention  to  the  accents. 

Sec.  4.  The  Boohs  of  the  Pentateuch  arranged  and  epitomized 
with  Occasional  Helps. 

19.  In  studying  the  Bible  as  it  ought  to  be  studied  for  prac- 
Bibie,  how  tical  purposes,  we  may  advantageously  regard  it  as  a 
regarded,  revelation  of  God,  of  man,  and  of  salvation,  each  chap- 
ter throwing  light  on  one  or  on  all  of  these  themes.  Or  it  may  be 
regarded  in  other  aspects.  According  to  the  form  into  which 
the  different  portions  of  the  Bible  are  thrown,  we  may  describe 
it  as  a  book  of  liography,  containing  the  lives  of  believers  and 
unbelievers,  with  the  history  of  their  influence  and  example : 
of  history,  under  its  twofold  division,  of  the  church  and  the 
world  :  of  doctrine,  gradually  disclosing  Divine  truth  :  of  ethics^ 


390  BIBLE  :    TA2IOUSLY   REGARDED, 

teaching  the  whole  range  of  human  duty  :  o[  positive  institu- 
tions, founded  on  the  will  of  God,  and,  therefore,  mutable,  as 
morality  is  immutable,  being  founded  in  his  character  :  and 
of  practical  loisdom,  suggesting  and  illustrating  rules  of  both 
human  and  divine  prudence.  In  accordance  with  this  divi- 
sion we  may  read  the  whole,  asking  everywhere  what  light  is 
thrown  here  on  personal  or  national  character,  on  ethics,  on 
spiritual  truth,  on  positive  institutions,  or  on  practical  wisdom. 
SimjDler  and  more  practical,  however,  is  the  division  first 
suggested.  Study  the  Bible  to  know  God,  his  nature,  perfec- 
tions, and  government ;  to  know  man,  his  condition  and 
destiny,  his  duties  and  privilege  ;  to  know  Christ  in  his  office 
and  work  ;  and  it  will  be  found  that  under  one  of  these  three 
heads  we  may  arrange  all  that  Scripture  teaches  and  reveals. 

20.  It  is  an  instructive   suggestion,''   that,   after   reading 

through  a  book  of  Scripture,  we  should  read  it 
reference  to  again  with  reference  to  some  one  subject.  Many 
one  subject,  illustrations  of  truth  prevent  mistakes,  teach  us  to 
apply  it,  and  deepen  its  impression  upon  the  mind.  If  we 
apply  this  suggestion,  under  the  guidance  of  the  hints  and 
clearer  instruction  of  the  gospel,  to  the  Pentateuch,  we  shall 
find  it  peculiarly  useful.  No  portion  of  Scripture,  indeed,  is 
richer  in  these  three-fold  revelations. 

In  reading  history  (it  may  be  added),  our  business  is  so  to 
History:  group  and  compare  particular  facts  as  to  connect 
Doctriue.  them  with  the  motives  and  principle  from  which 
they  spring,  and  hence  to  apply  the  lessons  taught  in  the  in- 
spired narrative,  with  wisdom  and  clearness.  In  reading 
precept  or  doctrine,  on  the  other  hand,  seek  rather  to  illus- 
trate it,  so  as  to  make  it  more  impressive  and  touching.  Let 
facts  lead  up  to  principles  ;  and  let  principles  be  set  forth 
and  explained  in  appropriate  facts.  For  the  first,  see  notes 
on  Genesis  ;  and  for  the  second,  see  notes  on  Proverbs. 

21.  In  the  following  summary   the    whole   Bible  will  be 

found  chronologically  arranged  ;  and  it  is  highly 
foUowing  important  that  it  should  be  studied  in  this  order, 
arrangement,  j^  ^^-^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  divided,  for  the  most  part, 
into  sections,  according  to  the  sense.     The  notes  at  the  foot 

•''  Bishop  of  London,  Lent  Sermons  on  St.  John's  Gospel,  quntod 
by  Nichols. 


GENESIS  :   EPITOMIZED   AND  ARRANGED.  391 

of  the  page  are  all  adapted,  as  far  as  they  go,  to  explain  the 
sacred  tezt.  They  are  not  intended,  however,  as  a  com- 
mentary upon  it,  but  simply  as  helps  to  put  readers  in  the  luay 
of  making  comments  for  themselves,  and  so  of  applying  prin- 
ciples already  discussed. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  Old  Testament  pre-intimations  of 
the  Messiah — his  person,  office,  and  work — are  all 

Preparations         •    ,     -,     .      -r     t  i  •  i^ 

for  coming  printed  in  Italics,  and  m  such  a  form  as  to  catch 
of  :\iessiah.  ^YiQ  eye  at  a  glance.  Though,  therefore,  these  are 
of  the  deepest  importance,  the  notes  but  seldom  refer  to 
them.     Let  them  not,  however,  be  overlooked  by  the  reader. 

For  the  devotional  study  of  the  Bible,  the  reader  may  often, 
with  advantage,  lay  aside  all  helps,  and  select  a  few  verses  only, 
marking  and  applying  the  truths  suggested  by  each  word  and 
sentence  (see  chap,  vii.)  Many  have  found  this  plan  more  im- 
pressive than  the  more  student-like  process  above  described. 
The  two  plans  of  study  are  in  themselves  consistent,  though 
human  weakness  has  led  us  to  regard  them  as  opposed.  If 
we  could  but  study  devotionalhj — tracing  God,  and  Christ,  and 
ourselves  everywhere,  and  applying  the  whole  as  we  j)roceed — 
the  mind  and  the  heart  would  alike  gain  by  the  arrangement, 

22.  (i.)  From  the  Creation,  4004  ;  to  the  Death  of  Noah, 
2006  years. 

Date  and  Place  Events  illustrating  the  coming  and  work  of  the  Messiah; 

■  I  and  ordinary  Occurrences. 

B.  C.  j 

4004.  The  Creation,  Gen.  i.  2.  4-7. 

For       these     Institution  of  the  Sabbath,  Gen.  2.  1-5. 

dates     see       Creation   of  Adam   and   Eve,    briefly   desci'ibed  iu 

§  355.  chap.  I,  recapitvdated,  Gen.  2.  '6-2^. 

4004.  The  fall  of  Man,  Gen.  3.  1-13. 

Eden.*         (Connection  of  the  first  sin  v:ith  mni''s  subsequent  state, 

Rom.  5.14:  I  Cor.  15). 
Eden.  First  pi-omise  of  a   Saviour  •   expulsion  from  Eden, 

Gen.  3.  14-24. 
4003-2,         Birth  of  Cain  and  Abel,  Gen.  4.  i,  2. 

Near  Eden. 


*  Eden  is  supposed  to  have  been  either  near  the  head  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  or  in  Armenia,  near  the  som'ces  of  the  Tigiis  and. 
Euphrates. 


392 


GENESIS,   4-9  :   LESSONS. 


Date  and  Place. 


Events  illustrating  the  coming  and  work  of  the  Messiah ; 
and  ordinary  Occurrences. 


B.C. 

3B75. 

3875. 

3875-3504, 

Nod. 

3874, 
JSTear  Eden. 

3769. 
2468. 


2468. 

2348. 

2347, 
Armenia, 
or  Ararat, 
Gen.  8.  4. 
Togarmali, 
Ezek.  27.  14. 
2247, 

A.  M.  I  75  7, 
B.C.   2233. 

Shinaar,  (Ba- 
bylonia, or 

Irak  Arabia ) 
1998. 


Sacrifice  first  vientioned,  Abel's  accepted,  Gen.  4.  3-7. 

Cain's  crime  and  curse.  Gen.  4.  8-15. 

Cain  builds  Enoch;  his  descendants;  Lamech's 
speech,  etc.,  Gen.  4.  16-24. 

Birth  of  Seth,  and  of  Enos;  world  and  church  dis- 
tinguished. Gen.  4.  25,  26. 

Genealogy  from  Adam  to  Noah ;  the  line  of  the  Mes- 
siah, Gen.  5. 

"Wickedness  of  the  world  ;  God  determines  to  des- 
troy it  after  a  respite  of  120  years;  Noah  preaches 
(2  Pet.  2.  5),  Gen.  6. 

Covenant  renewed  with  him;  he  builds  an  ark  as  God 
commanded,  Gen.  6.  18. 

Noah  enters  the  ark;  the  Deluge,  Gen.  7. 

The  waters  abate;  Noah  leaves  the  ark,  Gen.  8. 

God's  covenant  i-enewed  with  Noah,  Gen,  9.  i -i  7. 

Noah  and  his  sons;  his  prediction  concerning  them 

[Gen.  9.  18-27]."* 


Babel ;  confusion  of  tongues ;  dispersion.  Gen.  11.  1-9. 

Genealogies  of  Noah's  sons;  Nimrod  founds  Baby- 
lonian or  Assyrian  empire,  [Gen.  10.] 

Genealogy  from  Shem  to  Terah;  the  line  of  the  Mes- 
siah, [Gen.  II.  10-26]. 


Death  of  Noah, 


Gen.  9.  28,  29. 


Gen.  I.  On  this  narrative  of  the  creation,  see  §  224;  and  the 
brevity  and  moral  completeness  of  the  whole  history,  see  §  220.  The 
histoi-y  of  the  world  before  the  flood  occupies  seven  chapters.  The 
general  history  of  mankind  for  more  than  400  j'-ears  after,  four  more. 
The  history  of  Abraham  and  his  descendants,  for  only  286  years, 
occupies  thirty-nine  chapters,  and  contains  details  rich  in  mortil 
wisdom. 

Gen.  I.  26.  Let  ns :  On  the  gradual  revelation  of  the  Divine 
nature  in  the  Old  Testament,  see  §  230. 

Gen.  I,  2.  Creation  is  here  ascribed  to  God.  All  heathen  philo- 
sophers maintained  the  eternity  of  matter;  even  those  who  taught 
that  God  moulded  it  into  its  various  forms.  This  chapter  teaches 
more  truth  on  creation  than  all  heathen  cosmogonies  combined,  and 

'^  Passages  marked  thus  [  ],  are  either  repetitions,  genealogical 
tables,  or  otherwise  less  suitable  for  general,  or  family  reading. 


GENESIS  :   LESSONS.  303 

it  so  teaclies  it  as  to  prove  the  folly  of  idolatry.  What  God  is  here 
said  to  have  made,  the  Egyptians  and  others  worshipped.  See 
Faber's  Orig.  of  Pag.  Idol. 

Gen.  2.  4.  Gives  a  particular  account  of  what  had  been  briefly 
recorded  in  i.  27. 

Gen.  2.  2,  24.  The  law  of  marriage  and  the  law  of  the  sabbath 
were  instituted  before  man  fell.  The  sabbath  was  at  first  con- 
secrated by  the  fact  that  it  closed  the  work  of  creation.  That  it 
continued  to  be  observed  is  clear  from  the  division  of  time  into 
weeks,  8.  8-13  :  29.  27,  28;  the  recognition  of  the  day  before  the 
giving  of  the  law,  Ex.  16.  22-30;  and  the  form  of  the  pi-ecept,  Re- 
memher!  From  the  exode  the  sabbath  was  further  consecrated  by 
the  deliverance  on  that  day  of  the  Israelites  (Ex,  20.  andDeut.  5. 15.) 
Under  the  gospel  we  obseiwe  the  day  that  commemorates  a  greater 
deliverance,  and  introduces  a  new  creation.  The  day  in  the  seven 
is  changed  ;  but  a  day  in  seven  has  been  observed  from  the  first, 
A.cts  20.  7:  Rev.  I.  10.  The  day  is  to  be  kept  as  one  of  rest,  of 
moral  improvement,  and  of  joyous  holy  devotion,  Ex.  31.  13: 
Is.  58.  13,  14. 

Gen.  3.  6,  7.  Mark  the  history  of  the  first  sin  (§  220),  and  the  con- 
nection of  that  sin  with  our  fallen  condition.  Compare  ch.  2.  3. 
with  Rom.  5  :  i  Cor.  15.  Xeither  add  to  the  inspired  explanation, 
nor  take  from  it.  Sound  views  on  this  question  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  accurate  systems  of  truth.  (John  3.) 

Gen.  3.  Study  the  character  and  personality  of  the  tempter  in 
the  light  thrown  upon  both  by  inspu-ation,  2  Cor.  2.  ri:  11.  3-14: 
Ei>h.  6.  II:  Luke  22.  3:  Acts  5.  3:  Matt.  13.  25.  His  wiles  and 
influence  are  described  here  in  terms  which  prove  this  history  to  be 
no  fiction.     See  §  463,  4. 

Gen,  3,  15.  On  the  delay  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  first  promise, 
see  §  382. 

Note  on  this  whole  narrative  the  justice  of  God  in  punishing  sin, 
and  compare  the  history  of  Cain,  4;  of  the  flood,  6;  of  Sodom,  19;  and 
even  of  the  patriarchs,  Note  also  his  mercy.  The  promise  before 
Ihe  sentence;  the  cvirse  of  labour  made  a  blessing:  and  compare 
Xoah's  preaching,  the  delay  of  the  flood,  and  the  promise  to  save 
Sodom  if  ten  righteous  had  been  found  in  it.  God  "warns  that  he 
may  not  strike."     He  is  long-sviffering,  but  also  just. 

Gen.  4.  4.  The  first  and  second  sacrifices  mentioned  in  Scripture 
were  specially  accepted.  Gen.  4,  4:  8.  20;  and  in  later  instances  the 
acceptance  of  them  is  implied,  12.  7,  8:  13,  18.  The  institiition  of 
sacrifice  by  God  himself  is  expressly  recorded  in  Gen.  14.  g.  What 
it  meant  may  be  gathered  from  the  Xew  Testament.  The  feehngs 
it  excited  and  expressed  were  such  as  are  now  excited,  though  in 

83 


J94 


JOB  :    GENESIS  :   LESSONS. 


an  infinitely  higher  degree,  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  ci'oss,  §  231,  245. 
On  "  Sacrifice  of  Divine  Origin,"  see  Magee  on  the  Atonement,  and 
Faber's  Origin  of  Pagan  Idol.,  b.  2,  ch.  viii. 

Gen.  4.  25. — The  proni!f;e  of  a  great  deliverer  is  suspended  now, 
as  afterwards,  upon  a  single  life — Isaac,  Joash,  2  Kings  11. 

Gen,  5.  All  the  history  of  Scripture  is  useful.  This  chapter  de- 
pcribes,  with  sad  monotony,  the  character  and  death  of  the  ante- 
diluvians; but  it  fixes  the  age  of  the  antediluvian  world,  and  it 
completes  the  evidence  of  the  descent  of  our  Lord  from  the  first 
man,  at  once  confirming  a  prediction,  and  illustrating  a  truth. 

Gen.  5.  24.  Mark  the  three  ascensions  to  heaven,  in  three  suc- 
cessive stages  of  the  plan  of  redemption — of  Enoch,  Elijah,  and  our 
Lord;  each  an  evidence  of  immortality,  and  the  last  the  foundation 
of  man's  title  to  it. 

Abel  is  slain.  Enoch  translated.  Jacob  chosen.  Elijah  taken 
to  heaven  without  dying.  John,  his  New  Testament  representative, 
foully  murdered.  "Even  so,  Father  !"  is  the  only  solution  man 
can  give— a  solution  sanctioned  by  the  Bible.  Psa.  135.  6:  Ptom. 
■9.  20:  Dan.  4.  35. 

Gen.  8.  22.  Even  nature  i^roves  God's  faithfulness. 

Gen.  II.  On  chronology,  a,»  fixed  by  this  chapter,  see  §  356. 

Gen.  II.  9.  Place  ch.  10.  after  11.  9,  because  in  11.  1-9  men  have 
one  speech;  in  10.  we  find  them  scattered. 

23.  (ii.)  From  the  Death  of  Noah  to  the  Birth  of  Moses, 
417  years. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

Uz,   in   Idu- 
msea. 


Event  or  Nan-ative. 


1996, 

Ur,     Edessa, 

now  Orfa. 

1922, 

Ilaran,  Char- 

rcv,  Jliimni. 


I.  Job. 

The  exact  date  of  Job  is  not  known.  There  is  good 
reason,  however,  for  placing  his  history  before  that 
of  Abraham,  see  Introduction  to  Job,  or  Town- 
send's  Arrangement,  i.,  p.  28;  for  analysis,  .sea 
p.  384,  etc.  Job  1-42. 

[Chaps.  3-31]:  chaps.  19.  25-27:  33.  23-28,  are  direct 
references  to  the  work  of  the  Messiah. 

2.  Abraham. 
Birth  of  Abram;  marries  Sarai;  leaves  Ur  and  his 
idolatrous  kindred,  (Josh.  24.  2):  Gen.  11.  27-3-* 

Terah,  Lot,  and  Sarai;  death  of  Terah, 

^see  Acts  7.  2-4). 


GENESIS,  12-25  :   LESSONS. 


395 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Nan-ative. 


B.  C. 

1921, 

Cauaivu. 
1921. 

1920. 
1918. 

Hebron. 

J913, 

Siddim     (El 

Ghor). 

1912^ 

Hebron. 

1910. 

1897. 


1896, 
Gerar. 


Moriah(site  of 
the  temple). 
Machpelah, 
near  Hebron. 

1856, 
Beersheba; 
Bir-es-Seba. 
1850. 

1836,  ^ 
Labai-roi. 

1821, 
Beersheba. 


Leaves  Haran  at  God's  command  with  Sarai  and  Lot, 

Gen.  12.  1-9. 
Great  blessings  promised  him, 

Gen.  12.  1-9:  see  Acts  3.  25:  Rom.  4:  Gal.  3.  i5. 
Visits  Egypt;  dissimulates.  Gen.  12.  10-20. 

Returns  to  Canaan;  Lot  in  Sodom,     Gen.  13.  1-13. 
Promises  renevced ;  goes  to  Mami'e,       Gen.  13.  14-18. 

Chedorlaomer;  Lot  taken  and  rescued.  Gen.  14. 

Melchizedek  blesses  Abram,  Gen.  14. 

Covenant  of  God  with  Abram,  Gen.  15. 

Hagar;  Ishmael  born,  Gen.  16. 

Covenant    renewed-     names   changed;    circumcision. 

Gen.  17. 

Abraham  entertains  angels,  one  of  whom  is  the  angel 

of  the  covenant;  Sodom;  Lot's  wife;  Lot's  incest, 

Gen.  18:    19.  1-36:  [19.  4-1 1,  30-36.1 

Abraham  leaves  Hebron ;  dissembles  with  Abimelech^ 

Gen.  20. 

Moab  and  Ben-ammi  born,  [Gen.  19.  37,  38.] 

Isaac  bom;  Ishmael  sent  away;  covenant  with  Abi- 

melech.  Gen.  21.  1-34. 

Trial  of  Abraham's  faith.  Gen.  22.  1-19. 

Death  and  burial  of  Sarah,  Gen,  23. 

Accoxmt  of  Xahor's  family,  Gen.  22.  [20-24], 

Abraham  sends  his  servant  to  Haran ;  Laban  receives 

him;  marriage  of  Isaac,  Gen.  24. 

Abraham  marries  Keturah;   childi-en  by  her, 

Gen.  25.  1-6. 
Birth  of  Esau  and  Jacob;  their  character. 

Gen.  25,  19-28. 
Abraham  dies;  Isaac  and   Ishmael  bury  him. 

Gen.  25.  7-1 1. 


Gen.  12.  The  wanderings  of  Abraham  carried  some  knowledge  of 
the  true  religion  through  a  large  part  of  the  east.  We  find  the  re- 
sults in  the  lingering  convictions  of  many  families  refen-ed  to  in 
Scriptxire;  and  to  Abraham  many  ancient  nations  profess  to  trace 
their  religion.     See  Hales,  ii.  124;  Witsius,  iEgypt,,  lib.  3, 

Gen.  13.  7.  Servants.  Study  on  their  duties  the  history  of 
Eliezer  (24,  1-60);  of  Jacob  (31.  38-41);  of  Joseph  (39.  1-6);  of 
David  (i  Sam.  18.  5);  of  Obadiah  (i  Kings  18.  3);  of  Naaman's 


3%'  GENESIS  :   LESSONS. 

servants  (2  Kings  5.  2,   3,   13);  and  compare  with  these  examples 
the  precepts  of  the  New  Testament  (Eph.  5.6.) 

Gen.  14.  14.  On  allegorical  interpretation,  see  ch.  iv.,  Sec.  7. 

Gen.  14.  16.  Brother,    i.  e.,    collateral    relative ;    hero    nephew. 

277  (/). 

Gen.  12.  The  successive  covenants  of  Scripture  are  subjects  of 
daep  interest.  The  first  was  made  with  Adam,  the  second  with 
Noah,  and  the  third  with  Abraham.  The  one  with  Adam  required 
obedience,  and  denounced  death,  legal,  spiritual,  natural,  and  (with- 
out penitence)  eternal,  as  the  consequence  of  sin.  The  second  was 
without  conditions,  and  is  fulfilled  to  this  day,  9.  8-17.  The  third 
also  was  without  conditions,  Gen.  12.  1-3,  7:  13.  14-17:  15.  17: 
28.  10-15:  Acts  3.  13-26:  Gal.  3.  4:  Rom  4.  though  confirmed  in 
consequence  of  Abraham's  faith,  22.  16-18:  26.  1-5.  This  last 
covenant  is  called  by  the  apostle  the  covenant  of  promise  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  law,  which  is  called  the  covenant  of  works.  The 
Gospel  is  called  in  distinction  from  both — truth  and  grace,  that  is, 
salvation  realized  and  founded,  not  on  works,  but  on  unmerited  favour. 
That  Abraham  saw  in  the  covenant  made  with  him  the  promise  of 
a  coming  Messiah  is  clear  from  the  reasonings  of  both  Peter  and 
Paul  (Acts  3.  25,  26:  Gal.  3.  8).  This  promise  was  frequently  re- 
peated; and  formed,  with  the  significant  truths  to  which  it  pointed, 
the  foundation  of  justifying  faith  for  many  ages.  The  expectation 
of  a  coming  Saviour  founded  upon  it  explains  the  value  of  the 
bii-thright  (25.  34),  the  preservation  of  family  recoi'ds,  and  many  of 
the  institutes  of  patriarchal  religion. 

Gen.  12.  7.  The  religious  knowledge  of  the  patriarchs  was  evi- 
dently very  liuiited,  but  their  piety  was  exemplary.  Wherever  the 
patriarchs  go,  they  build  their  altar,  12.  7:  13.  4.  Whatever  their 
emergency,  prayer  is  their  resource.  Their  children  they  command 
after  them ;  and  the  traditional  promise  they  carefully  preserve  and 
transmit;  faith  sustaining  them  in  all  (see  §  242). 

Trace  the  character  of  Abraham  as  the  ''fxiend  of  God,"  and, 
again,  as  the  father  of  those  who  believe. 

Gen.  19.  The  godly  are  saved,  yet  so  as  through  fii'e,  i  Cor.  3. 13. 

Gen.  21.  The  seed  of  the  flesh  separated  from  the  seed  of  the 
promise:  the  first  persecute  and  despise  the  second,  Gal.  4.  29. 

Gen.  24.  A  marriage  in  the  Lord.  Note  its  peculiarities  and 
results.  Yet,  for  twenty  years  to  come,  there  was  no  heir  of  tho 
promise  - 


GENESIS  25-36. 


397 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

1804, 
Lahai-roi. 
1804. 
1804, 
Beersheba. 
1796. 

1773. 

1760. 

Beersheba. 

1760, 

Padan-aram. 

1760, 
Arabia. 

1753- 

1752-1745, 

Padan-arain. 

Mesopotamia, 

Al  Jczireh. 

1745- 

1739, 
Galeed. 

1739, 

Succoth.  (See  ' 

Josh.  13,  27;.! 

1736,        I 

Shechem.     j 

173^-         I 

Bethel,  Luz,  ' 
Bethaven 
(Hos.  10.  5), 
Bcit-in. 

1729, 

Hebron. 

1729. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


3.  Isaac  and  Jacob. 

Esau  sells  Jacob  his  birthright;  Isaac  leaves  Canaan, 

Gen.  25.  29-35. 
Covenant  confirmed  to  Isaac  at  Gerar,  Gen.  26.  1-5. 
Isaac   dissembles;    covenant  with  Abimelech, 

Gen.  26.  6-33. 
Esau  marries  two  Hittite  women,  Gen.  26.  34-5. 

Death  of  Ishmael ;  descendants,  Gen.  25.  12-18. 

Jacob  obtains  hLs  father's  blessing,  and  flees  from 
Esau,  Gen.  27:  28.  1-5. 

Jacob's  vision  at  Luz;   the  promises  continued  to  him; 
stays  with  Laban  his  uncle, 

Gen.  28.  10-22:  29.  1-14. 
Esau  marries  a  daughter  of  Ishmael,       Gen.  28.  6-9. 

Jacob  marries  Leah  and  Rachel,  Gen.  29.  15-30 

Jacob's  children — Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  and  Judah, 

by  Leah  ;  Dan*  and  Naphtali,  by  Billah,  Rachel's 

maid;   Gad  and  Asher,  by  Zilpah,   Leah's  maid; 

Issachar,  Zebulun,  and  Dinah,  by  Leah ;  Joseph, 

by  Rachel,  Gen.  29.  31-35:  30.  1-24. 

Jacob's  bargain  with  Laban;  he  becomes  rich, 

Gen  30.  23-43. 
Jacob,  retm-ning  to  Canaan,  is  pursued  by  Laban; 

their  covenant.  Gen.  31. 

Jacob's  vision  at  Mahanaim ;  wrestles  with  an  angel 

at  Penuel;  reconciled  to  Esau  ;  settles  at  Succoth, 

Gen.  32:  33.  1-17. 

Jacob  removes  to  Shalem,  Gen.  33.  18-20;  birth  of 

sons  of  Judah  [Gen.  38.  1-5]. 

Dinah  defiled  by  Shechem  ;  slaughter  of  Shechemites 

by  Simeon  and  Levi  [Gen.  34]. 

Jacob  removes;  purges  his  household  of  idols;  the 

promises   renewed   to    him;    his   name   changed   to 

Israel,  Gen.  35.  1-15. 

Rachel  dies  on  the  birth  of  Benjamin,  Gen.  35.  16-20. 
Sin  of  Reuben ;  Jacob  abides  with  Isaac,  Gen.  35.21-27. 


Esau's  descendants, 


[Gen.  36.] 


Gen.  26.  Xote  the  evils  of  parental  favouritism — in  Isaac. 

Gen.  27.  6.  Mark  how  each  virtue  has  its  counterfeit.  Seek 
wisdom,  but  not  as  Eve  sought  it.  Husbands  should  love  their 
wives,  but  not  as  Adam  did,  3.  6.  Woi-ship  God,  but  not  with 
Cain,  4.  3,  5.  Wives  should  obey  their  husbands,  but  not  in  sin, 
r2.  II.     Children  should  obey  their  pai-euts,  but  not  with  Jacob, 


398 


lessons:  genesis  37-40. 


27.  13,  14.  Seek  the  accomplisliment  of  God's  will^  but  not  with 
llebekah,  27.  6.  Compassion  may  be  disobedience,  as  in  Ahab, 
I  Kings  20.  34;  delight  in  God's  service,  selfishness,  Isa.  58.  2;  and 
zeal  not  good,  because  without  knowledge,  Eom.  10.  2.  There  may 
be  even  a  high  sense  of  duty,  without  love  to  Christ,  reverence  for 
God,  or  true  obedience:  see  Acts  26.  9-1 1. 

Gen.  27.  13,  17.  Temptation  is  sometimes  hope,  sometimes  fear. 
Gen.  3.  6:  12.  12.  Eve  was  tempted  by  the  devil;  Adam,  by  his 
wife;  Sarah,  by  her  husband;  Jacob,  by  his  mother. 

Gen.  27.  Such  is  life.  Isaac's  favourite  son  proves  his  plague. 
Isaac  was  himself  the  child  of  the  promise  (Gen.  21.  22),  and  yet  was 
a  stranger  in  the  land  of  promise  (37.  i).  Forty  yeai-s  nearly  of  his 
life  he  was  bedridden,  had  but  two  children  ;  one  of  whom,  by  his 
marriage,  and  the  other,  by  his  deceit,  embittered  the  la,st  years  of 
their  father's  life.  So  Eve  hoped  to  find  in  Cain  a  special  gift 
(Gen.  4.  i),  but  he  proved  a  murderer,  §  248  (6). 

Gen.  30.  Compare  30.  i  and  35.  18,  and  check  inordinate  desires. 

Gen.  34.  Sin  ever  deepens  and  extends.  Eve  sinned  and  tempted  her 
husband.  Cain  envied,  complained  against  God,  and  then  murdered 
his  brother.  Esau  sold  his  birthright,  and  intermarried  with  the 
heathen.  He  was  angry  with  Jacob,  and  then  sought  his  life. 
Jacob  meant  to  tell  but  one  lie,  but  in  the  end  he  told  several,  and 
blasphemously  made  God  a  party  to  his  deception.  Gen.  27.  20. 
In  this  chap,  we  have  dissipation  leading  to  seduction,  seduction  to 
wrath,  revenge,  treachery,  and  murder.     Fuller. 

Gen.  31.  Potiphar  ftivoured  for  Joseph's  sake;  Laban  for  Jacob's, 
Gen.  30.  27;  Zoar  for  Lot's,  19.  21;  as  Sodom  would  have  been 
spared  if  ten  righteous  men  had  been  found  in  it.  How  God  puts 
honour  upon  his  people,  §  248. 


Date  and  Place, 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

1728, 

Dothan. 

1726, 
Timuath. 

I7i9> 

Egypt. 

1718. 

1716. 


4.  Joseph,  etc. 

Joseph's  two  dreams;  envy  of  his  brethren;  sold  to 

the  Ishmeelites  and  to  Potiphar  in  Egypt,  Gen.  3  7. 
Er   and   Onan   slain  by  God;  incest  of  Judah  and 

Tamar;  Pkarez,  a  progenitor  of  Messiah,  horn 

[Gen.  38.  6-30]. 
Joseph  advanced,  tempted,  falsely  accused,  and  ini- 

px-isoued.  Gen.  39. 

Pharaoh's  butler  and  baker  imprisoned;  Joseph  in 

terprets  their  dreams.  Gen.  40. 

Death  of  Isaac  at  Mami-e,  Gen.  35.  28,  29. 


GEXESis  35  :  EXODUS  1 :  lessons. 


399 


Date  and  Placiv  I 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

I715. 

171:,  I7II. 
1708. 
1707. 
1706. 
1706. 
1704 — 1 70 1, 
1689, 

Egypt. 
1689. 

Machpelah. 

1689. 
1635, 

1577, 

Egypt. 

15  73- 


Joseph  interprets  Pharaoh's  di'eams;  his  elevation. 

Gen.  41.  1-49. 
Birth  of  Joseph  s  two  sons,  Manasseh  and  Ephraim, 

Gren.  41.  50-32. 
Commencement  of  the  seven  years'  famine. 

Gen.  41.  53-57. 

Joseph's  ten  brethren  come  to  buy  corn;   Simeon  a 

pledge,  ^  Gen.  42. 

They  come  again  to  buy  com;  Joseph  makes  himself 

known  to  them;  sends  for  his  father.    Gen.  43-45. 

Jacob  and  his  family  arrive ;  settle  in  Goshen;  Jacob 

meets  Pharaoh,  Gen.  46:  [8-25]:  47.  1-12. 

Joseph,  by  gi^dng  com  to  the  Egyptians,  iucreases 

the  wealth  of  the  king,  Gen.  47.  13 -26. 

Jacob  blesses  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 

Gen.  47.  27-31:  48. 
Jacob's  predictions  concerning  his  sotis  ancl  Judah  ;  his 
death.  Gen.  49. 

Joseph  and  his  brethren  bnrj'  tbeir  father. 

Gen.  50.  1-13. 

Joseph  shows  kindness  to  his  brethren,  Gen.  50. 14-21. 

Joseph  predicts  the  return  to  Canaan;  charges  them 

to  carry  up  his  bones  there ;  his  death,  Gen.  50.  22-26. 

The  Israelites  multiply;  a  new  king  oppresses  them, 

Exod.  r.  1-21:  [15-21]. 

Pharaoh  orders  the  male  children  to  be  cast  into 

the  river,  Exod.  i.  22. 


Gen.  42.  21.  Affiction  is  sanctified  when  it  reminds  us  of  our 
sins.  Contrast  the  tender  anxiety  of  those  brothers  for  their 
father's  feelings  now,  Gen.  44.  16-34,  with  their  indifference  years 
rtgo  (37.  31,  32),  and  mark  another  fruit  of  affliction,  when  blessed. 
This  book  is  wonderfully  rich  in  such  instances. 

Gen.  49.  10.  Mark  the  gradual  narrowing  of  the  promise  of  the 
Messiah.  The  seed  of  the  woman,  through  Shem,  Abraham,  Isaac, 
Jacob,  Judah,  and  afterwards  David. 

Gen.  50.  20.  Even  evil  passions  are  oven'uled  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  God's  purposes.  So  were  the  treachery  of  Judas,  the  in- 
justice of  Pilate,  the  persecution  of  Paul.     Acts  4.  28:  Phil.  i.  12. 

Gen.  50.  25.  "  Joseph,  it  has  justly  been  remarked,  is  a  bright 
example  in  every  relation.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  years  he  ap- 
peal's tmcormpted  by  the  wickedness  of  his  brethren  or  the 
partiality  of  his  father;  discountenancing  the  sin  of  the  former,  and 
prompt  in  his  obedience  to  the  latter  (37.  2,   13:  see  4.  8,   11). 


400 


JOSEPH  :   EXODUS  2-6. 


Unjustly  sold  as  a  slave,  he  is  faithful  to  his  mastei-  (39.  4-6).  He 
flees  youthful  lust,  though  exposed  to  temptation  (39.  9).  Per- 
secuted, he,  like  Paul,  finds  in  prison  oppoi'tunities  of  usefulness 
(39.  22:  40.  7).  Flattered  by  Pharaoh,  he  disclaims  all  ahility  of 
himself  to  interpret  the  dream,  and  avows,  before  a  heathen  court, 
the  power  of  God  (41.  16).  At  the  age  of  thirty  he  is  suddenly 
raised  to  the  highest  dignity,  and  yet  becomes  a  pattern  of  industry 
and  justice  (41.  38:  46.  48).  Though  a  courtier,  he  is  truthful, 
and,  with  noble  simplicity,  avows  the  disreputable  employment  of 
Ills  connections  (46.  31-34).  As  a  brother,  he  exhibits  unabated 
affection,  not  only  for  Benjamin,  but  to  those  who  had  hated  him 
(43.  29,  30:  45.-14:  44.18-34:  45.4-13:  50.  21).  As  a  son,  though 
lord  of  Eg^/pt,  he  manifests  the  most  affectionate  respect  for  his 
aged  parent,  who  was  now  dependent  upon  him  (46.  29:  47.  7). 
As  a  father,  his  piety  appears  in  the  names  he  gave  his  children 
(41.  51,  52);  and  his  earnest  desire  for  God's  blessing  for  them  in 
bringing  them  to  Jacob's  dying  bed  (48.  i,  etc.).  For  eighty  years 
he  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest  worldly  gi*andeur,  surrounded 
with  every  temptation  to  worldliness  and  idolatry;  but  his  dying 
breath  testified  how  enth-ely  his  heart  and  ti-easui-e  were  in  God's 
promises"  (50.  25).     See  also  Heb.  11.  22:  i  John  5.  4. 

This  summaiy  (from  Nichols)  illustrates  several  rules  of  inter- 
pretation (sec  §  248). 

24.  (iii.)  From  the  Birth  of  Moses,  B.  c.  1 571,  to  his  Death, 
120  years. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

f5  7^—1532. 


15  3 1, 
Midian. 


1531, 

Egypt. 

1491, 

Horeb 

(Acts  7.  30). 

1 49 1. 

Egypt 

(Acts  7.  31). 


I.   To  the  Exode. 

Birth,  exposure,  rescue,  and  early  life  of  Moses, 

Exod.  2.  I- 10. 
Moses,   having  killed   an    Egyptian,    flees;    marries 
Zipporah,  daughter  of  Jethro ;  Gershom  born, 

Exod.  2.  11-22. 
The  Israelites  groan  for  their  bondage, 

Exod.  2.  23-25  :  Psa.  88. 

God  appears  to  Moses  in  a  hurning  bush ;  appoints  him 

and  Aaron  to  bi'ing  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt, 

Exod.  3 :  4.  1-17. 

Moses  leaves  Midian;  meets  Aaron;  they  deliver  their 

message,  Exod.  4.  18-31 

Moses  and  Aaron  demand  the  release  of  the  Israelites; 

Pharaoh  refuses,  Exod.  5 . 


EXODUS   6-12:   LESSONS. 


401 


Date  auil  I'lace. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


3.  C. 

1491. 

1491. 
1491. 


1491. 

I491. 
149 1. 
149 1. 


149 1. 


1491, 

Rameses. 


God  renews  his  promise  by  his  name  Jehovah, 
j  Exod.  6.  1-13. 

Descendants  of  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  of  Levi,  from 
■whom  came  Moses  and  Aaron        [Exod.  6.  14-27]. 
i  Moses  and  Aaron  again  sent;  confirm  their  message 
I      by  a  miracle ;  magicians  imitate  them, 
'  Exod.  6.  28-30:  7.  1-13. 

Pharaoh  refuses  to  let  Israel  go :  eight  plagues, 

Exod.  7.  14-25:  8:  9:  10.  1-20. 
T/(6^  Passoi-e>' instituted,  Exod.  12.  1-20. 

The  9th.  plague,  three  days  darkness,  Exod.  10.  21-27. 
Israelites  bidden  to  ask  gold  of  the  Egyptians; 
Pharaoh  threatened  A\ith  the  death  of  the  first- 
born, Exod.  II.  1-8:  10.  28,  29:  II.  9,  10. 
The  Passover  eaten,  the  same  day  of  the  same  month 
on  which  Christ  our  Passover  was  sacrificed  for 
us  (see  Hales,  ii.  197);  the  first-born  slain, 

Exod.  12.  21-3C. 
The  exodus,  (a.m.  2513),  Exod.  12.  31-36,  and  40-42. 


By  God's  command,  Nisan  or  Abib,  on  the  14th  night  of  which 
the  exode  took  place,  was  made  the  ist  month  of  the  ecclesiastical 
year,  Exod.  12.  2.  As  the  rest  of  the  history  of  Moses  is  dated 
chiefly  from  this  epoch,  we  shall  give  the  dates  from  that  time. 

Exod.  2.  25.  Lightfoot  and  Townsend  place  the  88th  Psalm  here 
(see  r  Chron,  2.  6).  Witsius  and  others  refer  it  to  the  captivity 
(i  Chron  6.  33). 

Exod.  3.  II.  Mark  the  difiidence  of  Moses,  till  his  scruples  and  feiu- 
are  removed  by  several  miraculous  proofs  of  his  Divine  legation. 

Israel  in  Egypt  had  evidently  become  contaminated  by  the 
idolatry  of  then*  neighbours :  hence  then'  unbeUef  and  inconstancy. 
See  Josh.  24.  14:  Ez.  20.  8:  Josh.  5.  9:  Lev.  24,  10. 

Exod.  3 .  14.  "  The  Angel  of  Jehovah  "  speaks  of  himself  as  ' '  I  am 
that  I  am."  He  is  the  same  who  delivered  Jacob  from  all  evil 
(Gon.  48.  15);  who  gave  the  law  (Acts  7.  38:  Exod.  19.  20:  20.  i); 
who  conducted  Israel  through  the  wilderness  (Exod.  23.  20,  21);  and 
claimed  the  homage  of  Joshua  (Josh.  5,  15:  6.  2). 

Exod.  7.  I.  ''My/)rq/j7tef,"  or  spokesman  (3.  16).  To  prophesy  is  in 
Scripture  language  to  foretell,  and  also  to  instruct  or  speak  pub- 
licly.    See  Tit.  i.  12:  Acts  13.  i:  i  Cor.  11.  4,  5 :  14.  i:  Eph.  2.  20. 

Exod.  7.  13.  Pharaoh  hardened.  The  DiyinQ  forbearance  seems  tr: 
have  produced  this  result  (8.  31,  32;. 

Exod.  8.  These  plagues  are  all  significant,  proving  the  power  of 


402  PLAGUES  OF  EGYPT:  THE  PASSOVER. 

God,  and  i-ebuking  idolatry.  i.  The  Nile— blood;  an  object  of 
worship  turned  into  an  object  of  abhorx-ence.  2.  The  sacred  frog 
itself  their  plague.  3.  Lice,  which  the  Egyptians  deemed  so  pol- 
luting, that  to  enter  a  temple  with  them  was  a  profanation,  cover 
the  country  like  dust.  4.  The  gad-fly  (Zebub),  an  object  of 
Egyptian  reverence,  becomes  their  torture.  5.  The  cattle,  which 
were  objects  of  Egyptian  worship,  fall  dead  before  their  worshippers. 
6.  The  ashes,  which  the  priests  scattered  as  signs  of  blessing,  be- 
come boils.  7.  Isis  and  Osiris,  the  deities  of  water  and  fire,  are 
unable  to  protect  Egypt  even  at  a  season,  when  storms  and  rain 
were  unknown,  from  the  fire  and  hail  of  God.  8.  Isis  and  Serapis 
were  supposed  to  protect  the  country  from  locusts.  West  winds 
might  bring  these  enemies ;  but  an  east  wind  the  Egyptiim  never 
feared,  for  the  Red  Sea  defended  him.  But  now  Isis  fails  ;  and  the 
very  east  wind  he  reverenced  becomes  his  destruction.  9.  The 
heavenly  hosts,  the  objects  of  worship,  are  themselves  shown  to  be 
tmder  Divine  control.  10.  The  last  plague  explains  the  whole. 
God's  first-born  Egypt  had  oppressed;  and  now  the  first-born  of 
Egypt  are  all  destroyed.  The  first  two  plagues,  it  will  be  noticed, 
were  foretold  by  Moses,  and  imitated  by  the  Egyptians.  The  rest 
they  failed  to  copy,  and  confessed  that  they  were  wrought  by  the 
finger  of  God. 

See  Bryant  and  Bishop  Gleig's  Diss.:  Stackliouse,  i.  p.  472. 

Exod.  12.  1-20.  Contains  a  command  given  five  days  before  the 
Passover,  i.  e.,  on  or  before  the  loth  Nisan.  Hence  the  position  of 
this  section. 

Exod.  12.  21.  The  Passover  victim  was  selected  on  the  loth,  the 
day  Christ  entered  Jerusalem,  John  12.  12-19.  Early  on  the  14th 
the  victim  was  prepared  for  the  sacrifice,  and  between  the  9th  and 
nth  hour— the  hour  when  Christ  expired— the  victim  was  slain; 
its  blood  sprinkled  upon  their  dwellings;  its  body  a  family  feast, 
streugthenmg  them  for  their  journey.  At  midnight,  the  first-born 
were  slain,  and  amidst  this  distress,  but  with  all  the  calmness  of  a 
religious  procession,  the  Israelites  leave  the  land  of  their  bondage. 
How  instructive  is  this  type. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

1491- 

Succoth, 
Eccl.  y.  I. 
I  m.  1 5  day. 

Etham. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


2.  Tko  forty -two  Journeys  of  the  Israelites. 

1st  journey.  Passover  reinforced.  Fh'st-born  com- 
manded to  be  set  apart.  Joseph's  bones  removed, 
Exod.  12.  37-39,  and  43-51:  i3-  1-19:  Numb.  33.  1-5. 

2nd  journey.  Israel  guided  by  a  pillar  of  cloud  and 
fire,  Exod.  13.  20-22:  Numb.  33.  6 


JOURNEi'S   OF  ISRAEL  :   EXODUS    14-40. 


403 


Dale  and  Place. 


B.  C.  i 

149  r, 

Pihahiroth; 

J.  e.,  mouth  of 

pass.         1 

Mai-ah.       ; 


Elim, 

( ^\adi    Gha- 

rendal). 

lied  Sea. 

2  m.  15  d. 

Sin. 

Exod.  16.  I, 

Dophkah. 

Alush. 
Rexjhidim. 


3  m.  T5  d. 

Sinai.        | 

1491.        i 
3  m.  15  d.     I 
Sinai. 


Event  or  Xarrative. 


3rd  journey. 


Pharaoh  pm-sues, 

Exod.  14.  1-9; 


Numb.  33.  7. 


Eccl.  y.  I. 

6  m. 

Sinai. 


1490. 

Eccl.  y.  2. 

7  m.  I  d. 


|th  journey.  Passage  of  the  Bed  Sea  (see  i  Cor.  10. 
I,  2).  Destruction  of  Pharaoh's  army.  Song  of 
Moses.     The  bitter  waters  sweetened, 

Exod.  14-  to:   It.  ;6:  Numb.  33.  8. 


5  th  journey, 


Exod.  15    2T.  Numb.  33.  9. 


6th  journey,  Numb.  33.1c. 

7th  journey.  People  murmui*  for  bread.  Quails  and 
manna.  Directions  on  manna  (see  John  6.  31,  49. 
Eev.  2.  17),  Exod.  16.  1-36:  Numb.  33.  11. 

8th  journey,  Numb.  ^^.  12. 

9th  journey.  Numb.  ^^.  13. 

icth  journey.  Water  giccn  from  the  rock  in  Jloreb 
(i  Cor.  10.  4).  Joshua  defeats  Amalek,  while  Moses 
prays,  Exod.  17.  116:  Numb.  33.  14. 

nth  journey.     Preparation  for  giving  of  the  law, 

Exod.  19.  1-25:  Numb.  33.  15. 

Moral  law  given.  Divei-s  laws  (chiefly  judicial  J  en- 
joined. The  an'jel  prondscd  as  a  ijuide  to  the 
Israelites,  Exod.  20.  23. 

The  people  promise  obedience ;  the  blood  of  the  covenant 
sprinkled  on  them.  _Mopcs  and  others  have  a  vision 
of  God's  glory.  Moses  remains  forty  days  and 
forty  mghts  in  the  mount,  Exod.  24. 

Ceremonial  lav:  given.  The  tabernacle  and  its  furnitui'e, 
the  priests  and  their  garments,  etc.  The  sabbath 
again  enjoined.  Daily  sacrifice  and  incense,  Rom. 
8.  3 :  Rev.  8.  3.  4.  Tables  of  the  law  given  to 
Moses,  Exod.  2 5.-3 1. 

Idolatiy  of  the  calf;  the  tables  broken;  the  people 
punished ;  the  tabernacle  removed  out  of  the  camp. 
Moses  intercedes  for  the  people,  and  asks  to  see 
God's  glory,  Exod.  32.  33. 

The  tables  renewed;  the  name  of  the  Lord  pro- 
claimed :  God  makes  a  covenant  with  IsraeL 
Moses  stays  on  the  mount  forty  days  and  forty 
nights;  his  face  shines,  Exod.  34. 

Offerings  of  the  people  for  the  tabernacle.  Bezaleel 
and  othei-s  prepare  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture 

[Exod.  35.-39.] 

Moses  commanded  to  rear  the  tabernacle  and  to  anoint 
it,  and  to  sanctify  Aaron  and  his  sons 
[Exod.  40.  1-16.]  (^John  i.  14:  2.  19-21 :  Col.  2.  9,) 


404 


JOURNEYS   or   ISRAEL  :   LAWS. 


Date  and  Place. 


Kveut  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

1490, 

Eccl.  y.  2. 
r  m.  I  day. 

I  m.  8  d. 


im.  14  d. 


2m.  I  d. 


1491. 

2  m.  20  d.    ! 

Wilderness  of 

Parau         I 


Hazaroth. 

5  m.-jm. 

Kadesh 

Barnea,  or 

En  Mishpah. 


The  tabernacle  set  up.  The  glory  of  the  Lord  fills  it. 
The  Israelites  directed  by  the  cloud,  Exod.  40. 17-38. 

Laws  on  various  sacrifices  and  ofFeiings      [Lev.  1.-7.] 

Consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  priests      [Lev.  8. J 

The  ofierings  of  Aaron.     Fire  consumes  the  sacrifice 

[Lev.  9.] 

The  oflferiugs  of  the  princes  accepted,  Numb.  7. 

Destruction  of  Nadab  and  Abihu,  Lev.  10. 

Of  the  great  day  of  atonement,  and  of  the  scapegoat, 

Lev.  16:  see  Heb.  9.:  and  5.  i. 

The  second  passover  celebrated.  Some  allowed  to 
observe  it  in  the  second  month,        Xumb.  9.  1-14. 

Laws  on  meats  and  purifications  [Lev.  11. -15.] 

Miscellaneous  laws,  moral,  ceremonial,  and  judicial. 
Shelomith's  son  stoned  for  blasphemy 

[Lev.  1 7.-22.  and  24.] 

Laws  concerning  festivals,  et(;.,  Lev.  23.  and  24. 

Proj)hetic  promises  and  threatenings.  Lev.  26. 

LaAvs  of  vows,  devotions,  and  tithes  [Lev.  27.] 

The  tribes  numbered;  their  order         [Xumb.  i.,  2.] 

The  Levites  appointed  to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle 
instead  of  the  first-bom ;  their  duties  [Numb.  3 .,  4.] 

Institution  of  various  ceremonies.  The  law  of  the 
Nazarites.     The  form  of  blessing      [Numb.  5.,  6.] 

Consecration  of  the  Levites ;  their  age  and  period  of 
service  [Numb.  8.]  Use  of  the  silver  tru.mpets 
[10.  i-ioj.  Manner  in  which  the  cloud  guided  the 
people,  9.  15-23. 

Arrival  of  Jethro  with  Moses'  wife  and  sons.  He 
advises  Moses  to  appoint  judges  to  assist, 

Exod.  18.  1-26 

1 2th  journey.     Order  of  the  march 

[Numb,  10.  II,  12  (Numb.  33.  16)  28]. 

Moses  entreats  Hobub  to  accompany  Israel;  Jethro 
returns  to  Midian, 

Numb.  10.  29-32,  and  Exod.  18.  27. 

The  form  of  blessing  on  the  removal  and  resting  of 
the  ark.  Numb.  10.  33-36. 

The  burning  at  Taberah.  People  murmur  for  flesh; 
Moses  complains  of  his  charge ;  seventy  elders  ap- 
pointed as  a  council  to  assist  him;  quails  given  in 
wi'ath.  Numb.  11.  1-34. 

13th  journey.  Miriam  smitten  with  leprosy  for 
sedition.  Numb.  11.  35  (Numb.  33.  17)  12.  15. 

14th  journey.  Spies  sent  to  search  the  laud;  ten  of 
them  bring  an  evil  report ;  Caleb  and  Joshua  faith- 
ful, Numb.  12.  16  (Numb.  ^3-  i8):  ij. 


JOURNEYS   OF   ISRAEL. 


405 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

Eccl.  y.  2 
Tm.  6  d. 


149C-J452. 
Eccl.  J.  2-40 

1452. 
Eccl.  J.  40. 

I  m. 

1490. 

Kadesh. 

Mount  Hor, 

Zalmonah. 


Punon, 
Obotli,  lim. 
Dibon-2rad. 


Almon- 
diolathaim. 

Abarim. 
Plains  of 
Moab  by 

Jordan. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Israel  murmurs   at  the   report  of  the  spies  ;    God 
threatens  ;  Moses  intercedes  ;   condemned  to  wan- 
der forty  years,  Numb.  14.  1-39:  Psa.  90. 
The  people,  going  up  against  the  -svill  of  God,  are 
discomfited,  Numb.  14.  40-45. 
Laws  of  offerings ;  the  sabbath-breaker  stoned 

[Numb.  15]. 

The  rebellion  of  Korah,  etc.;  earthquake,  fire,  and 

plague  inflicted;  Aaron  approved  as  high-priest  by 

the  budding  of  his  rod.  Numb.  16.,  17. 

The  charge  and  portion  of  the  priests  and  Levites 

[Numb.  18]. 
Water  of  purification;  how  to  be  made  and  used 

[Numb.  19]. 

The  next  seventeen  journeys  (15th  to  31st)  of  the 

Israelites,  being  their  wandering  in  the  wilderness 

nearly  thirty -eight  years.  Numb.  33.  19-35. 

32nd  jorimey;  death  of  Miriam,  Numb.  20.  i:  33.  36. 

The  people  murmur  for  water  ;    Moses  and  Aaron 

transgressing,  not  to  enter  Canaan,  Numb.  20.  2-13. 

Edom  refuses  a  passage  to  the  Israelites, 

Numb.  20.  14-21. 

33rd  journey;  Aaron  dies;  Arad  attacks  Israel,  and 

is  defeated,  Numb.  20.  22-21.  3:  33.  37-40. 

34th  journey;  the  people  murmur;  fieiy  serpents  are 

sent;  the  brazen  serpent  set  up, 

(see  John  3.  14):  Numb.  21.  4  (33.  4i)-9. 
35th,  36th,  and  37th  journeys. 

Numb.  21.  10,  11:  33.  42-44. 
38th  journey,  Numb.  33.  45. 

The  Israelites  stop  at  Zared,  Arnon,  and  Beer, 

Nvmab.  21.  12-18. 
Sihon,  the  Amorite,  opposes  their  passage;  defeated. 

Numb.  21.  21-32. 
Og,  ofBashan,  attacks  them;  defeated. 

Numb.  2T.  33-35. 
39th  journey,  Numb.  33.  46 

40th  journey.  Numb.  21.  18-20:  i^.  47, 

41st  journey;  account  of  Balaam  and  Balak, 

(Luke  I.  78:  Rev.  22.  16:  i  Cor.  15.  25): 

Numb,  22.  I  (^^.  48)-4i:  23:  24. 

42ndjoTimey;  idolatry  of  Baal -Peor;  zealofPhinehas, 

Numb.  25.  I  (33.  49)-i8. 

Third  numbering  of  the  people,  [Numb.  26]. 

The  daughters  of  Zelophehad;  laws  of  inheritance. 

Numb.  27.  i-ii:  36. 
Laws  of  ofierings,  vows,  etc.  Numb.  28.-30. 


406  LEVITICUS:   NUMBEKS:  LESSONS. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

Eccl.  y.  40. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


The  slaughter  of  Midian;  Balaam  slain,  Numb.  31, 
Territories  given  to  Reuben,  Gad,  and  part  of  Ma- 

nasseh,  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  Numb.  22. 

Directions  for  the  Israelites  on  their  entering  Canaan ; 

borders  of  the  land  described;  forty-eight  cities  for 

the  Levites,  of  which  six  are  to  be  cities  of  refuge ; 

the  laws  on  murder,        Numb.  33.  50-56:  34:  35. 


Exod.  12.  37.  This  order  of  thejournies  is  taken  from  Numb.  35. 
"We  see  here  how  God  weans  his  people  from  idolatry,  how  he 
inures  them  to  trial  and  trains  them  to  obedience.  For  an  inspired, 
practical  comment  on  the  history  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
see  Psa.  78:  105:  io5:  136:  and  i  Cor.  10. 

Lev.  What  an  instructive  month's  history.  Aaron  consecrated, 
in  proof  of  the  holiness  required  in  worship;  his  sons  Nadab  and 
Abihu  punished  for  unhallowed  contempt  of  Divine  authority  (see 
Exod.  30.  9),  shortly  after  their  consecration,  which  a  miracle  had 
confirmed,  Exod.  24.  9:  Lev.  9.  24;  Aaron's  i-esignation  a  touching 
exhibition  of  grace,  10.  3;  the  blasphemer  stoned. 

Lev.  II.  As  the  sacrifices  of  the  law  point  to  Christ  and  his 
atonement,  so  do  the  repeated  pur-ifications  to  man's  need  of  inward 
pl^rity  and  of  the  cleansing  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  ceremonial  law  contains  rites  closely  resembling  those  in  use 
among  several  heathen  nations,  but  v/ith  striking  differences 
(Spencer,  de  Leg.  and  Michaelis).  Some  (as  Warburton  and 
Maimonides)  think  the  former  borrowed  from  the  latter;  others  (as 
Gale  and  Stillingfleet)  think  the  latter  borrowed  from  the  former; 
others,  still  (as  Calmet  and  Faber)  maintain  that  both  were  taken 
from  early  patriarchal  institutes,  which  the  Gentiles  corrupted  and 
which  God  himself  modified,  to  meet  the  peculiar  condition  of  the 
Jews.  This  last  theoiy,  the  most  probable  of  the  three,  is  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  many  primitive  traditions  are  preserved  in 
the  systems,  moral,  religious,  and  philosophical,  of  many  ancient 
nations. 

Numb.  9.  1-14.  This  section  is  out  of  its  place,  see  ver.  r. 

Numb.  35.  31,  32.  See  §  329  (h),  on  ''satisfaction." 

When  Jacob's  family  entered  Egypt  they  numbered  but  seventy 
Bouls,  Gen.  46.  27.  Now  their  descendants  number  upwards  (it 
may  be  gathered)  of  two  millions  (chap.  26);  so  richly  had  God 
already  fulfilled  his  promise. 


DEUTERONOMY,  1-34. 


40] 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

145 1. 

Eccl.  y.  40. 

II m.  id. 


3.   Tlie  Review  and  closing  Charge  of  Moses. 

Moses  reviews  the  history  of  the  Israelites,  intro- 
ducing some  new  particiilars,  Deut.  1.-4. 

The  moral  law  repeated  and  enforced, 

Deut.  5.-9:  10.  1-5,  10-22:  II. 

The  ceremonial  law  repeated,  with  inj\anctions  against 
idolatry,  etc.  [Deut.  12.-16:   17.  i.j 

The  judicial  law  repeated  and  explained.  Christ  fore' 
told  as  a  prophet  to  whom  they  are  to  hearken, 

Deut.  17.  2-20:  [18. -26]. 

Moses  directs  Israel,  after  entering  Canaan,  to  write 
the  law  on  stones,  and  to  recite  its  blessings  and 
curses  upon  Mt.  Geriziiu  and  Mt.  Ebal,    Deut.  27. 

Prophetic  promises  and  curses,  Deut.  28. 

Concluding  appeal  to  the  Israelites,       Deut.  29:  30. 


Deut.  On  the  importance   of  comparing  the  law,    as  given  in 
Deuteronomy,  with  the  law  as  given  in  the  earlier  books,  see  Pt.  ii.  §  8. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C, 

Eccl,  y.  40. 
II  m. 


4.  Joshuds  appointment ;  death  of  Moses. 

Joshua  appointed  to  s>'cceed  Moses,      Xumb.  27.  12-23. 

Moses  encourages  the  people  and  Joshua;  charges 
the  priests  to  read  the  law  publicly  every  seventh 
year,  Deut.  31.  1-13. 

God's  charge  to  Joshua;  Moses  writes  a  song  of  wit- 
ness ;  completes  the  writing  of  the  law,  and  delivers 
it  to  the  Levites,  witli  a  prediction  of  the  dis- 
obedience of  Israel,  Deut.  31.  14-29. 

Moses  recites  his  song,  and  exhorts  Israel  to  set  their 
hearts  upon  it,  Deut.  31.  30:  32.  r-47. 

Moses  ascends  Mount  Nebo  to  view  the  laud  of 
Canaan,  and  to  die,  Deut.  32.  48-52. 

Moses  prophetically  blesses  the  tribes,  Deut.  33. 

Moses  views  the  promised  land;  his  death,  burial, 
and  character,  Deut.  34. 


Sec.  5.    The  Design   of  the  Law — Summary   of  its  ReliQtous 

Institutions. 

25.  What,  then,  it  may  be  asked,  was  the  purpose  of  this 

ancient  dispensation,  and  to  what  end  must  we  study  it  ? 

There  was  faith  and  piety  before  it  vvas  given.      Faith  and 


408  THE   DESIGN   OF  THE   LAAV. 

piety  .remain,  now  that  it  is  clone  away.  As  an  institute,  it 
was  confessedly  burdensome ;  and  if  its  aim  had  been  either  to 
regulate  the  worship  of  God,  to  give  a  figurative  representation 
of  the  gospel,  or  to  separate  the  Jews  from  other  nations, 
this  aim  might  have  been  reached  by  simpler  means.  Might 
not  some  points,  moreover,  not  forcibly  impressed  upon  the 
ancient  Jews,  have  been  more  clearly  revealed — the  spiritu- 
ality, for  example,  of  the  coming  dispensation,  and  the  glories 
of  eternal  life  ?  In  reply  to  these  questions,  let  it  be  remem- 
bered, that  man  has  a  strong  tendency  to  forget  God.  Virtue, 
truth,  godliness,  submission  to  the  Divine  will,  conformity  to 
the  Divine  law,  supreme  desire  for  the  Divine  glory,  are  things 
not  only  not  natural — they  are  things  to  which  man  is  directly 
opposed.  "Without  successive  revelations,  or  some  such  pro- 
vision as  the  Old  Testament  supphes,  the  feelings  which  these 
terms  describe,  and  the  truths  on  which  they  are  founded, 
must  long  since  have  perished  from  the  earth.  This  conclu- 
sion is  gained  by  an  induction  of  particulars  as  sound  as  any 
in  science.  Let  it  now  be  supposed  that  God  has  to  deal  with 
men  who  are  ever  prone  to  idolatry  and  barbarism,  in  a  con- 
dition of  intellectual  childhood,  with  no  relish  for  blessings 
purely  spiritual,  and  so  earthly  as  to  be  incapable  of  compre- 
hending them  ;  that  he  desires  to  impress  the  minds  of  such 
a  race  with  his  own  infinite  perfections,  and  induce  them  to 
worship  him  with  becoming  reverence  ;  to  prove  to  them  what 
is  in  their  heart,  and  so  humble  them  for  their  depravity ;  to 
lead  them  to  acknowledge  him  in  all  their  ways,  that  they 
may  fear  his  power  and  trust  his  love  ;  to  raise  their  confi- 
dence towards  the  God  of  their  fathers,  their  covenant-God  ; 
to  inchne  their  hearts  towards  his  holy  place,  and  the  privi- 
lege of  communion  with  him  ; — supj)ose  that  he  wishes  to 
distinguish  them  as  his  peculiar  people  (that  is,  both  purchased 
and  separate)  ;  to  prevent  needless  intercourse  with  their 
idolatrous  neighbours  ;  to  unite  all  classes  of  Israelites  as  one 
body,  under  one  king  ;  to  teach  them  to  love  one  another  as 
brethren  ;  to  check  the  tendency,  in  all  communities,  to  the 
accumulation  of  extreme  wealth  in  the  hands  of  a  few,  and 
the  oppression  that  springs  from  such  accumulation ;  to  induce 
honest  industry  among  the  people  ;  to  give  every  man  the 
conviction  that  he  has  a  name  and  a  place  in  his  country  ;  to 
secure  competent  provision  for  the  fatherless  and  the  widow ; 


THE  DESIGN  OF  THE  LAW.  409 

to  provide  rest  and  moral  training  for  all  servants  ;  to  connect 
the  maintenance  of  the  learned  and  priestly  class,  in  part  at 
least,  with  the  obedience  and  piety  of  the  people,  thus  stimu- 
lating them  to  diligence  in  teaching  the  law  ; — suppose  that  he 
seeks  to  reveal  himself  with  new  claims  ;  to  preserve  the  me- 
mory of  what  he  had  done  for  them  as  a  nation  ;  to  teach  them 
implicit  obedience ;  to  excite  thoughts  and  feehngs  in  harmony 
with  the  office,  and  work,  and  reign  of  that  Messiah  whom 
these  various  institutions  were  to  introduce  ; — and  suppose, 
lastly,  that  owing  to  man's  guilty  depravity,  and  the  power- 
lessness  of  ritual  observance  to  cleanse  him  spiritually  from 
sin,  these  precepts  and  rites  could  not,  hy  themselves  alone, 
secure  more  than  legal  forgiveness,  or  attain,  in  any  sense, 
eternal  life  ; — admit  that  these  suppositions  describe  the  end 
of  the  law,  and  its  adaptation  to  its  end  will  at  once  appear. 

Now,  these  suppositions  really  do  describe  its  end,  though 
they  may  be  stated  variously.  Is  the  law  a  moral  code  ?  It 
teaches  us  our  duty  both  to  man  and  to  God.  Is  it  ritual  ob- 
servance ?  It  teaches  us  our  faults,  and  God's  holiness,  point- 
ing, moreover,  to  the  cross.  Is  it  a  civil  institute  %  It  regu- 
lates the  worship  of  an  Invisible  King,  preserves  the  Jews  as 
a  pecuhar  people,  and  enforces  brotherly  love.  Regarded  as  a 
revelation  of  truth  (objective  religion),  all  its  parts  are  instruc- 
tive. Regarded  as  a  shadow  of  truth  afterwards  to  be  revealed, 
it  excites  and  deepens  holy  feehng  (subjective  religion.)  Re- 
garded chiefly  as  a  treasury  of  earlier  traditional  knowledge, 
that  knowledge  it  preserves,  adding  much  of  its  own,  in  order 
to  preserve  it ;  though,  of  course,  a  spiritual  perception  of  its 
truths  is  still,  as  before,  essential  to  salvation.  However  the 
end  of  the  law  be  defined,  the  chief  facts  remain.  It  reveals 
man's  sin,  God's  hohness  and  love,  forgiveness  through  sa- 
crifice, and  sanctification  as  its  result,  Christ's  work  and  reign, 
■while  it  provides  for  the  preservation  of  these  truths  in  a  world 
ever  prone  to  forget  what  is  spiritual,  and  deteriorate  what 
is  holy.  The  whole  institute  is  at  once  a  gospel  and  a  church. 
It  preserved  and  guarded  i^iety,  union,  and  happiness  ;  is 
every  way  worthy  of  its  author,  and  entitled  to  the  com- 
mendations which  pious  Jews  have  bestowed  upon  it  in  every 
age,  Psalms  19.  119. 

26.  In  theory,  the  Jewish  constitution  was  a  theocracy,  a 


410         THE  THEOCRACY:  THE  TABERNACLE. 

visible  representation  of  the  reign  of  God.  Je- 
Constitudon  hovah  himself  was  regarded  as  king  ;  the  laws  were 
a  theocracy,  (delivered  by  him  ;  the  tabernacle  (and  afterwards 
the  temple)  was  considered  as  his  palace  ;  there  he  gave 
visible  manifestations  of  his  glory  ;  there  he  revealed  his 
will ;  there  was  offered  "  the  bread  of  the  presence  ;"  there  he 
received  his  ministers,  and  performed  his  functions  as  sove- 
reign. Hence  it  is  that  the  land  of  Palestine  is  ever  repre- 
sented as  held  by  direct  tenure  from  Jehovah  (Lev.  25.  23). 
To  him,  peace  and  war,  questions  determined  under  all  govern- 
ments by  the  supreme  authority,  were  referred  (Deut.  i. 
41,  42  :  Josh.  10.  40 :  Judg.  i.  i,  2  :  i  Kings  12.  24) ;  and 
idolatry  was  treason.  In  relation,  therefore,  to  the  Jews, 
Jehovah  was  both  God  and  king. 

27.  This  twofold  character  was  preserved  in  all  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  ancient  law. 

1.  The  Tabernacle,  where  public  worship  was  held  from  the 
exode  till  the  reign  of  Solomon,  was  both  the  temple 
The  Taber-  ^f  Qq^  ^^^g^  i]^q  palace  of  the  invisible  king.  It  was  his 
"'  '  "  holy  habitation."  It  was  the  place  where  he  met  the 
people  and  communed  with  them — "  the  Tabernacle,"  therefore, 
"  of  the  Congregation."  It  v/as  an  oblong,  rectangular  erection,  55 
feet  by  18  feet,  built  of  planks  of  the  acacia,  overlaid  with  gold, 
united  by  poles  of  gold,  and  resting  on  bases  of  silver.  The  whole 
shielded  by  four  costly  coverings.  Exod.  26.  7-13.  (See  Sliittim.) 
The  eastern  end  was  not  boarded,  but  was  closed  by  a  curtain  of 
cotton,  suspended  from  silver  rod  ;,  that  were  sustained  by  five  pil- 
lars covered  with  gold.  The  interior  was  divided  into  two  parts  by 
a  curtain  or  veil  made  of  rich  stuff,  and  curiously  embroidered  with 
figures  of  cherubim  and  other  ornaments  (Exod.  26.  36,  37).  The 
first  apartment  was  the  Holy  Place  (Heb.  9.  2).  The  inner  and 
smaller  one,  the  "  Holy  of  Holies."  Here  was  the  ark  of  the  Co- 
venant, an  oblong  chest  of  wood,  covered  mth  gold,  and  sur- 
mounted by  two  golden  figures  of  cherubim  with  outstretched 
wings.  Above  them  was  ''the  Glory,"  the  symbol  of  the  Divine 
presence.  It  rested  between  them,  and  came  dowoi  to  the  lid  of  the 
ark — "the  mercy  seat."  In  or  near  the  ark  were  the  tables  of 
.stone,  the  book  of  the  law,  a  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod 
(Exod.  25.  21:  Deut.  31.  26:  Heb.  9.  4).  In  the  first  or  ante-room 
were  placed  the  goldenaltar  of  incense  (Exod.  30.  i-io);  the  seven 
handed  golden  candlestick  or  lamp  (Exod.  25.  31-39);  ^^d  the 
table  of  wood,  overlaid  with  gold,  where  the  shew-bread  and  wine 
were  placed  (Exod.  25.  23-30). 


THE  TABERNACLE.  411 

Around  the  tabernacle  -was  an  extensive  court,,  about  1 80  feet  by- 
go  feet,  formed  by  ciui;ams  of  linen,  suspended  by  silver  hooks 
from  rods  of  silver,  which  reached  from  one  column  to  another. 
These  columns  were  twenty  in  all,  of  acacia,  probably  supported  on 
bases  of  brass,  and  8  or  9  feet  (5  cubits)  high.  The  entrance  was 
on  the  east  side,  and  was  closed  by  falling  tapestry,  adorned  with 
figures  in  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet  (Exod.  27.  9-19:  39.  9-20). 
In  this  court,  which  was  open  at- the  top,  all  the  public  services  of 
religion  were  performed,  and  all  sacrifices  presented.  I«lear  the 
centre  was  the  great  brazen  altar.  (5  cubits  square  and  3  high), 
with  prominences  at  the  comers  called  ''horns,"  Exod.  27.  1-8: 
Ps.  118.  27.  On  the  south  side  there  was  an  ascent  to  it  made  of 
earth  (Exod.  20.  24  :  38.  1-7).  The  various  instmments  of  this 
altar  were  of  brass,  as  those  of  the  altar  of  incense  were  of  gold 
(Exod.  27.  3  :  38.  3  :  25.  31-40).  In  the  court  of  the  tabernacle, 
between  the  brazen  altar  and  the  tabernacle,  stood  the  brazen  laver, 
at  which  the  priests  performed  their  ablutions  before  approaching 
the  altar  (Exod.  30.  15-21).  On  the  altar  a  fire  burnt  continually, 
at  first  kindled  miraculously,  and  afterwards  kept  in  by  the  priests 
(Lev.  9.  24 :  6.  12  :  10.  i). 

The  Temple  of  Solomon  was  biiilt  after  the  same  plan,  and  con- 
tained the  same  furniture ;  but  it  was  much  larger,  and  the  materials 
were  more  costly  and  durable.  Instead  of  one  court  there  were 
tliree,  the  innermost  coiTesponding  to  the  court  of  the  tabernacle. 
The  curtains  were  supplied  by  walls  and  colonnades;  the  brazen 
laver  being  represented  by  the  brazen  sea,  i  Kings  7.  26;  and  ten 
smaller  vessels,  i  Kings  7.  27-39.  The  greater  grandeur  of  the 
temple  service  was  in  harmony  both  with  the  extended  power  of 
the  nation  and  with  the  clearer  revelation  which  was  then  given  of 
God's  kingly  authority. 

To  a  much  later  date  belong  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews.  They 
were  plain  and  unpretending  buildings,  in  which  the 
i^ynagogu  .  j^^g  j^^^  ^^  ^g-^j,  prayers,  to  hear  Moses  and  the  pro- 
phets read,  and  to  receive  instruction.  They  are  often  mentioned 
in  the  N'ew  Testament,  and  seem  to  have  sprxmg  up  after  the 
captivity. 

28.  (2,)  As  the  tabernacle  was  both  the  temple  of  God  and 
.        the  palace  of  the  Great  King,  so  the  Levites  were 
both  priests  and  officers  of  state. 

Under  the  law,  the  high  priesthood  was  confined  to  the  family  of 

Aaron,  and  during  the  purest  age  of  that  economy  to 

the  first-born  of  that  house ;  Nadab,  however,  his  eldest 

son,  perished  by  his  impiety  during  the  high  priesthood   of  his 

T  2 


412  THE  LEVITES. 

father,  so  that  Eleazar  succeeded  Aaron,  and  from  him  the  ofQce 
passed  m  succession  to  Eli.  From  him  it  was  trausfeired  to  the 
family  of  Ithamar  (Aaron's  fovirth  son) ;  but  in  the  days  of  So- 
lomon it  returned  to  the  family  of  Eleazar,  where  it  remained  till 
the  captivity.  During  the  Asmonean  dynasty  a  private  Levite 
family  held  it,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  Hebrew  polity  the 
right  of  succession  was  wholly  disregarded. 

Aaron  was  consecrated  by  Moses,  and  his  sons  were  priests  under 
him.  Into  the  inner  chamber  of  the  tabernacle  the  high  priest 
alone  entered,  once  a  year,  on  the  day  of  atonement. 

In  the  reign  of  David  the  descendants  of  Eleazar  and  Ithamar 
were  so  numerous  that  they  could  not  all  be  employed  at  the  same 
time  in  their  sacred  duties  ;  they  Avere,  therefore,  divided  into  24 
courses,  each  serving  in  weekly  rotation  twice  in  the  lunar  year 
(i  Chron.  24).  Each  course  had  its  head  or  chief,  and  these  are 
probably  the  chief  priests  so  often  referred  to  in  the  Gospels.  They 
had  the  whole  care  of  the  sacrifices  and  religious  services  of  the 
temple,  most  of  the  important  functions  of  their  office  being  as- 
signed to  each  by  lot. 

All  the  pi'iests  were  Levites,  that  is,  descendants  of  Levi,  through 
Gershom  and  Aaron.  Levi,  however,  had  other  children, 
and  all  their  descendants  were  devoted  to  public  busi- 
ness. They  assisted  the  priests,  formed  the  guard  of  the  taber- 
nacle, and  conveyed  it  from  place  to  place  (Num.  4.  1-20).  In 
David's  time  the  whole  body  was  divided  into  three  classes,  each 
of  which  was  subdivided  into  24  courses.  The  first  class  attended 
upon  the  priests;  the  second  formed  the  choir  of  singers  in  the 
temple,  and  the  third  acted  as  porters  and  guards  (i  Chron.  24.  25, 
26)  in  the  temple  and  at  the  gates. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  Levites  all  acted,  when  not  engaged 
in  the  temple  service,  as  the  instructors  of  the  people  ;  they 
foi'med,  in  fact,  the  learned  class. 

For  the  support  of  this  large  body  of  men  48  cities,  with  a  belt 
of  land  round  each,  were  assigned  :  a  tenth  of  all  the 

eu  suppor  .  p^^Q^^^g  g^jj^j  cattle  of  the  country  (Lev.  27.  ^o:  Num. 
35.  1-8),  of  which  tenth  the  j^^'i^sts  had  a  tenth:  all  shared  also  iu 
another  tenth  of  the  produce,  which  the  people  generally  were  to 
expend  in  feast-offerings,  to  which  the  Levites  were  to  be  invited 
(Deut.  14.  22-27). 

When  not  engaged  in  their  sacerdotal  duties  the  jiriests  dressed 

as  other  men;  but  when  so  engaged  their  tunics,  gir- 

theViests^     ^^®^j  turbans,  &c.,  were  all  of  white  linen  (Exod.  39. 

27,  28).     The  dress  of  the  high  priest  was  both  splendid 

aud  significant.     Over  his  white  tunic  he  wore  a  Avoollen  robe  of 


THE  SACRIFICES   OF  THE  LAW.  413 

blue,  having  on  its  hem  small  golden  bells  (Exod.  28.  31-34)- 
Over  this  was  a  short,  sleeveless  garment — an  ''ephod"  of  fine 
linen,  inwrought  with  gold  and  purple,  and  having  on  each 
shoulder-strap  a  precious  stone,  the  whole  engraven  with  the 
name  of  the  tribes  (28.  5-12).  In  front  was  the  breast-plate  of 
judgment,  similarly  adorned,  each  stone  similarly  engraven  (28. 
15,  21).  On  his  head  was  a  kind  of  mitre,  to  the  front  of  which  was 
fastened  a  plate  of  gold,  inscribed  "Holiness  unto  the  Lord." 
Connected  with  the  breast-plate  was  the  urim  and  thummim,  by 
which  the  priest  was  enabled  to  ascertain  the  will  of  the  invisible 
king.     How  the  response  was  given  is  not  clearly  known. 

To  their  ofi&ce  all  the  priests  were  consecrated  with  a  "  holy 
anointing,"  and  the  spiritual  significance  of  the  whole  institute  is 
plain. 

29.  (3.)  Among  the  Jews,  as  among  all  ancient  nations,  sac- 
rifices formed  the  most  essential  part  of  religious 
worship.     The  subject,  therefore,  is  of  great  im- 
portance, and  as  the  laws  in  relation  to  it  are  scattered  over 
the  various  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  we  give  the  substance  of 
them  in  a  connected  form. 

i.  The  things  offered  were  taken  from  both  the  vegetable  and  the 
animal  kingdom,  those  from  the  former  called  the  blood- 
Things  of-       less  offerings  {-rpoa-ipopeii,   niPI^JD,  minchoth),  and  thotje 
fered.  •  * 

from  the  latter  the   bloody  (D^nZlT,  zevachim,   Buffiai, 

slain  sacrifices).  With  both,  the  mineral  salt,  an  emblem  of  pm-ity, 
was  used. 

From  the  vegetable  kingdom  were  taken  the  meat-offerings  (flour, 
cakes,  parched  com,  frankincense),  and  the  drink-offerings  CSjpJ, 
nesek,  tr-zrovl'^,  Phil.  2.  17),  of  wine,  either  in  its  natural  or  fer- 
mented state.  Both  offerings  were  usually  united,  and  were  cou- 
eidei^ed  as  an  addition  to  the  thank-offerings  made  by  fii-e,  Num.  15. 
5-1 1 :  28.  7-15:  Lev.  14.  10-21. 

Heathen  libations  were  not  unlike  the  drink-offerings  of  the  law. 
II,  I.  462  :  jEn.  6.  254,  with  characteristic  differences  however  : 
they  consisted  of  wine  and  blood,  Sail.  Cat.  sec.  32  :  Ps.  14.  4  : 
Zech.  g.  7. 

The  animals  offered  were  oxen,  goats,  and  sheep  ;  all  were  to  be 
without  blemish,  not  imder  eight  days  old,  nor  over  three  years. 
Doves  were  also  offered  in  some  cases,  Exod.  22.  20  :  12.  5  :  Lev. 
9.  3.  Fishes  wei-e  never  offered,  and  human  sacrifices  were  ex- 
pressly forbidden,  Lev.  18.  21  :  20.  25. 

ii.  Offerings  were  pi-esented  only  in  the  front  court  of  the  sane- 


414  KINDS   OF  SACRIFICES. 

tuaiy,  the  tabernacle,  that  is,  and  afterwards  the 
Place  of  temple,    Lev.   17.  1-9:  Deut.   12.  5-7.      Occasionally, 

however,  sacrifices  were  offered  elsewhere,  without  re- 
prehension. Judges  2.  5.  I  Sam.  7.  17:  9.  12:  i  Kings  18.  19-32. 
iii.  The  object  of  the  legal  sacrifices  was  either  the  expression  of 

gratitude  to  God  or  the  expiation  of  sin,  Thank- 
Object  of         offerings  had,   as  their  object,    the   first:   sin-offsrings 

and  trespass-offerings,  the  second.  Sin  was  expiated, 
it  must  be  remembered,  not  by  the  merit  or  efi&cacy  of  the  sacrifice 
offered,  but  by  the  great  sacrifice  of  the  Son  of  God,  which  it 
typified,  and  in  which  the  spiritual  worshipper  believed.  A  legal 
or  civil  expiation,  however,  was  effected  by  the  sacrifices  of  the 
law  :  they  freed  the  offerer  from  the  legal  penalty  of  trans- 
gression. 

iv.  In  the  performance   of   the    sacrifice,    the   offerer    himself 

legally  purified  (i  Sam.  16.  5:  Exod.  19.   14),  brought 

How  per-  ^j^g  victim  to  the  altar,  and  turning  towards  the  sane- 
formed.  ^^  ,    ,   °  ,  .     T       , 

tuary  (Lev.  2.  3,  4:  3.  i :  17.  4)^  laid  his  hand  upon  its 

head  (Lev.  i.  4:  3.2:  4.  33),  implying  a  transference  of  his  sin  and 
punishment  to  the  victim.  He  then  slew  it  (Lev.  i.  5),  an  act, 
however,  which  the  priest  might  do,  and  sometimes  did  (2  Chr.  29. 
24:  Ezra  6.  24).  As  the  victim  was  slain  the  priest  received  the 
blood,  and  sprinkled  or  poured  it  near  the  different  offerings,  yet 
apart  from  them.  The  victim  was  cut  in  pieces  by  the  offerer  (Lev. 
I.  6),  and  the  fat  was  burnt  by  the  priest.  In  some  sacrifices,  be- 
fore or  after  the  slaying,  the  victim  was  heaved  or  lifted  up,  and 
waved  towards  heaven,  a  symbol  of  it^  presentation  to  Jehovah. 

V.  There  were  various  kinds  of  sacrifices : 
^^"crifices'^^       Burnt-offerings,  sin  and  trespass -offerings,  and  thank- 
offerings. 
1.  Burnt-ofierings,     holocausts    (H'py,    ola,    'oXoKuvrcofia,),    con- 
sisted in  the  immolation  of  a  male  victim,  which  was 

^- ^?™''"  entirely  consumed  in  the  fire.  The  sacrifice  was  slain 
offcrius-s. 

on  the  north  of  the  altar,  depiived  of  the  skin  (which 

belonged  to  the  priest.  Lev.  7.  8),  and  then  cut  in  pieces  by  the 

offerer.    The  blood  was  sprinkled  around  the  altar,  and  the  parts  of 

the  victim  were  laid  separately   upon  the  fire,   which  the  priests 

kept  always  burning. 

The   design  of  burnt-offerings   was  to   make  atonement  for  sins 

in  general  (Lev.  i.  4;.     They  were  presented  daily  in  the  name  of 

the  nation  (Exod.  29.  38-42:  Num.  7.  15-17:  8-12),  on  the  great 

day  of  atonement  (Lev.  16.  3),   and  on  the  three   great  festivalfe. 

They  were  also  presented  by  private  persons  Levitically  unclean,  viz., 

by  women  (Lev.  12.  6-8);  by  lepers  (Lev.  14.  •21-31);  by  Nazarites, 


BIN   AXD   THANK-OFFERINGS.  415 

(^Numb.  6,  ii-r4);  and  by  those  referred  to  iu  Lev.  15.  1-15.  When 
two  doves  were  offered,  one  of  them  was  made  a  bumt-offering, 
Lev.  5.  10.  Hecatombs  of  such  offerings  were  sometimes  i^rcsented, 
Ezra  6.  17:  i  Chron.  29.  21;  and  in  later  times,  even  the  heathen 
sometimes  presented  them,  as  did  Augustus  (Joseph.  Bell.  Jud. 
ii.  17.) 

2.  Trespass-offerings  and  sin-offerings  are  not  easily  distinguished. 
Trespass  and  ^^^  ^^^^  were  generally  presented  for  a  sin  of  omission, 
sin  offerings,  and  the  second  for  one  of  commission  (Jahn  and  others), 
though  this  distinction  does  not  always  obtain,  Lev.  5.  17-19: 
jSTumb.  6.  II :  Lev.  15.  25,  etc.  The  trespass  has  been  thought  the 
less  guilty;  the  sin  the  more  guilty;  sometimes  this  nile  seems 
reversed.  In  fact,  the  two  are  distinguished  in  Scripture,  and  the 
cases  are  prescribed  in  which  each  is  to  be  offered. 

Trespass-offerings  are  enjoined  in  Lev.  7.  i-io,  and  also  in  Numb. 
6.  i2:see  ver.  14:  Lev.  14. 12:  seever.  19:  Lev.  19.  20-22:  Ezra  10. 19. 
The  victims  offered  were  an  ewe  or  she-goat,  doves  or  fine  flour, 
a  ram  or  lamb,  according  to  the  natiire  of  the  case.  Sin-offerings 
are  enjoined.  Lev.  4.  6,  i^-^o.  They  were  offered  by  the  high- 
priest  when  he  had  committed  an  offence,  and  brought  guilt  upon 
the  nation;  when  the  whole  nation  had  sinned  inadvertently, 
and  afterwards  repented;  and  on  the  great  day  of  atonement. 
In  the  first  and  last  cases  the  high -priest  laid  his  hand  on  the 
head  of  the  victim,  confessing  his  sin.  In  the  second  case  the 
elders  laid  their  hand  on  the  victim.  The  transactions  of  the  great 
day  of  atonement  are  exceedingly  significant:  see  Numb.  29.  7-1 1: 
Lev.  16.  1-34:  23.  26-32;  the  azazel,  or  scape-goat,  carrying  off  the 
sins  of  the  people,  and  forming,  with  the  second  goat,  which  was 
sacrificed,  a  single  complete  type  of  the  work  of  our  Lord.  Sin- 
offerings  were  also  presented  by  magistrates  and  private  persons, 
who  had  sinned  through  ignorance,  Lev.  4.  22-26;  and  on  various 
occasions  of  purification.  Lev,  15.  25-30:  15.  2,  14,  15:  Numb.  6. 
10-14:  Lev.  14.  19-31:  9.  23. 

In  all  these  offerings  the  idea  of  substitutionary  expiation  is  in- 
volved. The  blood  was  "the  life;"  and  the  life  of  the  victim  waa 
accepted  for  the  life  of  the  offerer.  Lev.  17.  i:  5.  18:  14.  19. 

3.  Thank-offerings  consisted  of  the  presentation  of  a  bull,  sheep. 
Thank-offer-  o^  goat.  It  was  brought  by  the  offerer,  with  laying  on 
ings.  of  hands,  and  was  slain  by  him  on  the  south  side  of  the 
altar.  The  blood  was  sprinkled  round  the  altar;  the  fat  was  burnt. 
The  "heaved"  breast  and  "waved"  shoulder  belonged  to  the 
priest,  and  the  rest  was  used  as  a  sacrificial  feast:  see  1  Cor.  10.  18. 
Thank-offerings  for  particular  blessings  were  called  "sacrifices  of 
praise"  (miR  oVk',  Sucia  ojuf \07tas) ;  when  presented  from  a  feel- 


416  JEWISH  FESTIVALS, 

ing  of  pious  devotedness,  they  were  called  free-will  offerings.  Some- 
times they  were  offered  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  Numb.  6.  3.  Peace- 
offering  is  the  general  name  for  the  whole  of  this  kind;  and  though 
the  expression  of  gratitude  formed  part  of  the  offerer's  aim,  pro- 
pitiation was  also  involved,  as  is  proved  by  the  title  of  peace-offering 
which  was  given  to  them. 

Everything,  therefore,  under  the  law  was  purified  with  blood — 
thanksgivmgs  and  other  religious  acts,  man's  sins,  and  his  coiTupt 
nature  itself.  For  the  first,  there  was  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood 
of  the  victim ;  for  the  second,  there  were  sin  and  trespass  offerings ; 
and  for  the  last,  there  were  the  whole  burnt-offerings  of  the  daily 
sacrifice  and  of  the  great  festivals.  God  thus  sought  to  impress 
upon  the  people  their  guilt  and  his  holiness,  and  to  reveal  to  them, 
by  line  upon  line,  the  only  way  of  access  to  himself. 

The  repeated  purifications  enjoined  by  the  law  were  no  less 
suggestive  of  the  need  of  practical  holiness,  and  of  the  sanctifying 
influence  of  the  Spint. 

See  on  this  section  Winer's  Kealworterbuch,  or  the  article  on  sacri- 
fice, translated  in  Dr.  Pye  Smith's  Four  Discourses. 

30.  (4.)  The  festivals  of  the  Jews  were  held  weekly,  monthly, 
and  yearly.  Each  seventh  and  fiftieth  year,  moreover,  was 
kept  with  peculiar  solemnities. 

The  weekly  festival  was  the  sabbath,  a  day  consecrated  to  rest  and 
cheerful  devotion  (Psa.  68.  25-27,   etc.)     On  this  day 

^^    ^*  additional  sacrifices  were  presented  (Lev.  24.8:  Numb. 

28.  9).  Children  were  instx'ucted;  and  those  who  were  not  far 
distant  visited  the  temple.  Later  than  the  days  of  the  Pentateuch, 
the  people  seem  to  have  \dsited  the  prophets  (2  Kings  4.  23);  and 
after  the  captivity  synagogues  were  erected  in  many  of  the  towns 
of  Palestine,  where  the  "law  and  the  prophets"  were  read  and 
expounded  (Acts  13.  15).     The  monthly  festival  was  held 

"  ^'  on  the  day  of  the  new  moon,  and  was  announced  by  the 
Bound  of  silver  trumpets  (Numb.  10.  10).  Labour  was  not  inter- 
dicted, but  additional  sacrifices  were  offered.  The  new  moon  of  the 
seventh  month  (Tisri,  or  Oct.)  commenced  the  civil  year.     The  great 

annual  festivals  prescribed  by  the  law  were  three;  and 
Yearly  j  tr  j 

when  they  were  celebrated,  all  the  adult  males  in  Israel 

were  required  to  appear  at  the  sanctuary  (Exod.  23.  14-17).     They 

were  all  intended  to  be  seasons  of  joyous  thanksgiving,  and  were 

commemorative  of  the  kindness  and  favour  of  God. 

I.  The  passover  was  kept  in  remembrance  of  the  destruction  of 

the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  of  the  sparing  of  the 

Israelites,  and  of  their  departure  from  Egypt.     It  begr.u 


FESTIVAI^.  417 

on  the  eve  of  the  14th  of  Abib;  i.  e.,  all  leaven  waa  removed  froui 
the  house  on  the  14th  day,  between  the  evenings,  the  feast  being 
reckoned  fi-om  the  i5tli  to  the  2i8t.  Between  the  evenings, 
also,  the  paschal  lamb  (a  ram  or  a  goat  of  a  year  old,  Exod. 
12.  1-16)  was  slain  before  the  altar  (Deut.  16.  2-6).  The  blood 
was  sprinkled  Coriginally  on  the  door-posts,  and  later)  at  the 
bottom  of  the  altar ;  the  lamb  itself  was  roasted  whole,  with  two 
spits  thxnist  transversely  through  it,  and  was  then  eaten  with  bitter 
herbs;  unleavened  bread  was  broken  by  the  master  of  the  family 
and  distributed  to  each,  not  fewer  than  ten  nor  more  than  twenty 
being  admitted  to  the  feast.  After  the  third  cup  (the  ''cup  of 
blessing ")  had  been  drunk,  praises  were  sung,  generally,  in  later 
times,  Psa.  115-118;  and  sometimes,  in  addition,  Psa,  120-137.  It 
was  in  connection  with  this  feast,  and  towards  its  close,  that  our 
Lord  instituted  the  last  supper  (Matt.  26:  i  Cor.  10:  Mark  14). 
During  every  day  of  the  festival  additional  sacrifices  were  offered; 
and  on  the  i6th  Abib,  the  first  ripe  cars  of  corn  were  presented  at 
the  sanctuary,  and  then  the  han-est  commenced  (Exod.  12.  1-27: 
Lev.  23.  9-14). 

2.  The  fiftieth  day  after  the  second  day  of  the  passover  (the  16th), 

came  the  feast  of  pentecost,  called  also  the  feast  of  weeks 
(t.  e.,  seven  clear  weeks  from  the  i6th  Abib).  This  was 
properly  the  feast  of  the  completed  harvest  of  the  ground.  Loaves 
made  of  the  new  meal  and  grain  were  offered  as  first-fruits  (Lev. 
23.  17).  Many  burnt  offerings  were  now  presented  (Lev.  23.  18-20), 
and  Jews  residing  out  of  Palestine  generally  chose  this  occasion  for 
visiting  Jeinisalem. 

3.  In  autumn,  from  the  15  th  to  the  23rd  of  Tisri  (October),  the 

feast  of  tahemacles  was  celebrated,  the  23  rd  being  the 
Tabernacles,  ^i^j^f  ^j^y  ^^^^^  ^^^^  (L^..^  23.  34-42;  John  7.  23).  It 
commemorated  the  sojourning  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
and  was  intended  also  as  the  feast  of  the  ingathering  of  all  the  fruits 
of  autumn.  Booths  were  constructed  of  branches  of  trees  in  all 
parts  of  the  city,  and  here  the  people  resided  for  the  week.  This 
feast  was  the  most  joyous  of  all;  ''the  Great  Hosanna"  it  was 
called;  and  more  public  sacrifices  were  offered  than  at  any  other 
(Numb.  19.  13-37:  compare  with  Lev.  23.  38-40:  Numb.  29.  39: 
Deut.  16.  14,  15).  To  the  ordinary  legal  services  of  this  festival 
later  Jews  added  others.  Water  was  drawn  from  the  pool  of  Siloam, 
carried  with  great  pomp  to  the  temple,  and  poured  before  the  altar 
(see  Isa.  12.  3).  Priests  also  ascended  the  steps  which  separated  the 
C07irt  of  the  women  from  the  inner  court,  singing  the  Psalms  of 
Degrees,  Psa.  120-134.  These  customs,  however,  are  comparatively 
modem. 

T  3 


418  FESTIVALS. 

The  fifth  day  before  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  the  loth  of  Tisri 
The  day  of  (October),  was  the  great  day  of  atonement;  the  only 
p.tonement.  fast  appointed  by  the  law  (Lev.  23,  27-29:  25.  9:  Acts 
27.  9).  The  people  then  bewailed  the  sins  of  the  year,  and  cere- 
monial expiation  was  made  by  the  high-priest,  who  on  that  day 
alone  entered  into  the  holy  of  holies,  where  he  sprinkled  the  blood 
of  the  goat  which  had  been  sacrificed.  This  goat  was  one  of  two 
which  had  been  appointed  by  lot  to  their  separate  destinations. 
The  other,  after  the  sins  of  the  people  had  been  confessed  over  it, 
and  so  laid  upon  its  head,  was  sent  alive  to  be  lost  in  the  wilder- 
ness (Lev.  16.  6-10).  All  this  was  done  to  make  expiation  for  the 
sins  of  the  people  (Lev.  16.  11 -19). 

Other  fasts  were  instituted  in  later  times,  connected  with  the 
Other  and  siege  of  Jerusalem  (loth  of  the  loth  month),  the  cap- 
latcr /«sis.  ture  of  the  city  (the  1 7th  of  the  4th  month),  the  burn- 
ing of  the  temple  (the  9th  of  the  5  th  month),  the  death  of  Gedaliah 
(the  3rd  of  the  7th  month)  :  see  Jer.  52.  6,  etc. :  Zech.  7.  3,  5: 
8.  19. 

The  first  day  of  the  moon  of  Tisri  (October)  was  celebrated  as 
The  new  the  commencement  of  the  civil  year.  It  was  introduced, 
year.  -j^y  ^j^g  blowing  of  trumpets,  Avith  unwonted  solemnity, 

and  hence  its  name,  the  feast  of  trumpets,  Jer.  23.  23-25.  Addi- 
tional off'erings  and  sacrifices  were  now  presented,  Numb.  29.  29; 
and,  unlike  the  ordinary  new  moons,  it  was  kept  as  a  festival. 

There  were  also  two  other  feasts,  though  not  appointed  by  law, 

.  which  require  notice,   as  they  are  often  mentioned  in 

Jewish  history.  The  first  is  the  feast  of  Purim  ({.  e. 
lots).  It  falls  on  the  14th  or  15th  of  Adar  (March),  and  com- 
memorates the  defeat  of  Haman's  plot  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Jews  (Esth.  3.  7:  9.  26).  It  is  also  called  Mordecai's  day  (2  Mac. 
The  dedica-  15.  36).  The  other  is  the  feast  of  the  dedication,  ap- 
tion.  pointed   to   celebrate   the    re-establishment   of    Divine 

worship  in  Jerusalem,  after  Antiochus  Epiphanes  had  been  van- 
quished and  the  temple  purified,  B.C.  164,  John  10.  22.  It  was 
observed  for  eight  days,  from  the  25  th  of  Kisleu  (December),  and 
was  sometimes  called  the  feast  of  lights,  from  the  illuminations 
in  which,  at  that  season,  the  Jews  indulged. 

Every  seventh  year  was  sabbatic ;  and  during  that  year  the  land 
The  sahbatic  was  uutilled  and  fruits  ungathered,  except  by  the  poor; 
year.  ^j^p  people,  however,  were  free  to  hunt,  to  feed  their 

flocks,  repair  their  buildings,  and  engage  in  commerce.  The  year 
began  on  the  ist  of  Tisri,  and  the  institution  was  intended  to  secure 
rest  for  the  soil,  to  teach  economy  and  foresight,  and  probably  to 
impress  upon  the  people  their  dependence.     Special  services  were 


FESTIVALS  :  THEIR  USE.  419 

held  at  the  temple  during  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  Deut.  31.  10,  13 : 
Bee  Exod.  23,  10,  11:  Lev.  25.  1-7:  Deut,  26.  33-35.  This  institute, 
as  Moses  predicted  (Lev.  26.  34,  35),  was  long  disregarded,  2  Chron. 
36.  21;  but  after  the  captivity  it  was  observed  more  carefully. 

The  year  after  seven  sabbatic  years,  or  the  fiftieth,  was  the 
.  jubilee.  Lev.  25.  8-1 1.     This  year  was   announced  on 

the  loth  of  Tisri,  the  great  day  of  propitiation.  In 
addition  to  the  regulations  of  the  sabbatic  year,  there  were  others 
quite  peculiar.  All  servants,  or  slaves,  obtained  their  freedom 
(Lev.  25.  39-46:  Jer.  34.  8,  etc.).  All  the  land  throughout  the 
country,  and  the  houses  in  the  cities  of  the  Levites,  sold  during 
the  preceding  fifty  years  were  returned  to  the  sellers,  except  such 
as  had  been  consecrated  to  God,  and  not  redeemed  (Lev.  25.  10, 
T3-17,  24-28:  27.  16-21).  All  mortgaged  lands,  too,  were  released 
without  charge. 

The  completeness  of  the  release  secm-ed  by  these  arrangements 
makes  the  jubilee  a  type  of  the  gospel  (Isa.  61.2:  Luke  4.  19). 

The  moral  and  spiritual  uses  of  these  festivals  is  plain. 
They  all  tended  to  unite  the  people  in  a  holy  brotherhood  and  to 
separate  them  from  the  heathen.  They  preserved  the  memory  of 
past  mercies.  They  illustrated  the  Divine  holiness.  They  lightened 
the  load  of  poverty,  checked  opjjression  and  covetousness,  and  were 
all  either  types  of  gospel  blessings,  or  suggestive,  to  a  spiritual 
mind,  of  gospel  truths. 

31 .  Let  tlie  whole  law  be  thus  studied  ;  regard  it  as  a  scheme 
intended  to  reveal,  or  suggest,  or  impress,  or  preserve,  spiri- 
tual truth,  and  not  only  will  objections  be  removed,  but  the 
whole  will  appear  a  gorgeous,  instructive  lesson,  eminently- 
suited  to  the  condition  of  the  nation  to  whom  it  was  addressed. 


CHAPTER  II. 
Historical  and  Poetical  Books  to  the  Death  of  Solomon. 

Sec.  I.  The  Historical  Boohs  of  Scripture  generally. 

32.  The  historical  books  of  Scripture — from  Joshua  to 
Historical  Nehemiah — contain  the  history  of  the  Jewish 
?8h*arraiS-  ^hurch  and  nation  from  the  first  settlement  in 
ment  of.         Canaan  to  their  return  after  the  captivity  in  Baby- 


420  AUTHORS   OF  THE  HISTORICAL   BOOKS. 

Ion.  The  books,  as  they  are  placed  iu  the  Enghsh  Bible,  are 
twelve  in  all,  though  the  Jews  reckoned  them  but  six,  classing 
Euth  with  Judges,  Nehemiah  with  Ezra,  and  nuro.bering  the 
double  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  respectively, 
as  one.  In  early  times,  moreover,  they  were  all  placed  among 
the  prophets  ;  and  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  are 
still  placed  in  Hebrew  Bibles  in  this  list.  Taking  into  account, 
therefore,  the  fact  that  large  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  and 
of  the  Prophets  are  historical,  and  that  a  different  arrangement 
was  adopted  by  the  Jews,  the  modern  classification  of  "  his- 
torical books  "  is  not  very  appropriate.  Having  mentioned 
it,  however,  it  may  be  weU  to  give  here  some  information  con- 
cerning the  books  of  which  it  is  composed. 

33.  The  historical  books  of  Scripture  claim,  like  the  rest, 
inspired  authority,  and  the  general  evidence  of  their 
whom  writ-     inspiration  is  not  different  from  that  of  the  Pen- 
*^°"  tateuch.     Some  of  these  books  bear  the  names  of 

distinguished  prophets,  and  the  rest  are  attributed  to  writers 
who  had  the  same  high  character.  The  annals  of  the  Hebrew 
nation  were  kept  only  by  persons  appointed  to  their  ofiice ; 
and  the  writers,  who  are  occasionally  mentioned  in  Scripture 
as  the  penmen  of  sacred  history,  are  expressly  called  prophets 
or  seers.  ^  The  narrative  portion  of  Scripture,  moreover, 
displays  throughout  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  secret 
motives  of  men,  and  with  the  purposes  of  God  ;^  it  reveals  his 
mercy  and  judgment  in  the  clearest  predictions  ;"  it  exhibits 
unexampled  impartiality,  and  enforces  everywhere  practical 
hohness.  The  facts  it  records  are  appealed  to  or  quoted 
throughout  the  Bible  ;  the  writings  which  record  them  were 
received  into  the  Hebrew  canon ;  in  Ezra's  collection  they 

*  The  history  of  David,  for  example,  was  written  by  Samuel, 
iSTathan,  and  Gad,  i  Chron.  29.  29:  of  Solomon,  by  Nathan,  Abijah, 
and  Iddo  the  prophets,  2  Chron.  9.  29:  of  Eehoboam,  by  Shemaiah 
and  Iddo,  2  Chron.  12.  15:  of  Abijah,  by  Iddo;  of  Jehoshaphat,  by 
Jehu  the  prophet,  2  Chron.  20.  34:  1  Kings  16.  i  ;  and  of  Uzziali 
and  Hezekiah  (including  probably  the  two  intermediate  kijQgK),  by 
Isaiah,  2  Chron.  26.  22:  32.  32.  Even  in  rebellious  Israel,  we  read 
of  several  prophets,  and  it  was  no  doubt  their  business  to  record 
what  occurred  in  that  country. 

^  I  Kings  T2.  26,  23:  Esther,  chap«.  5:  6. 

"  See  chap,  on  Prophecy,  §  45  ^ 


HISTORICAL  BOOKS:   THEIR  MORAL  COMPLETENESS.        421 

are  placed  among  the  produetions  of  prophets,  and  are  cited 
by  apostles  and  by  our  Lord.  That  in  these  writings  other 
documents  are  named,  as  the  depositories  of  ampler  informa- 
tion, and  that  some  of  them  were  written  or  collected  long 
after  the  events  they  describe,  are  facts  which  create  no  diffi- 
culty, and  are  in  accordance  with  what  we  know  of  the  economy 
of  inspiration  in  later  times.  They  account,  moreover,  for  the 
occasional  blending  of  expressions,  evidently  contemporane- 
ous with  the  events  described,  with  others  of  clearly  a  later 
origin. 

34.  The  Bible  is  (as  we  have  seen)  a  selection  from  the  his- 
Principies  on  ^^^1  ^^  *^®  church,  giving  just  so  much  as  was 
which  the  sufficient  to  teach  us  our  duty,  reveal  the  character 
Scripture  is  of  God,  and  prepai'c  us  for  the  coming  of  his  Son. 
written.  j^  ^g  ^  history,  moreover,  of  the  church  only,  or 
of  the  heathen  as  connected  with  its  sufferings  and  destiny  ; 
and  nowhere  is  this  pecuharity  of  the  Bible  more  marked  than 
in  the  portions  called  historical.  During  the  times  it  chroni- 
cles, there  were  many  mighty  nations  celebrated  for  learning 
and  valour,  for  illustrious  men  and  illustrious  actions ;  yet 
their  records  are  all  lost  in  silence  or  in  fable,  while  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jews,  who  "dwelt  a^Dart,"  and  were  "not  reckoned 
among  the  nations,"  has  been  carefully  preserved.  Such  con- 
cern has  God  for  his  church,  and  so  dear  are  its  interests  to 
him,  Deut.  32.  8,  9. 

Another  peculiarity  is  no  less  marked.  Pohtical  events 
of  deep  interest  are  passed  over ;  the  history  of  long  reigns 
is  compressed  into  a  few  sentences ;  national  concerns  give 
place  to  matters  of  private  life,  history  to  biography,  a  mighty 
monarch  to  a  poor  widow  (2  Kings  3 :  4).  These  omissions 
and  digressions,  however,  are  all  explained  by  the  design  of 
the  Bible.  It  aims  to  reveal  the  grace  and  providence  of  God, 
to  show  the  workings  of  human  nature,  and  the  blessedness 
of  obedience,  while  it  interweaves  with  the  whole,  lessons  and 
truths  preparatory  to  the  work  and  reign  of  the  Messiah. 

35.  Within  these  limits,  however,  the  completeness  of  Scrip- 

tare  history  is  both  characteristic  and  instructive, 
complete-  It  explains  at  once  the  law  and  the  prophets,  the 
"^^^"  psalms  and  the  gospel,  the  future  and  the  past.     To 

man,  to  nations,  to  the  church,  every  chapter  is  a  lesson  ;  and 
the  history,  studied  in  the  hght  of  the  law  and  prophets,  and 


J 


422  OUTLIKE   OF  EARLY   HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

applied  under  the  guidance  of  the  gospel,  will  teach  and  illus- 
trate, either  by  examples  of  excellence  or  by  contrasts,  both 
our  duty  and  the  blessedness  of  obedience. 

Sec.  2.  Brief  outline  of  these  Historical  Boohs. 

36.  Keeping,  then,  to  a  chronological  division  of  the  books, 
Books  from  the  second  portion  of  Scripture — Joshua  to  Solo- 
deaSf  Solo-  ^*^^ — ^^  readily  divisible  into  two  parts  ;  the  frst 
mon.  extending  from  the  entry  into  the  land  of  promise 

to  the  estabUshment  of  the  monarchy  ;  and  the  seco« (breaching 
to  the  death  of  Solomon.  The  first  period  contains  the  history 
of  the  conquest  and  settlement  of  Canaan  ;  of  the  decay  of 
the  spirit  of  obedience  after  the  death  of  Joshua ;  the  subse- 
quent punishment  and  restorations  of  tl»e  people ;  and  the 
second  describes  the  revival  of  that  spirit  under  Samuel  and 
David.  Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  and  i  Sam.  i-io,  include 
events  extending  over  365  years,  i  and  2  Sam.,  i  Kings  to  11, 
I  Chron.  2  Chron.  to  9,  include  the  remaining  events,  which 
extend  over  120  years  more  ;  on  the  latter  period  all  agree  ; 
on  the  former,  there  is  much  difference  of  opinion  (see  §  356.) 

Briefly  epitomized — 

/  Joshua  may  be  divided  into  three  parts  : — 

1.-12.  Giving  an  accoimt  of  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  with  a 
Epitome  of  history  of  the  re-estabhshment  of  Circumcision.  Camp 
Joshua.  at  Gilgal.     Seven  years  war :  thirty-one  kings  destroyed. 

1 3.-22.  The  distribution  of  Canaan  by  lot,  each  tribe  obtaining  a 
portion  in  agreement  with  the  predictions  of  Jacob  and  Moses. 
Tabernacle  at  Shiloh.     Two  half  tribes  return. 
23.  24.  Joshua's  final  admonitions  and  death.     25  years. 
Judges   contains  a  histoiy  of  subsequent  conquests  imperfectly 
completed,  and  ending  often  in  intermarriages  with  the 
Canaanites,   and  subsequent  idolatry,    1.-3.  4:  1 7.-22. 
of  seven  Servitudes  and  thirteen  Judges,  of  whom  Ehud  and  Shamgar, 
Deborah  and  Barak,  are  deemed  by  Usher,  contemporaries. 

Chaps,  1 7. -21  belong  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  history,  309  yeai's. 

Ruth  gives  the  history  of  events  which  occurred  about  the  middle 

of  Judges  or  even  earlier,  as  Obed,  the  son  of  Ruth,  was 

'^    ■  grandfather  of  David.     His  descent  from  JudaJi  is  given, 

4.  18.     See  Gen.  38.  29.     Matt.  r.  3. 

I  Sam.  I. -10  gives  the   history  of  the  judicature  of  Eli,  1.-5, 


JOSHUA:  AUTHORSHIP.  423 

and  of  Samuel  v.ith  subsequent  events  to  the  designation 
Samuel,  etc.       ^  ^i     i 

of  Saul,  5. -10.     21  years. 

1  Sam.  10,  to  2  Sam.  i.  27,  and  i  Chron.  10.-12.  give  the  reign 
of  Saul,  the  history  of  his  wars  and  unfaithfulness.     40  years. 

2  Sam.  2.  I,  to  r  Kings  2.  11 :  i  Chron.  11.  i,  to  i  Chron.  29.  30 
give  the  reign  of  David,  his  victories,  his  afflictions,  and  their  cause : 
his  repentance  and  i-estoration.     40  years. 

I  Kings  2.  12,  to  II.  43  :  2  Chi'on.  i.  i,  to  9.  31  give  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  his  glory,  and  the  extension  of  his  kingdom.     40  years^^/ 
PsALSis,  Solomon's  Song,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes. 

Sec.  3.  The  Books  of  Joshuay  Judges,  and  Paith. 

Tlie  Booh  of  Joshua. 

37.  The  book  of  Joshua  is  composed  of  materials  supplied, 
in  all  probability,  by  Joshua  himself,  with  two  or 
ors  ip.    ^j^j.gg  additions  made  by  a  later  writer. 

The  first  fact  may  be  gathered  from  the  general  tenor  of  the  book, 
Genuineness  "^^^^ich  is  the  narrative  of  a  contemporaiy  and  eye-witness 
and  autben-  of  the  events  described  (5.1:  6.  25) :  from  chap.  24.  26, 
^^^  ^'  from  the  character  of  Joshua  as  an  instructor  and  in- 

spired prophet  (i  Kings  16.  34:  see  Josh.  6.  26,  and  compare  Eccl. 
46.  i),  and  from  uniform  Jewish  tradition.  That  the  book  must 
have  been  written  before  the  days  of  David  or  Solomon  appears  from 
15.  63,  compared  with  2  Sam.  5.  7-9,  and  from  16.  10,  compared 
with  I  Kings  9.16.  AdcUtions  to  the  oiiginal  documents  may  be 
seen  in  19.  47  (Judges  18.  27-9:  15.  13,  19,  see  Judges  i.  11-16), 
and  24.  29-33.  The  facts  recorded  in  this  book  ai-e  repeatedly 
cited,*  and  several  predictions  are  foimd  in  the  book  itself.^ 

Joshua,  whose  victories  are  described,  was  anEphraimite  (b.  1536), 
one  of  the  spies,  a  faithful  servant  and  companion  of 
18  ory  jjQggg  elm'ing  many  years.  He  was  permitted  to  ascend 
Sinai  with  him,  just  previous  to  the  giving  of  the  law.  He  seems  also 
to  have  been  intrusted  with  the  special  care  of  the  tabernacle, 
Exod.  33.  IT.  After  the  death  of  Moses  he  took  the  command  of  the 
Israelites,  having  been  early  designated  to  that  office,  by  God  him- 
self. Originally  he  was  called  Oshea,  a  saviour,  or  one  saved;  but 
afterwards  Moses  called  him  Joshua,  *'he  shall  save,"  or  ''the  sal- 

^  I  Chron,  2.  7:  12.  18:  Psa.  44.  114-  3,  5:  Isa.  28.  21:  Hab. 
3.  2. 

*»  See  Josh.  i.  9:  3.  13  (see  4.  18):  6.  26  (see  i  Kings  16.  34),  etc. 


424  JOSHUA:  lessoxs. 

vatiou  of  Jehovah,"  referring  no  doubt  to  the  Avork  which  God  was 
to  accomplish  by  him.     In  this  office  he  is  a  type  of  our  Lord. 

His  character  and  history  are  highly  instructive.  The  Spirit  was 
andcha-  ^^  ^^^j  Numb.  27.  18.     Having  a  certain  promise  of 

racter.  success  (chap,  i.)  he  yet  prudently  used  whatever  means 

were  likely  to  secure  it.  He  sent  spies  and  disciplined  his  forces. 
Not  resting,  however,  in  these,  but  looking  still  to  God.  Thus 
before  attacking  the  Canaanites  he  solemnly  renewecl  the  dedication 
of  himself  and  the  people  (5.),  and  in  seasons  of  emergency  pought 
by  prayer  special  blessing  and  help  (lo.  12-14).  "  Efforts  and 
prayer,"  ''zeal  and  dependence"  were  cjcarly  his  rule.  His  piety 
and  devotion  are  beautifully  displayed  in  his  closing  appeals,  and 
the  spirit  of  affectionate  submission  with  which  the  people  received 
them  gives  us  a  favourable  impression  of  his  influence  and  of  their 
fidelity  (23.  8).  The  discipline  of  the  v^dlderness  had  not  been 
unblessed. 

38.  Mark  in  Rahab  the  power  and  rewards  of  faith  ;  she  was  herself 
Lessons.  saved  with  her  house,  and  she  became — though  of  the 

Kahab.  race  of  Canaan — an  ancestor  of  David,  and  of  Christ. 

(Heb.  II.  31). 

Our  victories  are  of  God:  Implicitly  obey  God's  commands: 
Jericho,  Detection    and    punishment    follow    sin:     God    is  no 

Achan.  respecter  of  persons — are  lessons  taught  in  the  history 

of  Jericho  and  of  Achan,  7. 

The  repeated  renewals  of  the  covenant  recorded  in  this  book,  are 
Covenant  re-  solemn  and  instructive,  5:  23:  24.  The  Israelites  were 
newed.  the  chosen  people  of  God;  they  were  his  too  by  personal 

consecration.  Often  throughout  their  history,  these  covenants  were 
renewed. 

The  destruction  of  the  Canaanites  is  a  fearful  admonition  of 
Destruction  *^®  ^^^^  issues  of  transgression.  Compared  with  the 
of  the  Israelites,  they  were,   probably,  a   disciplined,  valiant 

naani  s.  people ;  but  they  seem  to  have  made  little  effoi^t  to  repel 
the  invaders.  Perhaps  they  trusted  to  the  ''  swellings  of  Jordan," 
which  at  the  time  when  Joshua  entered  Canaan  (the  vernal  equinox), 
made  the  stream,  as  they  supposed,  impassable;  or,  perhaps,  as  one 
of  their  number  expressed  it,  "  the  terror  of  the  God  of  the  He- 
brews" had  fallen  upon  them.  They  were  certainly  fearfully 
wicked  (Lev.  18.24-30:  Deut.  9.  4:  18.  10-12^.  Their  idolatry  had, 
as  idolatry  ever  does,  augmented  licentiousness  and  cruelty.  The 
Divine  will  they  had  once  known,  for  they  were  descendants  of 
Noah,  and  for  centuries  the  light  of  an  early  revelation  had  lingered 


JOSHUA:  LESSONS.  425 

among  them  (Gren.  14).  They  had  been  warned— by  the  deluge,  by 
the  history  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh, 
the  recent  overthi'ow  of  then-  eastern  neighbours  the  Amorites,  the 
passage  of  the  Jordan,  the  captui'e  of  Jericho,  the  preservation  of 
Rahab,  and  the  convictions  of  their  own  conscience.  Their  removal 
from  Palestine,  moreover,  seems  to  have  been  essential  for  the  pre- 
servation of  the  Israelites  from  the  contaminating  influence  of 
idolatry,  and  they  had  the  alternative  of  flight.  In  fact,  many 
sailed  to  the  distant  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  there  founded 
flouiishing  colonies,  thus  preserving,  to  comparatively  modem 
times,  records  of  the  God  who  fought  against  them. 

Some  may  object  that  the  war  in  which  they  were  exterminated 
was  cruel,  and  that  they  might  have  been  removed  by  famine  or  pesti- 
lence. But  to  the  first  objection  it  is  a  sufficient  reply  that,  the 
cruelties"  thus  practised  were  common  to  the  age,  and  that  in  exter- 
minating a  very  guilty  people,  God  did  not  direct  milder  usages 
than  those  which  generally  prevailed  (Josh.  8.)  The  second  objec- 
tion is  answered  by  the  fact  that  no  plan  could  have  made  clearer 
or  more  impressive  the  power  and  righteousness  of  God,  his  infinite 
superiority  to  the  idols  of  those  nations,  and  his  righteous  hatred  of 
the  crimes  into  which  they  had  fallen.  It  maybe  added  that  by  similar 
discipline  the  Israelites  themselves  were  chastised,  and  the  general 
system  involved  in  these  events  is  strictly  analogous  to  the  course 
of  moral  government  still  exercised  in  the  world;  with  this  dif- 
ference only,  that  now  men  act  as  rods  of  God's  anger  by  tacit  per- 
mission; then,  under  his  immediate  authority. 

As  the  triumphs,  through  faith,  of  the  Israelites  may  be  considered 
typical  of  the  final  triumph  of  the  church,  and  of  every  Christian, 
through  Jesus,  the  Captain  of  our  salvation,  the  Author  and  Finisher 
of  our  faith  (Heb.  2.  10:  12.  2),  so  the  destruction  of  the  Canaanites 
takes  its  place  with  the  deluge,  and  the  final  overthrow  of  Jeru- 
salem, as  a  signal  proof  of  God's  displeasure  against  sin,  and  may 
be  considered  as  an  emblem  of  the  judgment  of  the  great  day,  Psa. 
109:  Luke  19. 

39,  And,  now,  God's  promise  has  been  in  part  fulfilled:  the 
How  far  is  Jews  have  entered  Canaan  ;  the  tabernacle  of  God 
S  Abraham  ^^^  heen  Set  up  in  Shiloh  ;  the  law  has  been  pro- 
fuifiiied.  mulgated  and  accepted.  In  its  morality,  it  is  emi- 
nently holy  ;  in  its  civil  institutes,  adapted  to  preserve  the 
people  peculiar -and  separate,  and  to  set  forth  the  reality  of 
the  divine  government ;  and  in  its  ceremonies,  it  is  a  prophetic 
symbol  of  the  gospel — but  only  in  part.  The  original  promise 
of  a  blessing  to  all  nations,  ratified  to  Abraham,  and  renewed 


426  TH2  PENTATEUCH  AND   JOSHUA. 

to  the  other  patriarchs,  though  it  included  the  possession  of 
Canaan,  seems  too  comprehensive  to  end  there.  The  predic- 
tion of  the  coming  dignity  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  ;  the  prophecy 
of  Balaam ;  the  announcement  by  Moses  of  another  greater 
Prophet ;  and,  especially,  the  predictions  of  the  31st  of  Deut. 
(see  also  Lev.  26,  and  Deut.  28),  foretelling  the  sins  of  the 
people,  and  the  consequences  of  them  in  the  dispersion  of 
their  race,  aU  seemed  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  Israelite 
to  an  enlarged  dispensation.  They  plainly  forbade  him  to  rest 
altogether  in  Canaan  or  his  law.  Everything  implied  a  coming 
universal  blessing,  a  kingdom,  a  revelation  not  nigh,  a  prophet 
from  among  the  people,  a  country  whose  inhabitants  should 
no  more  go  out,  even  for  ever.  The  revelation  of  these  bless- 
ings was  not  always  clear ;  but  it  was  clear  enough  to  excite 

inquiry  and  justify  faith.  The  position  of  the 
of  the*pious°  pio^s  Israehte,  therefore,  was  not  altogether  unlike 
Israelite  like  our  own.     From  Canaan  he  looked  back  on  fulfilled 

predictions,  and  forward  to  a  glorious  future.  Much 
of  his  future  is  now  past ;  and  tve  also  look  back  on  predictions 
gloriously  fulfilled ;  others,  again,  and  in  some  sense,  even 
these,  are  unfulfilled.  AU  nations  are  not,  even  yet,  blessed 
in  Him.  A  tlnrd  point  of  contemplation  for  pious  Jews  and 
devout  Christians  remains ;  and  the  certainty  of  the  predic- 
tions, whose  fulfilment  is  to  intervene,  is  assured  to  us  by 
the  records  of  the  past. 

40.  No  smaU  light  will  be  thrown  upon  Joshua  and  Judges 
Joshua  and  if  we  study  them  with  the  Pentateuch,  to  which, 
Penfateuci?^  more  than  to  Samuel,  they  belong.  Between  these 
whatthebook  books  there  is  the  same  connection  as  between  the 
the  Gospels.    Gospels  and  the  Acts. 

The  Pentateuch  gives  the  history  of  the  doings  of  the  great  law- 
giver and  of  the  laws  on  which  the  ancient  economy  was  to  be 
founded.  Joshua  gives  an  account  of  the  establishment  of  the 
nation  itself,  according  to  the  repeated  promise  of  God.  The  Book 
of  Judges  marks  the  corruption  which  so  early  crept  into  the 
ancient  church. 

The  Gospels  give  the  life  of  the  greater  prophet  and  the  laws  on 
which  his  church  was  to  be  established.  The  book  of  Acts  gives 
the  history  of  its  actual  establishment,  according  to  the  pronuse  of 
its  founder.  The  history  of  the  Judges  has  its  counterpart  in  facta 
referred  to  in  the  Epistles.     If  the  various  books  be  read  together 


JUDGES  :   AUTHORSHIP.  427 

and  compared,  the  connection  of  tlie  two  dispeusatiou-s,  and  the 
differences  between  them,  will  more  plainly  appear.  Study  the 
ritual  of  the  law  in  the  incarnation  and  death  of  Christ,  and  com- 
pare the  struggles  and  victories  of  the  Jews  with  those  of  the 
chm-ch.  Contrasts  will  be  heightened  by  the  comparison.  The 
genius  and  spu-it  of  the  gospel  will  appear  the  moi-e  gloriovis;  nor 
less  glorious  will  be  the  character  and  dignity  of  our  Lord.  He 
combined  in  his  own  person  the  offices  of  legislator,  priest,  and 
leader;  offices  filled  of  old  by  Moses,  and  Aaron,  and  Joshua,  each 
of  whom  was,  in  his  appropriate  place,  a  type  of  Him. 

Tl^e  Book  of  Judges. 

41.  The  authorship  of  Judges  is  not  certainly  known,  though 
Jewish  tradition  ascribes  it  to  Samuel.     From  the 
and  authenti-  book  itself,  we  gather  that  it  was  written  after  the 
"•^y-  commencement  of  the  monarchy,  19.  i  :  21.  25,  and 

before  the  accession  of  David,  i.  21 :  2  Sam.  5.  6-8.  The 
"  liouse  of  God  "  •efers,  therefore,  as  in  Joshua,  to  the  taber- 
nacle, 20.  18  (Jotih.  9.  23),  and  the  "  captivity  "  spoken  of  in 
18.  30,  to  some  contemporary  servitude,  see  Psa.  78.  60,  61, 
where  the  same  phrase  is  employed ;  mimy  of  the  sacred 
writers  allude  to  or  quote  this  book,  i  Sam.  12.  9-11  :  2  Sam. 
II.  21  :  Psa.  83.  II  :  68  :  89  :  Isa.  9.  4  :  10.  26. 

The  judges,  whose  administrations  for  about  300  years  are  hei'e 
Character  of  described,  were  not  a  regular  succession  of  governors, 
the  judges.  but  occasional  deliverers  raised  up  by  God,  to  rescue 
Israel  from  oppression  and  to  administer  justice.  Without  as- 
suming the  state  of  royal  authority,  they  acted  for  the  time  as 
vicegerents  of  Jehovah,  the  invisible  king.  Then*  power  seems  to 
have  been  not  unlike  that  of  the  suffetes  (D''L3D*j')  of  Cax-thage  and 
Tyre,  or  of  the  archons  of  Athens.  The  government  of  the  people 
may  be  described  as  a  republican  confederacy  ;  the  elders  and 
princes  having  authority  in  their  respective  tribes. 

The  moral  character  of  the  Israehtes,  as  described  in  this  book. 
Moral  con-  seems  to  have  undergone  a  sad  change,  Tlie  generation 
ditionofthe  who  were  contemporaries  viith  Joshua  were  both 
courageou:3  and  faithful,  and  free  in  a  great  measure 
from  the  weakness  and  obstinacy  which  had  dishonoured  their 
fathers  (Judg.  2.  7).  Their  first  ardour,  however,  had  somewhat 
cooled,  and  more  than  once  they  fell  into  a  state  of  indifference 
which  Joshua  found  it  needful  to  rebuke.  Perhaps  the  whole  ter- 
ritory of  Palestine  was  more  than  they  needed  or  could  usefully 


428  RUTH:   LESSONS. 

occup3'.  As  each  ti-ibe  received  its  portion,  they  became  so  en- 
grossed in  cultivating  it,  or  so  much  fonder  of  ease  than  of  war, 
that  they  grew  unwilling  to  help  the  rest.  All  found  it,  moreover, 
more  convenient  to  make  slaves  of  their  subjugated  nations  than  to 
expel  them.  This  policy  was  tinwdse.  It  was  also  sinful.  The 
results  were  soon  seen.  Another  generation  arose.  Living  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  idolaters,  and  with  idolaters  even  in 
their  country,  the  Israelites  copied  their  example,  intermarried 
A\dth  them,  and  became  contaminated  with  their  abominations, 
Judg.  2.  13.  The  Canaanites,  moreover,  left  alone,  gathered 
strength  to  make  head  against  the  chosen  race;  and  in  the  same 
degi-ee  the  latter,  yielding  to  licentiousness,  ease,  and  idolatry,  lost 
the  energy  and  faith  of  their  fathers.  So  sin  multiplies  in  the 
world.  So  sin  in  this  case,  as  ever,  brought  with  it  its  punishment. 
Sinners  are  but  filled  "  %%'ith  their  own  ways;"  and  in  their  punish- 
ment God  illustrates  his  righteousness  and  tiaith,  Judg.  2.  14-18. 

The  grand  moral  lesson  of  the  whole  narrative  is  given  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  second  chapter. 

It  is  just,  however,  to  add,  that  the  whole  p'fiiod  must  not  be 
regai'ded  as  an  uninterrupted  series  of  idolatries.  Some  of  the 
disorders  mentioned  afifected  only  parts  of  the  country,  while  the 
rest  was  in  a  better  state.  The  sins  which  incurred  punishment, 
and  the  deliverances  which  followed  repentance,  are  related  at 
length;  while  long  periods,  dming  which  the  judges  governed,  and 
the  people  obeyed  God,  are  described  in  a  single  verse.  In  addition 
to  the  many  who,  doubtless,  remained  faithful  amidst  all  these  cor- 
ruptions, St.  Paul  reminds  us  of  several  illustrious  examples  of 
courageous  fidelity,  Heb,  11.  32. 

The  Booh  of  Ruth, 

42.  The  book  of  Kutli  maybe  considered  as  a  sequel  to  the 
Authorship,  book  of  Judges,  arid  an  introduction  to  the  ensuing 
^^'  history.     It  contains  particulars  of  the  family  of 

Elimelech,  and  informs  us  how  Ruth,  an  Moabitess,  became  the 
wife  of  Boaz,  an  ancestor  of  David,  and  thus  of  Christ.  The 
authors! lixj  is  not  certainly  known  ;  but  it  is  generally  ascribed 
to  Samuel.  There  are  several  phrases,  in  the  original,  identi- 
cal with  expressions  which  occur  elsewhere  only  in  Samuel  and 
Kings  (Ruth  i.  17  :  4.  6,  etc).  The  book  traces  the  genealogy 
of  David  to  a  source  not  flattering  to  that  sovereign  ;  and  this 
fact  is  one  evidence  of  the  truthfulness  of  the  narrative.  Its 
genealogical  account  is  quoted  in  Matt.  i.  5,  and  Luke  3.  33. 

The  events  recorded  took  place  in  the  time  of  the  Judges, 


RUTH  :  SAMUEL.  429 

I .  I  ;  but  the  history  was  certainly  written  some  time  later, 

4.  :• 

Brief  as  this  book  is^  it  is  remarkably  rich  in  examples  of  faith, 

T,  ,  patience,  industry,  and  kindness,  nor  less  so  in  intima- 

Its  lessons.       \  '    ^  •'Z  ,  ,  .  ■,    !^    -,       , 

tions  of  the  special  care  which  God  takes  of  our  con- 
cerns; ''still  out  of  seeming  ill  educing  good."  Elimelech's  mis- 
fortunes; his  son's  sia  in  marrying  a  Moabitess;  the  loss  of  her 
husband — all  end  in  her  own  conversion,  and  iu  the  honour  of  her 
adopted  family.  What  changes  ten  years  have  produced!  They 
have  turned  Xaomi  into  Mara. ""  She  who  went  out  full  has  come  home 
again  empty.  Her  fortitude  and  faith,  however,  sustain  her;  and 
in  her  trouble  she  shows  equal  wisdom  and  tenderness.  .  .  .  When 
her  daughters  are  told  what  they  must  expect  if  they  accompany 
her  to  Canaan,  Orpah  weeps,  but  returns  to  her  idols;  and  Ruth 
cleaves  to  her,  indicating  therein  depth  of  affection  and  religious 
decision,  i.  16:  2.  12.  Her  reward  she  received  *'of  the  Lord 
God  of  Israel,  under  whose  wings  she  came  to  trust." 

It  had  been  foretold  to  the  Jews  that  the  Messiah  should  be  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  it  was  afterwards  further  revealed  that  he 
should  be  of  the  family  of  David.  It  was  important,  therefore, 
that  the  history  of  that  family  should  be  written  before  those 
promises  were  delivered. 

In  the  adoption  of  Ruth,  a  heathen,  a  Moabitess,  into  the  church 
of  God  and  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  we  see  a  ray  of  hope  rising 
upon  the  Gentile  world :  and  still  more  in  her  being  taken  into  the 
line  of  the  Messiah,  we  seem  to  have  a  pre-intimation  of  the  great 
mystery  that  the  Gentiles  should  be  sanctified  by  him,  and  joined 
with  his  people,  and  that  there  should  be  one  flock  and  one  Shep- 
herd. 

The  contents  of  this  book  are  as  follows  : — 

An  account  of  Xaomi,  from  her  departure  with  her  husband  from 
Canaan  into  Moab,  to  her  retmn  into  the  land  of  Israel  with  her 
daughter-in-law  Ruth,  chap.  i.  The  interview  of  Boaz  vsith  Ruth, 
and  their  marriage,  2.-4.  12.  The  birth  of  Obed,  and  genealogy 
of  David,  4.  13-22. 

Sec.  4.  TJie  Books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles. 

The  Boohs  of  Samuel. 

43.  The  relation  given  in  Eutli  is  a  kind  of  digression  in 
the  sacred  story,  with  a  particular  view.    The  gene- 
ral thread  of  the  narrative  is  now  resumed.    We 
^  Bishon  Hall. 


430  SAMUEL  :   AUTHOR. 

are  furnished  in  the  books  of  Samuel  with  the  history  of  the 
two  last  Judges,  Eh  and  Samuel  (who  were  not,  as  the  rest, 
men  of  war,  but  priests),  and  of  the  first  kings,  Saul  and 
David. 

These  two  books  were  anciently  reckoned  as  one,  the  pres- 
ent division  being  derived  from  the  LXX  and  Vulgate.  In 
those  versions  they  are  called  the  first  and  second  books  of 
Kings,  as  they  form  part  of  the  history  of  the  kings  of  Israel 
and  Judah. 

The  question  of  the  authorship  of  the  books  is  not  free  from 
hi  difficulty;  but  the  decided  preponderance  of 
evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  ancient  view,  that 
Samuel  wrote  i  Sam,  1.-24,  and  that  the  rest  was  written  by 
Nathan  and  Gad,  i  Chron.  29,  29.  The  narrative  was  proba- 
bly written  towards  the  close  of  Samuels  life,  5.  5  :  6.  18. 
The  place  of  the  books  in  the  canon  ;  the  predictions  they 
record  f  the  quotations  from  them  in  later  books,  and  in  the 
New  Testament,''  supply  ample  evidence  of  their  authority. 

Gad  was  the  contemporary  of  David,  and  is  called  his  seer.  He 
Gad.  was  also  probably  one  of  his  companions  in  the  wilder- 

Naihan.  ness,  i  Sam.  22.  5.    iV^a^/icm  was  a  prominent  counsellor 

of  David's,  and  was  repeatedly  commissioned  to  give  him  Divine 
messages,  2  Sam.  7.  2  :  12.  i :  Psa.  51.  In  Zech.  12.  12,  his  name 
occurs  as  the  representative  of  the  great  family  of  the  prophets. 
These  books  contain  also  several  odes  by  different  writers.  The 
song  of  Hannah  is  remai^kable  from  its  similarity  to  that  of  Mary 
(i  Sam.  2.  10:  Luke  i.  46-55).  It  gives  a  striking  prophecy  of 
Christ,  who  is  here  called  for  the  first  time  Messiah,  (the  Anointed), 
and  Eling. 

Samuel,  whom  we  thus  conchide  to  have  been  the  author  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  first  book,  was  the  desired  answer 
(so  his  name  implies)  of  his  mother's  prayers,  and  was 
dedicated  to  God  from  his  infancy.  Intrusted  with  supreme  power 
in  the  state,  he  ruled  Avithout  ambition,  executed  his  office  with 
irreproachable  integrity,  and  resigned  it  without  reluctance.  He 
was  both  feared  and  respected  by  Saul,  and  was  allowed  by  that 
monarch  to  judge  Israel  all  the  days  of  his  life,  i  Sam.  7.  15.  The 
revelations  he  received,  and  the  spiiit  that  distinguished  him,  were 

*  See  I  Sam.  2.  30:  2  Sam.  12.  10-12,  etc. 

''  I  Kings  II.  26:  2  Kings  2.4-11:  i  Cluon.  17.  24,  25:  see  Acts 
ij.  22:  Matt.  12.  3. 


PROPHECY:   REVIVAL  AND  EXTENSION.  431 

siicli,  that  all  Israel,  from  Dan  to  Beersheba,  knew  that  Samuel  was 
established  to  be  a  prophet  of  the  Lord. 

Attention  to  the  chronological  an-angement  of  Samuel  and  later 
historical  books  is  peculiarly  important. 

44.  To  understand  the   covenant   which   God  gave   to   David, 
Nature  of       securing  the  perpetual  dominion  of  his  seed,  read  and 
covenant         compai'e  2  Sam.  7:  23.  5:  i  Chron.  17:  Psa.  89:  132. 
^ith  David         j^g  partial   fulfihnent  in  Solomon  may  be  gathered 
from  I  Chron.  28,  1-7:  i  Kings  8.  15-26:  11.  9-13. 

As  the  temporal  grandeur  of  David's  house  declined,  God  sent 
prophets  to  announce  the  stability  of  this  covenant,  and  to  assure 
Judah  of  the  unprecedented  glory  of  his  great  descendant,  Amos 
9.  11-15:  Isa.  9.6,  7:  11:  Jer.  23.  5,6:  33.14-26.  These  promises 
refer  to  the  universal  and  permanent  reign  of  Messiah,  who  is 
now  exalted,  and  waiting  till  his  enemies  be  made  his  footstool, 
Luke  I.  31-33,  69:  Acts  2.  25^36:  13.  32-37. 

That  David  himself  understood  this  covenant  to  refer  to  our 
Lord,  and  to  spiritual  blessing  to  be  received  through  Him,  may  be 
gathered  from  Isa.  55.  3 :  Heb.  i.  5  :  and  Acts  2.  30. 

45 .  In  Samuel,  we  have  a  revival  of  the  prophetic  spu-it.  From 
the  days  of  Joshua  to  Eli  there  seems  to  have  been  ''no  open 
vision"  (i  Sam.  3.  i:  Jer.  15.  i:  Acts  13.  20:  3.  24).  Under  the 
Judges,  the  original  covenant  remained  as  at  first.  The  Jewish 
Suspension  polity  and  priesthood  were  unchanged.  The  law,  as 
of  prophecy,  given  by  Moses,  was  in  full  force,  and  supplied,  in  the 
fulfilment  of  its  predictions,  ample  evidence  of  its  authority.  In 
the  days  of  Samuel,  however,  marked  changes  were  passing  over 
the  state.  Calamities  were  becoming  more  confounding.  Success 
more  extraordinary  and  transient.  The  priesthood  was  to  be 
transferred;  kingly  government  to  be  established.  By  and  by, 
the  kingdom  itself  will  be  broken  and  divided.  Idolatiy  will  be 
publicly  sanctioned,  and  viill  need  public  authoritative  rebukes. 
Then  will  follow  a  long  series  of  afflictions,  ending  in  removal  and 
captivity. 

Changes  so  serious  needed  special  interpositian.  Hence  the 
Revival  and  ^^cessity  of  a  revival  and  enlargement  of  prophetic 
enlargement  revelation.  As  Moses  requii'ed  pec\iliar  evidence  of  a 
of  It.  Divine  appointment  for  his  mission,  so  does  Samuel. 

He  appears,  therefore,  as  prophet,  and  commences  an  age  of  pro- 
phecy which  continues  without  any  material  chasm  to  the  days  oi 
Malachi. 

A  supernatural  call  and  a  prophetic  vision  were  granted  to  him 

J    ^        .        at   the   commencement   of  his   ministry,    even   in  his 

youth.     He  was  commissioned  to  repeat  to  Eli  a  pre- 


432  prophecy:  revival  and  extension. 

diction  whicli  a  man  of  God  had  already  announced,  and  the  fulfil- 
ment of  this  prediction,  with  other  circumstances,  gave  early  evi- 
dence of  his  authority.  The  people  soon  sought  a  king,  and  as 
their  request  implied  a  distrust  of  the  protection  and  love  which 
had  made  them  a  theocracy,  it  was  opposed  by  the  prophet  in  God's 
name.  At  length,  God  complied,  and  it  became  the  business  of  the 
prophet  to  watch  over  the  change,  to  define  the  laws  of  the  king- 
dom, to  show  whom  God  had  chosen,  and  ultimately  to  transfer  the 
kingdom  to  the  person  and  tribe  of  David.  So  far,  the  predictions 
and  business  of  the  prophet  were  chiefly  civil. 

In  David's  person  and  reign,  however,  prophecy  assumes  a  new 

-.  ^  .^  character.  His  kingdom  was  first  confirmed  to  him 
In  David.  ° 

(2  Sam.  7.  12-17:  Psa.  89).  The  character  and  king- 
dom of  Solomon  are  then  foretold,  and,  blended  with  these,  we  find 
revelations  of  a  higher  and  holier  kind.  The  promise  to  Abraham 
was,  as  we  have  seen,  both  temporal  and  evangelical;  so  also  is  now 
the  promise  to  David.  To  Abraham,  Messiah  had  been  announced, 
more  or  less  cleai'ly,  as  the  promised  seed;  to  Moses,  as  the  coming 
prophet ;  to  all  of  that  age,  as  the  jyriest ;  to  David,  he  appears,  in 
addition,  as  king.  He  therefore  speaks  of  Messiah's  authority,  of 
the  hostility  of  the  kings  of  the  earth,  of  his  sceptre  of  righteoiis- 
ness,  of  his  unchangeable  priesthood,  of  his  exalted  nature,  of  his 
death,  and  his  victory  over  death,  and  of  his  dominion,  including 
both  Israel  and  the  Gentiles  (Psa.  2:  16:  45:  no,  etc.)  In  little 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  the  oppressed  tribes  rule  from  sea  to 
sea,  and  the  dimness  of  no  open  vision  yields  to  what  seems  the 
dawn  of  a  cloudless  day. 

It  is  very  worthy  of  notice,  too,  that  while  David  receives  the 
promise  of  the  duration  of  his  kingdom  from  Samuel  and  Nathan, 
it  is  David  himself  who  is  instructed  to  connect  this  kingdom  with 
the  kingdom  of  his  greater  Son.  The  prophets  reveal  and  magnify 
the  type,  he  passes  on  the  prediction,  calls  Christ  Lord,  and  pays 
everywhere  willing  homage  to  his  person  and  law  (Psa.  no). 

In  proportion  as  the  kingdom  and  character  of  Christ  are  thus 
brought  into  view,  provision  is  made  for  deepening  the 
impression  of  these  Christian  prophecies  upon  the 
hearts  of  the  people,  and  making  them  conducive  to  faith  and  piety. 
They  are  given  in  Psalms,  and  thus  pass  into  the  devotions  of  the 
chux'ch.  These  Psalms  form  the  most  important  additions  that 
had  yet  been  made  to  the  Mosaic  revelation,  and  are  clearly  adapted 
to  inspire  ancient  worshippers  with  Christian  hopes.  Very  beau- 
tiful, too,  is  the  growing  distinctness  of  these  pi-edictions.  To 
Abraham  a  seed  was  revealed.  "When  his  descendants  had  become 
tribes,  to  Judah  the  promise  was  confined;    and  now,   when  the 


KixGS.  433 

kingdom  appears,  it  is  given  to  David.  Nor  can  these  predictions 
be  ascribed  to  flattery  or  selfishness.  It  is  not  Da^^d  who,  in  the 
first  instance,  receives  them.  Nor  is  it  to  himself,  in  all  their 
fulness,  that  he  appropriates  them.  He  applies  them  to  another, 
and  the  messenger  who  gives  them  is  Xathan;  a  prophet  who  re- 
buked his  son,  and  severely  threatened  Solomon  with  the  conse- 
quences of  his  apostasy.  The  faithfulness  of  these  servants  of  God 
had  other  and  more  immediate  ends,  but  it  proves  incidentally  the 
truth  of  their  annoimcements. 

Tlie  tivo  Boohs  of  Kings. 

46.  The  two  books  of  Kings  (which  iu  ancient  copies  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  form  but  one  book)  contain  the  history  of 
Israel  and  Judah,  from  the  end  of  David's  reign  to  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity.  The  present  division  of  the  books  is  taken 
fi'om  the  LXX  and  Vulgate. 

Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  authorship  ;  the  most  pro- 
bable opinion  is,  that  as  memoirs  of  their  own  times 
were  written  by  several  of  the  prophets,  for  the  use 
of  the  kingdom,  the  present  books  were  compiled  from  these 
records  by  Jeremiah  or  Ezra  ;  Jewish  tradition  is  in  favour  of 
the  first,  and  Havemich  has  recently  advocated  the  same  view. 
The  events  described  reach  to  the  liberation  of  Jehoiachim  from 
prison  in  Babylon  (twenty-six  or  twenty-eight  years  only  after 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem).  A  late  authorship  is  proved  by 
the  frequent  use  of  Chaldaisms  (De  Wette,  §  1 15,  6) ;  and  there 
is  a  remarkable  affinity  of  style  between  Kings  and  Jeremiah. 
(Havern.)  .  .  .  The  view  that  the  books  were  drawn  up  from 
various  documents  by  one  hand  is  confirmed  by  the  books 
themselves.  The  frequent  vividness  of  the  narrative  bespeaks 
the  work  of  an  eye-wdtness  ;  and  appeals  are  constantly  made 
to  official  documents,  under  the  title  of  Chronicles  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel — a  title  given  elsewhere  to  national 
annals,  Est.  2.  23  :  6.  i.  That  the  whole  was  revised  by  one 
hand  appears  from  the  similarity  of  style  and  idiom  in  various 
unimportant  expressions. 

Both  books  contain  several  prophecies,  and  other  intrinsic 
Anthenti-  niarks  of  inspiration ;  and  both  are  cited  as  au- 
c^ty-  thentic  and  canonical  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles 

(see  Luke  4.  25,  27  :  Jas.  5.  17). 

The  comparative  dates  of  Chronicles  and  Kings  explain  various 
tliffex'ences    of   phraseology'.      In    Chronicles,    we  havo  Aramsean 

u 


434  CHRONICLES. 

forms/  later  words  r,nd  expressions,  more  recent  name?,^  and  sy- 
nonyinous  expi^essions  used  for  others  liable  to  misconception.*^ 

Differences  in  the  order  of  events  are  explained  by  the  fact  that 
none  of  the  writers  profess  to  give  the  exact  order  of  time.'^  Addi- 
tions, omissions,  and  abbreviations,  are  in  the  same  way  explained, 
by  a  reference  to  the  different  aim  of  each  naiTative. 

Other  differences,  amounting  to  discrepancies,  are  occasionally 
found,  and  refer  chiefly  to  numbers  and  names.  It  is  vrell  known 
that  the  text  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  is  in  a  worse  con- 
dition than  that  of  any  other  of  the  inspu-ed  writings;  nor  must  we 
ascribe  to  the  author  what  is  really  due  to  the  ei-rors  of  copyists.® 
These  errors,  it  may  be  added,  do  not  affect  any  article  of  faith  or 
rule  of  life,  and  till  we  can  rectify  them  they  ought  to  be  candidJy 
ackjiowledged. 

Both  books  record  several  inspired  predictions,  and  are  referred 
to  or  quoted  in  the  New  Testament.'  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
inspired  acclamation  of  David  to  the  praise  of  God  is  substantially 
adopted  by  our  Lord,  and  is  ascribed  by  John  to  the  blessed  spirits 
who  celebrate  the  praises  of  God  in  heaven,  i  Chron.  29.  10,  11: 
Matt.  6.  13:  Rev.  5.  12,  13. 

The  two  Boolcs  of  Clironides. 

47.  These  books  were  reckoned  by  the  Jews  as  one,  and 
called  the  words  of  Days,  i.  e.,  diaries  or  journals,  probably  in 
allusion  to  the  ancient  annals,  out  of  which  they  appear  to 
have  been  compcsed.  In  the  LXX  they  are  distinguished  as 
the  books  of  "  things  omitted  "  (TraprtXetTrojueVwr),  and  were 
regarded  as  a  kind  of  supplement  to  the  preceding  books  of 
Scripture,  supplying  such  information  as  was  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  alterations  consequent  upon  the  captivity;  The 
present  title  was  first  given  to  them  by  Jerome. 

48.  The  authorship  of  Chronicles  is  generally  ascribed  to 

Ezra.     They  certainly  record  the  restoration  by 
ors  ip.    Q^,^,^^j^^   2    Chron.  36.  21,   22,    and    mention   the 

*  2  Chron.  10. 18,     ^  i  Chron.  14.  2:  19,  12:  21.  2:  2  Chron.  16.4. 

*  I  Chron.  19.  4:  2  Chron.  22.  12.  ^  gee  Tables;  i  Chron.  14: 
2  Chron.  i.  14-17:  9.  25,  are  evidently  out  of  chronological  order. 

*  See  2  Chron.  8.  18  (i  Kings  9.  28);  i  Chron.  11.  11  (2  Sam. 
23.  8):  21.  5  (2  Sam.  24.  9):  i  Chron.  18.  4  (2  Sam.  8.  4):  19.  18 
(2  Sam.  10.  18). 

'  2  Chron.  2.  5,  6,  in  Acts  7.  48,  49^   2  Chron.  19.  7,  in  i   Pot. 

T.   17. 


SAMUEL,  KINGS,  AND   CHRONICIiES,  COilPARED.  435 

'^^itings  of  Jeremiali,  35.  25.  The  style  of  Ezra,  moreover, 
bears  a  marked  resemblance  to  the  style  of  Chronicles,  and  its 
history  seems  a  continuation  of  Kings,  Ez.  i.  1-3,  and  2  Chron. 
36.  23.  If  this  view  is  correct,  i  Chron.  3.  19-24,  gi^^ng  an 
account  of  the  genealogy  of  Zerubbabel  to  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander, must  have  been  added  by  a  later  writer. 

49.  The  importance  of  the  fact  that  these  histories  were  compiled 
from  earlier  documents,  themselves  the  work  of  prophets,  is  well 
illustrated  in  these  books.  These  documents  seem  to  be  quoted 
literally,  even  when  the  fact  recorded  applies  rather  to  the  time  of 
the  wi-iter  than  of  the  compiler;  see  2  Chron.  5.9:  8.  8:  the  pur- 
pose of  the  compiler  being  not  to  modify  these  dociiments,  but  to 
connect  with  them  his  own  narrative.  Many  passages  also  are 
identical,  or  nearly  identical,  with  passages  in  Kings,  both  being 
taken  probably  from  the  same  annals.  The  documents  referred  to 
or  quoted  are  not  less  than  a  dozen,  though  three  or  four  of  these 
are  probably  the  same  docimient. 

The   three   double  books    of   Samuel,    Kings,  and   Chronicles, 

have  much  in  common,  though  they  have  also  charac- 

of^Samuel,       teristic  differences.     They  treat  for  the  most  part  of  the 

Kings,  and      game  period,  and  should  be  read  and  compared  together. 

Chromcles.        .         ^  '     .         .  .,         ,  ,-,         j      n  r      ■  u 

A  comprehensive  view  may  thus  be  gathered.  01  Jewisn 

history,  and  much  light  will  be  thrown  on  brief  and  obscure  ex- 
pressions. Their  differences  of  aim,  however,  are  as  marked  as  is 
their  substantial  identity.  Samuel  gives  the  history  of  the  forma- 
tion of  the  kingdom,  and  a  biography,  even  more  than  a  history  of 
the  first  kings.  The  Books  of  Kings,  on  the  other  hand,  give  a 
history  of  the  theocracy  imder  regal  government,  and  are  rich  in 
brief  allusions  to  the  character,  sins,  and  consequent  punishment 
of  the  inilers  and  of  the  people.  The  Books  of  Chronicles,  again, 
have  special  reference  to  the  forms  and  ministry  of  religious  vv'or- 
ship,  to  the  genealogies,  and  consequent  possessions  of  the  various 
families  and  tribes,  and  to  other  topics  connected  with  the  return. 
Hence  genealogical  tables ;  hence,  also,  the  prominence  given  to  tho 
pious  care,  in  establishing  public  worship,  of  David,  Solomon, 
Hezokiah,  and  Josiah. 

The  genealogical  tables  of  these  books,  though  to  \is  compara- 
(Icnealogical  tively  uninteresting,  were  highly  important  among  the 
Tables.  Jews,  who  were  made  by  prophetic  promises  extremely 

observant  in  these  pai-ticidars.  These  tables  give  the  sacred  line 
through  which  the  promise  was  transmitted  for  nearly  3500  years; 
u  fact  itself  unexampled  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

u2 


43G  CHRONICLES  :   HISTORY  OF  A  THEOCRACY. 

50.  The  most  remarkable  feature  in  the  historical  books  of 
Scripture,  and  especially  of  Kings  and  Chronicles, 
diM-acter  of  ^^  their  rehgious,  theocratic  character.  Secular 
these  his-  history  gives  the  public  changes  which  nations  have 
undergone,  with  their  causes  and  results.  Church 
history  traces  the  progress  of  sentiment,  and  of  various  influ- 
ences in  relation  to  the  church.  But  here,  king,  church,  state, 
are  all  represented  as  under  God.  The  character  of  each  king 
is  decided  by  his  fidelity  to  the  rehgious  obligations  of  his  office. 
Of  each  it  is  said,  He  walked  in  the  ways  of  David  his  father, 
and  so  prospered  ;  or  of  Jeroboam,  who  made  Israel  to  sin,  and 
so  failed.  These  books  are  valuable  as  the  history  of  God  and 
his  law  in  the  nation — and  that  nation  a  monarchy ;  as  the 
books  of  Joshua  and  Judges  are  the  history  of  God  and  his 
law  in  an  aristocracy  or  democracy ;  or  as  the  earher  books  are 
the  history  of  God  and  his  law  in  the  family.  In  the  Prophets, 
and  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  we  have  glimpses  of  what  is 
to  be  the  history  of  God  and  his  law  in  the  world.  Mark, 
therefore,  the  prominence  given  to  the  erection  of  the  temple ; 
the  numerous  references  to  the  ancient  law,  especially  when 
the  two  kingdoms  were  drawing  to  their  end,  as  if  to  account 
for  their  decay  and  approaching,  fall ;  the  frequent  interposi- 
tion of  prophets,  now  rebuking  the  people,  and  now  braving 
the  sovereign ;  tlie  deposition  and  succession  of  kings ;  and 
the  connection  everywhere  traced  between  what  seem  to  be 
mere  political  incidents  and  the  fidehty  or  idolatry  of  the  age." 
....  Were  nations  wise,  these  records  would  prove  their 
best  instructors  ;  they  are  adaj)ted  to  teach  alike  the  world 
and  the  church. 

51.  The  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  constitute  the  golden 
period  of  the  Jewish  state.  From  the  first,  David 
David  and  showed  the  utmost  anxiety  that  every  step  he  took 
his  reiga.  towards  the  possession  of  the  kingdom  should  be 
directed  by  God,  2  Sam.  2.1:  i  Sam.  23.  2,  4.  He  acted  ever 
as  "  his  servant ;"  and  when  established  in  his  kingdom,  it 
was  his  first  concern  to  promote  the  Divine  honour  and  the 
religious  welfare  of  his  people  (2  Sam.  0.  1-5  :  7.  i,  2).  During 
a  war  of  seven  years  he  never  lifted  his  sword  against  a  subject, 
and  at  the  end  of  it  he  punished  no  lebel  and  remembered 

"See  2  Kings  5.-8.:  10.  31:  17.  13,  15,  37:    18.  4-6.     Elijah's 
history:  i  Kings  15.  3-5 :  2  Kings  11.  17. 


DAVID  AND  SOLOMON.  437 

no  offeuce  but  the  murder  of  his  rival  (2  Sam.  4.  10-12).  As 
a  king,  therefore,  he  sought  the  prosperity  of  the  state,  and 
as  the  visible  representative  of  Jehovah  he  took  his  proper 
place,  aspiring  to  no  other,  but  conforming  strictly  to  the 
spirit  of  the  theocracy.  It  was  to  this  character  of  his  ad- 
ministration, probably,  rather  than  to  his  private  virtues, 
that  God  referred,  in  describing  him  "  as  a  man  after  his  own 
heart"  (i  Sam.  13.  14:  see  also  Acts  13.  22),  who  was  to 
"  execute  all  his  will."  It  is,  indeed,  impossible  to  vindicate  aU 
his  acts,  or  to  regard  him  as  a  perfect  character.  And  yet  when 
we  look  at  the  piety  of  his  youth,  the  depth  of  his  contrition,  the 
strength  of  his  faith,  the  fervour  of  his  devotion,  the  loftiness- 
and  variety  of  his  genius,  the  largeness  and  warmth  of  his 
heart,  his  eminent  valour  in  an  age  of  warriors,  his  justice 
and  wisdom  as  a  ruler,  and,  above  all,  his  adherence  to  the 
worship  and  wHl  of  God,  we  may  weU  regard  him  as  a  model 
of  kingly  authority  and  spiritual  obedience. 

Solomon  continued  the  pohcy  and  shared  the  blessing 
Character  of  ^^  ^^^  father.  His  dominions  extended  from  the 
Solomon  and  Mediterranean  to  the  Euplirates,  and  from  the  Eed 
Sea  and  Arabia  to  the  utmost  Lebanon  (i  Kings 
4.  21,  etc.)  The  tributary  states,  of  which  it  was  largely 
composed,  were  held  in  complete  subjection,  and  being  still 
governed  by  their  own  princes,  Solomon  was  "king  of  kings.'* 
The  Canaanites  who  remained  in  Palestine  became  peaceable 
subjects  or  useful  servants.  His  treasures  also  were  im- 
mense, composed  chiefly  of  the  spoils  won  by  his  father  from 
many  nations,  and  treasured  up  by  him  partly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  building  a  temple  to  the  Lord,  but  partly  also  for  the 
purpose  of  sustaining  the  power  and  magnificence  of  the 
kingdom.  The  wisdom  of  Solomon  was  even  more  illustrious 
than  his  wealth.  It  is  celebrated  both  in  Scripture  and  m 
eastern  story.  Three  thousand  proverbs  (of  which  many 
remain)  long  gave  proof  of  his  virtues  and  sagacity.  A 
thousand  and  five  songs,  of  which  we  have  Canticles  and  the 
127th  Psalm,  placed  him  among  the  first  Hebrew  poets  ; 
while  his  perfect  knowledge  of  natural  history  was  shown  by 
writings,  which  were  long  admired,  though  they  have  since 
perished. 

His  very  greatness,  however,  betrayed  him.     His  treasures, 
wives,  and  chariots,  were  aU  contrary  to  the  spirit  and  precepts 


438  DAVID   AND   SOLOilON. 

of  tlie  law  (Deut.  17.  16,  17).  His  exactions  alienated  tlie 
affections  of  his  people,  and,  above  all,  he  was  led  astray  by 
his  wives,  and  built  temples  to  Chemosh,  or  Peor,  the  ob- 
scene idol  of  Moab  ;  to  Moloch,  the  god  of  Ammon  ;  and  to 
Ashtaroth,  the  goddess  of  the  Sidonians.  His  later  days, 
therefore,  were  disturbed  by  "adversaries."  Jeroboam  did 
"mischief"  in  Edom  ;  Damascus  declared  its  independence 
under  Rezin  ;  and  Ahijah  was  instructed  to  announce  to 
Solomon  himself  that,  as  he  had  broken  the  covenant  by 
•which  ho  held  his  crown,  the  kingdom  should  be  rent  from 
him  and  part  of  it  given  to  his  servant.  There  is  reason  to 
hope  that  these  just  punishments  opened  his  eyes  to  the 
enormity  of  his  sins,  and  that  his  last  days  were  penitent. 
His  reign,  on  the  whole,  was  most  prosperous.  "  Judah  and 
Israel  were  many,  as  the  sand  which  is  by  the  sea  in  multi- 
tude, eating  and  drinking  and  making  merry."  From  Dan 
even  to  Beersheba,  they  dwelt  safely  every  man  "  imder  his 
vine  and  under  his  fig-tree." 

The  great  event  of  Solomon's  life  was  the  erection  of  the  temple. 
As  this  building   fulfilled  a  prophecy  (2  Sam.  7.  13), 

e  emp  e.  ^^^  ^^^  ^  symbol,  of  God's  resting  with  the  people 
(2  Sam.  7.  6,  10),  so  it  was  itself  both  a  prophecy  and  a  type.  A 
type  of  the  Jewish  people  and  of  the  church,  and  a  prophecy  of 
God's  continued  presence  (Jer.  7).  Its  history,  therefore,  is  an 
index  to  the  history  of  the  Jews  themselves.  When  it  fell,  they 
were  scattered;  as  it  rose  from  its  ruins,  they  gathered  round  it 
again;  and  history  dates  the  captivity,  with  equal  accui'acy,  from 
the  destruction  of  the  temple,  or  from  the  first  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem (see  §  450),  I  Kings  9.  7,  8:2  Chron.  7.  20:  all  Jer.  7: 
Isa.  44.  28. 

Sec.  5.  The  Poetical  Books — Psalms^  Song  of  Solomon^  Proverls^ 
and  Ecclesiastes. 

The  Psalms. 

52.  The  book  of  Psalms  is  a  collection  of  sacred  hymns 
Title  of  the  (v/iJ'oi),  composed  at  different  times,  and  especially 
book.  ^^.  David,  2  Sam.  23.  i.     The  Hebrew  title  means 

"  praises  ;"  the  Enghsh,  which  is  taken  from  the  LXX,  means 
odes  adapted  to  music  (;//aXAw,  to  strike  a  chord) ;  an 
appropriate  name,  as  most  of  the  pieces  were  intended  not 


THE  PSALMS.  439 

only  to  express  religious  feeling,  but  to  be  sung  devotionaliy 
in  public  service. 

53.  The  Psalms  were  collected,  and  arranged  by  Ezra  and 
Scnptnrai  liis  companions  (b.  c.  450),  and  in  the  book  itself 
arrangement,  there  is  evidence  of  its  being  formed  from  several 
smaller  collections.  In  the  Hebrew  and  LXX  the  Psalms 
are  divided  into  five  books,  each  of  the  first  three  containing 
the  compositions  of  some  particular  author. 

i.        1-41.  Consist  chiefly  of  David's  Psalms,   collected  perhaps 

by  Hezekiah:  see  Prov.  25.  i,  and  2  Chron.  29.  30. 

ii.      42-72,  Psalms  by  the  sons  of  Korah,  42-47,  and  by  David, 

51-65:72. 
iii.       73-89.  Psalms  by  Asaph,  73-83,  and  Korah,  84-89,  mostly. 
iv.    90-106. iLiturgic,  including  the  Hallelujah   Psalms   and  the 
v.  107-15  o.i     songs  of  degrees;  chiefly  collected  for  the  service  of 
the  second  temple. 

54.  Of  the  authors  mentioned  in  the  titles,  David  was  the 

largest  composer,  though  not  all  to  which  his 
name  is  prefixed  in  the  Hebrew  (73),  nor  the  addi- 
tional ones  in  the  LXX  (12),  were  written  by  him.  Among 
the  former  are  Psa.  139  and  122  (compare  LXX) ;  but  their 
Chaldaisms  and  style  point  to  a  later  date.  On  the  other 
hand,  Psa.  99  and  104  ascribed  to  him  in  the  LXX  are  pro- 
bably his.  Psa.  2  and  95,  again,  which  are  not  mentioned  as 
his  in  either  text,  are  ascribed  to  him  in  the  New  Testament, 
Acts  4.  25,  26 :  Heb.  4.  7.  The  name  of  Asaph,  David's 
chief  musician,  or  of  his  descendant's,  is  connected  with  twelve, 
50.  73.-83.  The  sons  of  Korah,  another  family  of  choristers, 
are  named  as  the  authors  of  eleven  more  :  to  this  family, 
Hemav,  the  Ezrahite,  and  nephew  of  Samuel,  belonged  (Psa, 
88 :  compare  i  Chron.  6.  22,  33-38) :  and  Ethan  is  named  as 
the  author  of  89,  though  erroneously,  if  he  were  a  contem- 
porary of  David's :  see  ver.  38-44.  Solomoifs  name  is  con- 
nected with  72  and  127  ;  but  probably  he  is  rather  the 
subject  than  the  author  of  the  former.  Moses  is  reputed  to 
be  the  author  of  Psa.  90,  and  the  following  ten  are  ascribed 
to  him  by  Jewish  critics,  but  without  good  ground :  see  97. 
8  and  99.  6.  The  anonymous  Psalms  have  been  ascribed  to 
various  authors.  The  LXX  mentions  Jeremiah  as  the  author 
of  137,  and  Haggai  and  Zechariah  as  the  authors  of  146,  147. 

55.  The  peciihar  value  of  the  Psalms  is  twofold 


440  THE   PSALMS. 

I.  They  are  models    of  acceptable   devotion.     Other  parts   of 
Peculiar  revelation  represent  God  as  speaking  to  man.     Here, 

value.  man  is  represented  as  speaking  to  God.     By  this  book, 

of  devout        therefore,  we  test  the  utterances  and  feelings  of  our 
feeling.  hearts.     Here  we  have  a  rule  by  which  we  may  know 

whether  they  are  healthy  and  true;  whether  the  fire  that  rises  fi-om 
within  is  of  God's  kindling  or  of  our  own. 

2.  They  contain  predictions  of  the  history  of  our  Lord,  and 
describe  with  wonderful  literalness  his  sufferings  and 
glory:  for  his  sufferings  see  Psa.  16  :  22  :  40;  for  his 
glory,  Psa.  2:  45:  72:  no.  Psa.  132.  11  foretels  his  connection 
with  David.  Psa.  118.  22,  his  rejection  by  the  Jews.  Psa.  68.  18, 
his  ascension,  and  the  gift  of  the  Spirit:  and  Psa.  117,  the  call  of 
the  Gentiles:  see  Rom.  15.  11. 

The  Christian  church,  therefore,  takes  the  Psalms  as  her  own 
language,  or  as  the  language  of  her  Lord.  When  the  writer  speaks 
of  his  enemies,  we  understand  him  as  speaking  of  the  enemies  of 
Christ  and  his  church.  Generally,  however,  the  feelings  of  the 
writer  are  identical  with  the  ordinary  feelings  of  Christians;  as, 
when  he  describes  the  confidence  and  love  which  have  been  common 
to  true  believers  in  all  ages:  see  Arnold's  Sermons  on  Interpreta- 
tion, p.  143;  see,  also,  the  Paragraph  Bible,  Introduction  to  the 
Psalms,  and  a  iSTote  appended  to  them. 


In  a  purely  literary  point  of  view,  the  Psalms  have  been 
HeiDrew  called,  not  inaptly,  the  national  ballads  of  the 
ballads  Hebrew  race.    The  contrast  which,  so  regarded, 

they  present    to    other   "national    ballads"    is  sufficiently 
striking. 

All  classes  of  writers  have  delighted  to  praise  these  compositions. 
„      „      .       Athanasius,  and,  after   him,    Luther,    called   them  an 

lliXCdl6IlC16S 

epitome  of  the  Bible ;  Basil,  and,  after  him.  Bishop 
Hall,  *'  a  compend  of  theology."  "Not  in  their  Divine  arguments 
alone,"  says  Milton,  "  but  in  the  very  critical  art  of  composition, 
they  may  be  easily  made  to  appear  over  all  the  kinds  of  lyric 
poesy  incomparable."  "In  lyric  flow  and  fire,"  says  a  more  modem 
authority,  "in  crushing  force  and  majesty  .  .  .  the  poetry  of  the 
ancient  Scriptures  is  the  most  superb  that  ever  b\irnt  within  the 
breast  of  man  "—Sir  D.  K.  Sandford.  To  the  Christian,  however, 
their  highest  praise  is  that  they  embody  the  holiest  feelings,  have 
supplied  utterances  to  the  emotions  of  the  best  men  of  all  ages,  and 
were  sung  by  Him  who,  though  "he  spake  as  never  man  spake/' 


PSAUvIS  :   ACCORDING  TO  THEIR   CONTENTS.  441 

chose  to  breathe  out  his  soul,  both  in  praise  and  in  his  last  agony, 
in  the  words  of  a  Psalm. 

This  book  is  quoted  in  the  New  Testament,  or  clearly  referred 
to,  upwards  of  seventy  times.  The  Psalms  thus  quoted  or  referred 
to  are  mai'ked  in  Table  (P)),  thus.  * 

56.  Various  classifications  of  the  Psalms  have  been  pro- 
Arrangement  posed.  Tholuck  divides  them,  according  to  their 
of  Psalms  matter,  into  songs  of  praise,  of  thanksgiving,  of 
their  sub-  complaint,  and  of  instruction.  Others  arrange 
jects.  them  under  hymns  in  honour  of  God ;  hymns  of 

Zion,  and  the  temple  ;  hymns  of  the  Messiah  or  King  ;  plain- 
tive and  supplicatory  hymns,  and  religious  odes,  as  Psa.  23, 
91,  119.  No  very  accurate  classification  can  be  made,  for  the 
contents  are  often  very  various.  The  following  (A),  however, 
is  practically  important.'' 

1.  Didactic  Psnlms ;  on  the  character  of  good  and  bad  men,  their 
happiness  and  misery,  i,  5,  7,  9-12,  14,  15,  17,  24,  25,  32,  34,  36, 
37,  50,  52,  53,  58,  73,  75,  84,  91,  9^,  94,  T12,  119,  121,  125,  127, 
128,  133;  on  the  excellency  of  the  Divine  law,  19,  119;  on  the 
vanity  of  human  hfe,  39,  49,  90;  on  the  duty  of  rulers,  82,  loi,. 
on  humility,  131. 

2.  Psalms  of  Praise  and  Adoration;  acknowledgements  of  God's, 
goodness  and  mercy,  and  particularly  of  his  care  of  good  men,  23, 
34,  36,  9r,  100,  103,  107,  117,  121,  145,  146;  acknowledgements  of 
his  power,  glory,  and  attributes  generally,  8,  19,  24,  29,  33,  47,  50, 
65,  66,  76,  77,  93,  95-97,  99,  104,  III,  113-115,  134,  139,  147,. 
148,  150. 

3.  Psalms  of  Thanhsgiving  ;  for  mercies  to  individuals,  9,  18,  22, 
30,  34,  40,  75,  103,  108,  it6,  118,  138,  144;  for  mercies  to  the 
Israelites  generally,  46,  48,  65,  66,  68,  76,  81,  85,  98,  105,  124, 
126,  129,  135,  136,  149- 

4.  Devotional  Psalms;  expressive  of  penitence,  6,  25,  32,  38,  51, 
102,  130,  143;  expressive  of  trust  under  afflictions,  3,  16,  27,  31, 
54,  5^5  57,  61,  62,  71,  86;  expressive  of  extreme  dejection,  though 
not  without  hope,  13,  22,  69,  77,  88,  143.  Prayers  in  time  of 
severe  distress,  4,  5,  ir,  28,  41,  55,  59,  64,  70,  109,  120,  140,  141, 
143.  Prayers  when  deprived  of  pubhc  worship,  42,  43,  63,  84. 
Prayers  asking  help  in  consideration  of  the  uprightness  of  his  cause, 
7,  17,  26,  35.  Prayers  in  time  of  affliction  and  persecution,  44,  60, 
74,  79,  80,  83,  89,  94,  102,  129,  137.  Prayers  of  intercession,  20, 
67,  12-2,  132,  144. 

*  Bickersteth's  "  Christian  Truth." 

u  3 


442 


psalms:  their  date  akd  origin. 


5.  Fsahns  eminently  prophetical,   2,  16,  22,  40,  45,  68,  69,  72,  97, 
no,  it8,  mostly  Messianic. 

6.  Historical  Psalms,  78,  105,  106. 


Arrangement  The  following  Table  (B),  sliowing  the  probable 
according  to  occasion  when  each  Psalm  was  composed,  is  founded 
and  order,       on  "  Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  Old  Testament." 


I'salms. 


After  ^\hat 
Scripture. 


Probable  occasion  on  which  each  Psahn 
was  composed. 


B.C. 


Book  I.,  in  the  Jewish  Division. 


4  00  - 

5  -  - 

6  -  - 

n    -  - 

9    -  - 

10  -  - 

11  -  - 

12(c)  . 
13,14.15 

16,*  -  - 

17    -  - 

I3*    -  - 

19  (u)  - 

20,  21  - 

22*    -  - 

25(0,24= 


2^?,  26,  2", 
28,  29  - 
JO       -     - 

JI*  -  . 
32,33      - 

J4  -  - 
35  '  - 
J6,37  - 
J8     39,| 

40*,  41 3 
42(c)    - 


Nehem.  13.  3  - 

1  Chron.  17.  27 

2  Sam.  15.  29  - 
2  Sam.  17.  29  - 
2  Sam.  17.  29  - 

1  Chron.  28.  21- 

2  Sam.  16. 14  - 
I  Chron.  28.  21 
I  Sam.  17.  4,  or 

I  Chron.  16. 4 j. 
Dan.  7.  28  -  - 
1  Sara.  19.  3.    - 

I  Chron.  28.  1  - 
Dan.  7.  28  -  - 
I  Chron.  17.  27, 
or  1  Sam.  27. 

1  Sam.  22.  19  - 

2  Sam.  22.  51   - 

1  Chron.  28.  2X 

2  Sam.  10.  19  - 
I  Chron.  17.  27 

I  Chron.  28.  21, 
or  I  Chron.  16. 

4?- 

Dan.  7.  28  -  - 
1  Chron.  28.  21 
I  Chron.  21.  30 

1  Sam.  2j.  12  - 

2  Sam.  12.  15  - 
I  Sam.  21.  15  - 
I  Sam.  22.  19  - 
Dan.  7.  28   -    - 

1  Chron.  28.  21 


'W'ritten  by  David  or  Ezra,  and  placed  as  a  pre- 
face to  the  Psalms 

On  the  delivery  of  the  promise  by  Nathan  to 
David—  a  prophecy  of  Christ's  kingdom    - 
On  David's  flight  from  Absalom .    .    .    -     ■) 
During  the  flight  from  Absalom  ---.': 
During  the  flight  from  Absalom  .    .     -    .     ) 
Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life   -    - 
On  the  reproaches  of  Shimei  ------ 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life    -    - 
On  the  victory  over  Goliath 


During  the  Babylonish  captivity     -    -    -    - 

When  David  was  advised  to  flee  to  the  moim- 

tains  -..-•-------- 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life   -    - 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity-    -    -    -    - 

On  the  delivery  of  the  promise  by  Nathan  to 

David 

On  the  murder  of  the  priests  by  Doeg  -    -    - 
On  the  conclusion  of  David' s  wars  -    -    -    - 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life   -    - 

On  the  war  with  the  Ammonites  and  Syrians 

On  the  delivery  of  the  promise  by  Nathan ;  or 

in  severe  persecution      ------- 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life   -    - 


During  the  Babylonish  captivity     -    -  -    - 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life  -    - 
On  the  dedication  of  the  threshing-floor  of 

Araimah-    -- -- 

On  Davids  persecution  by  Saul  -    -    -  -    - 

On  the  pardon  of  David's  adultery  -    -  -    - 

On  David's  leaving  the  city  of  Gath     -  -    - 

On  David's  persecution  by  Doeg-    -    -  -    - 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity      -    -  .    - 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life  -    - 


2  Sam.  17.  29  -     On  David's  flight  from  Absalom  - 


444 
1044 

I02J 

IOI5 
1023 
IOI5 
1063 

539 

1062 
IOI5 

539 

1044a 
1060 
1019 

1015 
1036 

1044 
1015 


559 
1015 


1017 
1060 
1034 
1060 
loCo 
539 
1015 


Kotc—The  six  Psalms  marked  (m),  are  regarded  by  Calmet  as  of  unknown  date 
and  authorship.  The  second  passage  of  Scripture  mentioned  after  five  Psalms,  Is 
regarded  by  him  as  the  proper  place  of  the  Psalm.  Psalms  marked  (c)  and  (r),  he 
thinks,  were  written  respectively  in  the  captivity,  and  on  the  return  from  it.  In 
the  other  Psalms,  he  agrees  substantially  with  Townsend. 

*  Applied  to  our  Lord  by  Peter,  Acts  2.  25-31;  and  by  Paul,  Acts  13.  35,  3(>- 


PS  ALMS-   THEIR  DATE  AND   OEIGES'. 


443 


Psalias. 


After  what 
Scripture. 


Book  II. 


4Kc) 

. 

2  Sam.  17.  29  - 

44*   - 

. 

2  Kings  19.  7   - 

45*   - 

. 

I  Chron.  17.  27 

46     - 

. 

2  Chron.  20.  26 

47      - 

. 

2  Chi-on.  7.  10  - 

43     - 

. 

Ezra  6.  22   -    - 

49.  50 

- 

Dan.  7.  23   -    - 

51     - 

_ 

2  Sam.  12.  15   - 

52     - 

. 

I  Sam.  22.  19  - 

53     - 

. 

Dan.  7.  28    -    - 

54     - 

. 

I  Sam.  23.  2j   - 

55     - 

, 

2  Sam.  17.  29  - 

56     - 

- 

1  Sam.  21.  15  - 

51     - 

. 

I  Sam.  24.  22   - 

58     - 

. 

I  Sam.  24;  22   - 

59     - 

. 

I  Sam.  19.  17  - 

6i(c) 

. 

I  Kings  II.  20- 

61  (r) 

. 

I  Chron.  28.  21 

62     - 

. 

2  Sam.  17.  29  - 

6i(r) 

- 

I  Sam.  24.  22  - 

64(c) 

. 

I  Sam.  22.  19  - 

65     - 

. 

I  Chron.  28.  21 

66     - 

. 

Ezra  J.  ij    -    - 

67     - 

. 

Dau.  7.  28    -    - 

68*   - 

. 

2Sam.  6.  II      - 

69.(0) 

- 

I  Chrou.  23.  21 

•70.  71 

. 

2  Sam.  17.  29  - 

•72     - 

- 

I  Chron.  29. 19- 

Book  IU. 

73(c) 

2  Kings  19.  19  - 

74     - 

Jer.  J9.  10  -    - 

75(c). 

76 

2  Kings  19.  35  - 

77*  - 

Dan.  7.  28    -    - 

78     - 

I  Chron.  28.  21, 
or  2  Chron.  19. 
56. 

79     - 

Jer.  i9.  10  -    - 

80     - 

Dan.  7.  28  -    - 

8i*  («) 

- 

Ezra  6.  22   -    - 

82     - 

2  Chi-on.  19.  7  - 

8i      - 

Jer.  ;9.  10,  or 
2  Chron.  20. 

84(c) 
85(c) 

Ezra: J.  13   -    - 

Ezra  1.4     -    - 

86     - 

I  Chron.  28.  21 

87     - 

Ezra  J.  7-    -    - 

88(c) 

Exod.  2.  25  -    - 

89     - 

Dan.  7.  28    -    - 

Book  IV. 

90*  (c) 

- 

Nufhb.  14.  45  - 

Qi  («) 

• 

I  Chron.  28.  10 

12,  93* 

. 

Dan.  7.  23    -    - 

>4     - 

. 

Jer.  39.  10  -    - 

95*  - 

- 

I  Chron.  28.  21 

Probable  occasion  on  which  each  Psalm 
was  composed. 


On  David.'s  flight  from  Absalom .  -  -  -  - 
On  the  blasphemous  message  of  Eabshakeh  - 
On  the  delivery  of  the  promise  by  Xathau  - 
On  the  victory  of  Jehoshaphat  ----- 
On  the  removal  of  the  ark  into  the  temple  - 
On  the  dedication  of  the  second  temple  -  - 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity  -  .  -  - 
Confession  of  David  after  his  adultery-  -  - 
On  David's  persecution  by  Doeg-  -  -  -  - 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity-  -  -  -  - 
On  the  treachery  of  the  Ziphims  to  David-    - 

During  the  flight  from  Absalom 

When  David  was  ^vith  the  Philistines  in  Gath 
On  David's  refusal  to  kill  Saul  in  the  cave     - 

Continuation  of  i'sa.  57 

On  Saul  surrounding  the  town  of  David  -  - 
On  the  conquest  of  Edom  by  Joab  -  -  -  - 
Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life  -  - 
In  David's  persecution  by  Absalom-  -  -  - 
I*raj'er  of  David  in  the  \\ilderness  of  Engedi- 
On  David  s  persecution  by  Saul  -  -  -  -  - 
Inserted  towards  the  end  of  I  David's  life  -  - 
On  laying  the  foundation  of  the  second  temple 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity-    -    -    -    - 

On  the  lirst  removal  of  the  ark 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life   -    - 
On  Absalom's  rebellion     ------- 

On  Solomon  being  made  king  by  his  father   - 


On  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib  -    -    -  - 

On  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple  - 

On  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib    -    -    -  - 

During  tlie  Babylonish  captivity-    -    -    .  - 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David  s  life  -  - 


On  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple-    - 
During  tlie  Babj'lonish  captivity      -    -    -    . 
On  the  dedication  of  the  second  temple     -    - 
On  the  appomtmeut  of  Judges  by  Jehoshaphat 
On  the  desolation  caused  by  the  Assyrians    - 

On  the  foundation  of  the  second  temple    -    - 

On  the  decree  of  Cyrus  -    - - 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life  -  - 
On  the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity- 
During  the  affliction  in  Egypt  -  .  -  -  . 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity     -    -    -    . 


On  the  shortening  of  man's  life,  &c.    -    -  - 

After  the  advice  of  David  to  Solomon  -    -  - 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity     -    -    -  - 

On  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple-  - 

Inserted  tovrards  the  end  of  David's  life   -  - 


a  Explained  and  applied  to  our  Lord,  Heb.  i.  8,  9:  i  Pet.  j.  22 ;  Eph.  I.  22. 
Phil.2.9-11. 

''  To  Asaph,  by  Eichhom,  De  "U'ctte,  and  Eosenmilller. 


444 


PSALMS  :   THEIR  DATE  AND   ORIGIN. 


Psalm? 


After  what 
Scripture, 


96     -     - 

97*0-)   1 

98  w 
99C/) 

100  (r)  J 

loi     -  - 

102*  -  - 

103  -  - 
104*  (/ )  - 

105  (r)  I 

106  (r)  I 

Book  V. 

107  -    - 

108  00  - 
IC9  -  - 
no*  -  - 
iir,ii2*'> 

iij,  "4  3 
115(0  - 
116,  117  - 
118*  (r)  - 
119 
120  (c 
121 
122 

I2J       -     - 

124  (r)    - 

125  -    - 

126  -  - 
127,  128  - 

129  -    - 

130  -    - 

131  (c^    - 

132  (c)    . 

133  (r)    - 

134  -    - 

13600    } 

137  -    - 

138  -    - 

139  00  - 


140  -  - 

141  -  - 

142  -  - 
14?  -  - 

144  .  - 

145  -  . 

146  to  150 


?! 


1  Chron.  16.  43 

2  Cbron.  7.  10- 

1  Chron.  28.  21 
Dan. -9.  27    -    - 

2  Sam.  12.  15   - 
I  Chron.  28.  21 

I  Chron.  16.  43 


Ezra  3.7  -  - 
I  Kings  II.  20- 
I  Sam.  22.  19   - 

1  Chron.  17.  27 

Ezra  3.7      -    - 

2  Chron.  20.  26 
Ezra  3.7  -  - 
I  Chron.  17.  27 
Neh.  13.  3   -    - 

I  Chron.  28.  21 

Dan.  7.  28  -  - 
I  Chron.  28.  21 
Ezra  3.7  -  - 
Ezra  1. 4  -  - 
Ezra  3.  7  -  - 
Ezra  4.  24  -  - 
Dan.  7.  23  -  - 
I  Chron.  28.  21 
I  Chron.  15.  14 

1  Chron.  28.  21 
Ezra  3-  7     -     - 

2  Chron.  7.  10  - 

Dan.  7.  28  -  - 
Ezra  6.  13  -  - 
I  Chron,  13.  4  - 

I  Sam.  22.  19  - 
I  Sam.  27. 1     - 

1  Sam.  22.  I     - 

2  Sam.  17.  29  - 
2  Sam.  17.  29  - 
I  Chron.  28.  10 
Ezra  6.  22    -    - 


Probable  occasion  on  which  each  Psalm 
was  composed. 


On  the  removal  of  the  ark  from  Obed-edom's 
house  --- - 


On  the  removal  of  the  ark  into  the  temple     - 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life   -  - 

On  the  near  termination  of  the  captivity  -  - 

On  the  pardon  of  David's  adultery  .    -    -  - 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life   -  - 

On  the  removal  of  the  ark  from  Obed-edom's 
house  


On  the  return  from  the  captivity  - 
On  the  conquest  of  Edom  by  Joab  - 
On  David's  persecuti(m  by  Doeg  -  - 
On  the  promise  by  Nathan  to  David 

On  the  return  from  the  captivity     - 

On  the  victory  of  Jehoshaphat  -  - 
On  the  return  from  the  captivity  - 
On  the  promise  by  Nathan  to  David 
Manual  of  devotion  by  Ezra  -    -    - 


Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life 


During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  lil'e  -  - 
On  the  return  from  the  captivity     -    -    -    . 

On  the  decree  of  Cj-nis 

On  the  return  from  the  captivity  -  -  .  „ 
On  the  opposition  of  the  Samaritans     -    -    - 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life  -  - 
On  the  second  removal  of  the  ark  -  -  -  - 
Inserted  towards  the  end  of  David's  life  -  - 
On  the  return  from  the  capti\ity     -    -    -    - 

On  the  removal  of  the  ark  into  the  temple    - 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity 

On  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  ----- 

Pi-ayer  of  David  when  made  king  over  all 

Israel  ------------- 

On  David's  persecution  by  Doeg 

Prayer  of  David  when  driven  from  Judea 
Prayer  of  David  in  the  cave  of  Adullam  -    - 
During  the  war  with  Absalom    -    -    -    -    - 

On  the  victory  over  Absalom 

David,  when  old,  reviewing  his  past  life  -  - 
On  the  dedication  of  the  second  temple     -    - 


a  Cited  by  our  Lord  to  prove  his  Divinity,  Matt.  22.  14 :  by  Peter,  Acts  2.  J2-36  • 
Paul,  I  Cor.  15.  25-28  :  Heb.  7.  1-28:  8.  i. 

t  Cited  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  22. 42  :  explained  by  Peter,  Acts  4.  11 :  i  Pet.  2  4,  5 
Paul,  Rom.  9.  32  :  Eph.  2.  20,  21. 

c  Calmet,  and  most  commentators,  refer  this  Psalm  to  the  captivity. 

Chronological       Adopting  this  arrangement,  the  P.sahns  may  ho 
arrangement,  classified  chronologically  thus :  (C). 


PS  alms:  their  titles.  445 

B.C.  1531.     Psa.  88,  Reman  in  Bgyi^t. 

B.  c.  1489.     Psa.  90,  Moses  in  the  Wilderness. 

B.C.  1063-IC15.  David's  History  and  Experience,  9,  it,  59,  34, 
56,  142,  17,  35,  52,  31,  64,  109,  140,  54,  57,  58,  63,  96,  105, 
106,  132,  141,  139,  68,  2,,  16,  22,  45,  118,  60,  108,  20,  21,  3:, 
33,  51,  103,  3,  7,  4,  5,  42,  43,  55,  7°,  72,  i43,  i44-  •  •  •  18, 
62,  30,  91,  6,  8,  12,  19,  23,  24,  28,  29,  38,  39,  40,  41,  61,  65, 
69,  78,  86,  95,  loi,  104,  120,  I2T,  122,  124,  131,  133,  72,  145. 

B.  c.  1004.  On  the  removal  of  the  ark  to  the  temple,  47,  97,  98, 
99,  100,  135,  136. 

B.  c.  897-710.     From  Jehoshaphat  to  Hezekiah,  82,  46, 115,  44,  73, 

75,  7^- 
B.  c.  588.     On  the  Invasion  of  the  Assyrians,  74,  79,  83,  94. 
B.C.  539.     In  the  Captivity,  10,  13,  14,  15,  25,  26,  27,  36,  37,  49, 

50,  53,  67,  77,  80,  88,  89,  92,  93,  123,  130,  137. 
B.  c.  538-6.     At  the  close  of  the  captivity,  and  on  the  return,  102, 

85,  126,  87,  107,  111-114,  u6,  117,  125,  127,  128,  134, 
B.  c.  535,    At  the  rehuilding  and  dedication  of  the  temple,  66,  84, 

129,  138,  48,  81,  146,  147-150. 
B.  c.  444.  Ezra  completes  the  canon,  and  adds  i,  and  119. 
The  date  and  occasions  of  these  Psalms,  it  must  be  observed,  are 
many  of  them  conjectui-al.  Townsend's  opinion  o^  the  occasion  of 
the  following,  is  founded  on  internal  evidence  alone,  7,  47,  48,  8r, 
82,  84,  91,  97-100,  119,  139,  145.  For  the  rest,  he  follows  Light- 
foot,  Calmet,  Home,  Gray,  or  Hales.  Modem  inquiry  has  added 
to  our  kno\\  ledge  of  the  facts  on  which  the  dates  rest,  and  have 
thro"vvu  doubts  on  the  acc\iracy  of  Townsend's  arrangement  of  Psa. 
25-27,  and  several  others.  See  Notes  of  Annot.  Par.  Bible,  Religious 
Tract  Society,  vol.  i.  563-662. 

57.  All  tlie  Psalms  (except  34)  have  titles,  which  are  as 
old  at  least  as  the  version  of  the  LXX,  but  not  of  inspired 
authority.  They  may  be  regarded  as  historically  accurate, 
except  where  there  is  internal  evidence  against  them. 

These  titles  give  either  the  name  of  the  author  (i),  or  directions 
Titles  of  to  the  musician  (2),  or  the  historical  occasion  (3),  or  the 
Psalms,  liturgical  use  (4),  or  the  style  of  the  poetiy  (5),  or  the 

instrument  (6),  or  the  tune  (7),  to  which  the  Psalm  is  to  be  sung. 
Sometimes  all  these  ai'e  combined,  Psa.  60. 

1.  Moses,  Psa.  90.  David,  of  73,  to  which  the  LXX  add  othec 
twelve  Psalms.  Solomon,  Asaph,  Heman,  Ethan,  and  the  sons  of 
Korah  are  also  named. 

2.  To  the  chief  musician,  is  prefixed  to  53.     Some  suppose  that 


446  psalms:  their  titles. 

the  music  was  by   him.       Gesenius  imd  Ewald  regard   "  to  "  as 
meaning  ''by,"  and  refer  *'  the  musician"  to  David. 

3.  Psa.  3,  7,   18,  34,  51,  52,  54,  etc. 

4.  Psa.  17,  86,  90,  102,  145,  etc. 

5.  Psa.  46,  65,  48,  16.     For  6,  and  7,  see  below. 

The  following  are  the  terms  found  at  the  beginning  of  Psalms. 
The  meaning  is  not  easily  ascertained,  and  even  in  the  ancient 
versions  there  is  very  great  diversity.  The  authorized  version  leaves 
most  of  them  vmtranslated,  and  Coverdale  generally  omits  them. 
Lvither  preferred  to  translate  them  with  what  accurrxy  he  could. 
"We  put  first  the  meaning  which  is  most  probable. 

The  word  translated  "upon"  or  "on,"  is  appropriate,  whether  it 
refer  to  the  subject  of  the  Psalm,  or  to  the  instrument  or  clefif,  on 
Vv'hich,  or  the  tune  to  which  the  Psalm  was  sung, 

Aijeleth  Shachar,  i.  e.,  hind  of  the  morning  (sun  or  dawn)  =  to  be 
sung  to  the  tune,  beginning  -with  these  words  (Jewish  critics), 
or  on  the  Messiah  or  David,  who  is  supposed  to  be  so  called 
(Luther,  Hengstenberg,  Tholuck),  Psa.  22. 

Alamoth,  i.  e.,  virgins,  and  so  =  "  for  treble  voices "  (Gesenius, 
Hengstenberg,  Tholuck),  Psa.  4&. 

Al-taschiih,  i.  e.,  destroy  thou  not,  =  to  be  sung  to  the  tune  of  the 
ode  beginning  with  these  words,  Psa.  57-59,  75. 

Degrees,  i.e.,  of  the  steps,  or  of  ascension,  =  a  pilgrim's  song  for  those 
going  up  to  Jerusalem,  especially  from  captivity,  see  Psa.  122-4 
(Lowth,  Ewald,  etc.),  or  =  a  song  ascending  by  degrees  fi'om 
clause  to  clause,  as  in  Psa.  121  (Do  Wette,  Gesenius),  or  =  a 
song  to  be  sung  in  ascending  the  steps  of  the  inner  court  of  the 
temple  (Jevvish  critics)  or  =  a  song  sung  by  the  upper  choir 
(Luther,  Tholuck),  Psa.  120-134. 

Gittith,  =  a  Gath  instrument  or  tune,  or  the  vintage-melody,  Psa. 
8,  Br,  84. 

Jliggaion,  =■  instrumental  music,  Psa.  9,  16,  or  =  meditation 
(Hengstenberg,  Tholuck). 

Jeduthun,  Psa.  39,  62,  77,  see  i  Chron.  25.  1,  3. 

Jonath-elcm-rechokim,  i.  e.,  the  mute  dove  among  strangers,  =  the 
time  so  called,  or  =  the  subject  of  the  Psalm,  David  at  Gath, 
Psa.  56. 

Leannoth,  =  to  be  sung,  Psa.  88. 

Mahalath,  =  lute,  or  a  tvme  so  called,  or  =  a  danciQg-tune,  Psa. 
53.88. 

Itaschil,  =  a  didactic  poem  (Hengstenberg,  Tholuck),  or  =  a  skilful 
poem  (Gesenius,  De  Wette),  Psa.  13. 

Michtam,  =  a  golden  or  excellent  Psalm,  or   =  a  mystery,  i.  e.,  a 


PSALMS  :   THEIK  TITLES.  447 

Psalm,  with  a  hidden  meaning  (Hengstenberg),  or  on  hidden, 
i.  e.,  experimental  religion,  or  =  a  vjritten  poem  (michtav), 
Gesenius,  Rosenm.,  Tholuck,  see  Isa.  38.  9:  Psa.  16,  56-60. 

Muth-lahhan,  =  on  the  death  of  his  son,  or  of  Goliath  (Chald.),  or 
=  on  an  instrument,  or  to  a  song  so  called,  or  with  a  sHght 
variation  in  the  vowels  =  with  virgin's  voice  for  boys,  i.  e., 
male-trebles:  or  to  Benaiah,  i  Chron.  15.  18,  20:  Psa.  9. 

Neginotli,  =  stringed  instrnments,  Psa.  4,  6,  54,  56,  60,  61,  76. 

Nehilotli,  =  wind  instruments,  or  =  the  lots  {i.  e.,  of  the  good  tmd 
bad),  Psa.  5. 

Selah,  =  pause,  i.  e.,  in  vocal  mu^ic,  or  =  exalt  (the  voice),  i.  e„ 
foi-te,  or  =  exalt  (Jehovah),  (Kimchi,  Ewald,  De  Wette),  70 
times  in  Psa.  3,  in  Habb.,  or  =  Da  Capo. 

Sheminith,  i.  e.,  an  eighth  =  bass  (i  Chi-ou.  15.  20,  21),  or  =  an 
eight-stringed  instrument,  Psa.  6,  12. 

SMggaion,  =  a  wandering,  or  excited  song,  or  =  an  elegy  (Ge- 
senius, Rosenm.,  De  Wette,  Tholuck),  Psa.  7. 

Shushan,  i.  e.,  a  lily  =  a  very  beautiful  song,  or  instrument  so  called, 
Psa.  60,  45,  69,  80;  with  eduth  added,  i.  e.,  lily  of  testimony  = 
name  of  tune  or  instrument  (Gesenius,  Tholuck),  or  =  a  beau- 
tiful subject  of  admitted  excellence  (Hengstenberg),  Psa.  60,  80. 

58.  In  studying  the  Psalms,  two  rules  of  interpretatiou  are 
of  prime  importance. 

(i.)  Ascertain  the  author,  the  historical  origin,  and  the  obvious 
scope  of  the  Psalm.  Tables  B  and  C,  will  give  the  first  two,  and 
Table  A,  the  last. 

(ii.)  Carefully  consider  the  historical  meaning  of  its  terms  and 
allusions,  and  ascertain  from  jS"ew  Testament  quotations,^  or  from 
the  general  tenor  of  the  gospel,  how  it  is  to  be  applied,  either  to 
Christ  or  to  the  Christian  Church.  Though,  perhaps,  every  Psalm 
is  connected  in  its  origin  and  allusions  with  an  economy  which  was 
"  to  vanish  away,"  all  are  no  less  closely  connected  in  sentiment 
and  applicability  with  the  economy  that  "  abideth;"  and  wisely 
studied,  the  whole  book  may  be  made  our  own,  and  become  to  us 
the  expression  of  the  holiest  feelings  in  the  holiest  form. 

The  Smg  of  Solomon,  B.C.  looi. 

59.  The  universal  voice  of  antiquity  ascribes  this  poem  to 

Solomon,  and  internal  evidence  confirms  this  tes- 
^"    timony.     His  songs  were  a  thousand  and    five^ 

*  See  chapter  vi. 


448  SONG   OJ-  SOLOMON. 

I  Kings  4.  32  ;  and  this  is  called,  in  Hebrew  idiom,  the  song 
of  songs,  the  best,  that  is,  of  them  all. 

This  book  has  always  been  ranked  among  the  canonical' 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  not  quoted, 
indeed,  in  the  New,  but  it  formed  «part  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures  (Jos.  Antiq.  viii.  2-5,  and  Contr.  Ap.  i.  8), 
was  translated  by  the  authors  of  the  LXX,  is  included  in  all 
ancient  catalogues,  and  is  attested  expressly  by  Melito  (2nd 
century),  Origen  (d.  2rj3),  Jerome  (5th  century),  the  Jewish 
Talmud,  and  Theodoret  of  Cyprus  (450  a.  d.) 

On  what  occasion  it  was  ■\\Titten  is  not  certain.  The  imagery 
eeems  derived  from  the  marriage  of  Solomon,  either  with  Pharaoh's 
daughter  (i  Kings  3.  i:  7.  8:  9.  24,  compared  with  Song,  i.  9: 
6.  12),  or  with  some  native  of  Palestine,  espoused  some  years  later 
(chap.  2.  i),  of  noble  birth  (7.  i),  though  inferior  to  her  husband 
(1.6). 

Whatever  the  occasion  of  the  poem,  we  find  in  reading  it,  two 
characters,  who  speak  and  act  throughout;  the  one  called  Shelomoh 
(the  peaceful),  and  the  other  by  the  same  name  with  a  feminine 
ending,  Shulamith,  like  Julius  and  Julia,  i.  6:  3.  11:  6.  13:  8.  12. 
There  is  also  a  chorus  of  virgins,  daughtei-s  of  Jerusalem,  2.  7: 
3.5:  5.  8,  9.  Towards  the  close,  two  brothers  of  Shulamith  appear, 
8.  8,  9,  see  I.  6.  As  in  all  ancient  poems,  there  are  no  breaks  to 
indicate  change  of  scene  or  of  speakers.  In  detecting  these  changes, 
we  are  guided  partly  by  the  sense,  but  chiefly  by  the  use  in  tho 
original  of  feminine  and  masculine  pronouns,  of  the 
second  or  tliird  person.  A  neglect  of  this  distinction 
has  much  obscured  the  English  version. 

i.  Shulamith  speaks,  i.  2-6:  then  in  dialogue  with  Shelomoh; 
Shul.  I.  7:  Shel.  I.  8-11:  Shul.  i.  12-14:  Shel.  i.  15:  Shul.  i.  iG,- 
2.  i:  Shel.  2.  2:  Shul.  2.  3. 

ii.  Shulamith  now  rests,  sleeps  and  dreams  (Shelomoh  addressing 
tho  daughters  of  Jerusalem,  and  charging  them  not  to  wake  her, 
2.  7:  3.  5);  2.4-6,  8.-3.4. 

iii.  The  daughters  of  Jerusalem  see  a  nuptial  procession  approach- 
ing, 3.  6-1 1. 

iv.  Dialogue  between  Shelomeh  and  Shulamith.  Shelomoh 
speaks  4.  1-16  (as  far  as  "flow  out,")  Shul.  4.  16:  Shel.  5.  i. 

V.  A  night  scene ;  Shulamith  seeking  for  Shelomoh ;  meets  and 
converses  with  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem;  Shul.  5.2-8:  daughters 
of  Jerusalem,  5.  9:  Shul.  5.  10-16:  daughters  of  Jeru<3alem,  6.  i: 
Shuh  6.  2,  3. 


SOXG   OF  SOLOMON  ;   CONTENTS.  449 

vi.  Morning  scene ;  Shelomoh  visits  his  garden  early,  and  meets 
Shulamith;  Shel.  6.  4-10:  Shul.  6.  11,  12;  the  dialogue  Gontinviing 
to  8.  8. 

vii.  The  brothers  of  Shulamith  are  introduced;  the  brothers 
speak,  8.  8,  9:  Shul.  answers  them,  8.  10-12:  Shel.  speaks,  8.  13: 
and  Shul.  answers,  closing  the  scene,  8.  14. 

Literally  regarded,  the  whole  of  this  poem  is  a  description  of 
Spiritual  wedded  love;  one  of  the  noblest  of  our  affections,  and 
significancy.  one  which  our  Lord  has  employed  as  a  kind  of  type  of 
his  o-RTi.  In  this  aspect,  the  book  gives  a  beautiful  representation 
of  the  sentiments  and  manners  which  prevailed  among  the  Israelites, 
on  conjugal  and  domestic  life.  But  the  poem  had,  no  doubt,  a 
higher  aim.  The  names  of  the  two  chief  characiers,  are  as  signi- 
ficant as  any  in  "Bunyan's  Allegory."  The  sudden  change  from 
the  singular  pronoun  to  the  plural  (i.  4,  etc.),  indicates  that 
Shulamith  must  be  taken  collectively.  Both  she  and  Shelomoh, 
moreover,  appear  in  positions  which,  literally  regarded,  are  highly 
improbable,  5.  7:  2,  14-16:  4.  8.  And  from  the  earliest  times, 
Jews  and  Christians  have  applied  the  whole  to  the  history  of  the 
chosen  people  of  God,  and  their  relation  to  Him.  These  views 
are  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  throughout  the  Bible,  the  union  of 
Christ  and  his  Church,  or  of  God  and  his  ancient  people,  is  repre- 
sented under  the  same  endearing  relation  as  that  which  tliis  book 
discloses;  see  especially  Psa.  45:  Isa.  54.  5,  6:  62.  5 :  Jer.  2.  2:  3.  i: 
Ezek.  16.  10,  13:  Hos.  2.  14-23:  Matt.  9.  15:  22,  2:  25.  i-ii:  John 
3.  29:  2  Cor.  II.  2:  Eph.  5.  23-27:  Eev.  19.  7-9:  21.  2-9:  22.  17. 

Much  of  the  language  of  this  poem  has  been  misunderstood  by 
Abuse  of  in-  early  expositors.  Some  have  erred  by  adopting  a  fanci- 
terpretation.  ful  method  of  explanation,  and  attempting  to  give  a 
mystical  meaning  to  every  minute  circumstance  of  the  allegory.  In 
all  figurative  representations  there  is  always  much  that  is  mere 
costume.  It  is  the  general  truth  only  that  is  to  be  examined  and 
explained.  Others,  not  understanding  the  spirit  and  luxuriancy 
of  eastern  poetry,  have  considered  particular  passages  as  defective 
in  delicacy,  an  impression  which  the  English  version  has  needlessly 
confirmed,  and  so  have  objected  to  the  whole;  though  the  objection 
does  not  apply  with  greater  force  to  this  book  than  to  Hesiod  and 
Homer,  or  even  to  some  of  the  purest  of  our  own  authors.  If  it  be 
remembered,  that  the  figure  employed  in  this  allegory  is  one  of  the 
most  frequent  in  Scripture,  that  in  extant  oriental  poems  it  is  con- 
stantly employed  to  express  religious  feeling,^  that  many  expressions 

^  See  examples  in  Lowth's  Lectures  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  30,  31; 
Clarke  or  Rosenmuller  on  the  Song  of  Solomon.  Stuart  on  the 
Canon;  Sir  W.  Jones's  Works,  ii.  469;  As.  Res.,  lii.  353;  and  in 
Eatto's  Bible  Readiness. 


450  PROVERBS. 

wliicli  are  applied  in  our  translation  to  the  person,  belong  properly 
to  the  dress, ^  that  every  generation  has  its  own  notions  of  delicacy 
(the  most  delicate  in  this  sense  being  by  no  means  the  most  virtuous), 
that  nothing  is  described  but  chaste  affection,  that  Shulamith  speaks 
and  is  spoken  of  collectively,  and  that  it  is  the  general  truth  only 
which  is  to  be  allegorized,  the  whole  will  appear  to  be  no  unfit 
representation  of  the  union  between  Christ  and  true  believers  in 
every  age. 

Properly  understood,  this  portion  of  Scripture  will  minister  to 
our  holiness.  It  may  be  added,  however,  that  it  was  the  practice  of 
the  Jews  to  withhold  the  book  from  their  children,  till  their  judg- 
ments were  matured. 

The  Booh  of  Froverls  {about  B.C.  loco). 

60.  The  book  of  the  Proverhs  of  Solomon  contains  more 
than  the  title  indicates,  A  proverb  is  a  short 
sentence,  conveying  some  moral  truth  or  practical 
lesson  in  a  concise,  pointed  form,  and  sometimes  the  name  is 
applied  to  enigmatical  propositions  of  the  same  moral  or 
practical  tendency.  In  this  book,  however,  we  have,  in 
addition,  many  exhortations  to  prudence  and  virtue,  with 
eulogies  on  true  wisdom.  These  latter  form  the  subject  of 
the  first  nine  chapters.  The  last  two  chapters,  moreover,  are 
from  the  pen  of  another  author.  Those  that  are  Solomon's 
are  part,  probably,  of  the  3000  proverbs  he  is  recorded  to 
have  spoken,  i  Kings  4.  32,  and  formed,  besides  the  Canticles 
and  Ecclesiastes,  the  only  works  of  his  which  were  undoubtedly 
inspired.  He  sought  wisdom  rather  than  any  other  gift,  and 
God  honoured  his  request  by  granting  him  a  larger  measure 
of  it  than  was  enjoyed  by  any  of  his  contemporaries.  To 
communicate  a  portion  of  what  he  had  received  for  the 
lasting  benefit  of  others  was  the  aim  of  this  collection.  The 
proverbs,  from  the  25th  to  the  29th  chapters  inclusive,  were 
collected  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah,  among  whom  were  Hosea 
and  Isaiah. 

Proverbial  instruction  is  common  in  the  early  history  of  most 
nations,  and  especially  in  the  east.  This  style  of  communication 
excites  attention,  exercises  ingenuity,  is  favourable  to  habits  of  re- 
flection, and  fastens  truth  upon  the  memory  in  a  form  at  once 
agreeable  and  impressive.     The  elegance  and  force  of  the  proverbs 

^  Chap.  5.  10,  14:  7.  2. 


proverbs:  aim.  451 

of  Solomon  are  increased  by  the  poetic  parallelisms  in  which  they 
are  wiitten.  Neai-ly  every  sentence  is  antithetical  or  explanatory, 
and  attention  to  corresponding  clauses  will  often  fix  the  reading 
and  determine  the  sense. 

The  leading  aim  of  the  writer  is,  as  stated  at  the  outset,  to  "give 
a  young  man  knowledge  and  discretion."  This  book  is, 
for  practical  ethics,  what  the  book  of  Psalms  is  for 
devotion.  It  has  lessons  for  every  age  and  condition.  All  may 
draw  from  it  the  most  excellent  counsels;  and  the  man  who,  pos- 
sessed of  the  sound  principles  of  piety,  shall  form  his  life  by  the 
rules  of  this  volume  cannot  fail  to  attain  honour  and  happiness. 
The  wisest  authors  have  done  little  more  than  dilate  on  the  pre- 
cepts and  comment  on  the  wisdom  of  Solomon. 

Though  most  of  his  r\iles  are  based  chiefly  on  considerations  of 
prudence,  strictly  religious  motives  are  either  presupposed  or  ex- 
pressly enjoined.  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  is,"  with  him,  "the  be- 
ginning of  wisdom,"  i.  7:  9.  10.  His  morality  is  based  on  religion. 
Vice,  moreover,  is  condemned,  and  virtue  enforced,  by  appeals  to 
the  holiest  motives;  as  the  authority  of  God,  16.  6;  his  exact 
knowledge  of  men's  hearts  and  ways,  5.  21:  15.  11;  the  rewards  of 
righteousness,  and  the  punishment  of  wickedness,  by  his  just  ap- 
pointment, 19.  29:  23.  17-19:  26.10.  Practical  wisdom,  therefore, 
resting  upon  and  rising  out  of  religious  character,  is  the  aim  of  thu? 
portion  of  the  inspired  volume. 

Ponder  its  lessons,  form  your  opinion  of  men  and  things  according 
to  them,  and  treasure  them  in  your  memory  as  the  best  rules  of 
prudence. 

The  book  may  be  divided  into  five  parts : — 

i.  Containing  a  connected  discourse  on  the  value  and 
Divisions.  , ,   .  j_     r  ^  •    i 

attainment  of  true  wisdom,  1.-9 

ii.  Extending  from  io.-22.  16,  comprises  proverbs,  strictly  so 
called,  expressed  with  much  force  and  simplicity. 

iii.  Peaching  from  22.  17-24.  contains  renewed  admonitions  on  the 
study  of  wisdom,  as  in  part  i. 

iv.  Containing  proverbs  selected  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah  ;  by 
those,  that  is,  whom  he  employed  to  restore  the  service  of 
the  Jewish  church.     These  are  also  true  proverbs,  25.-29. 

V.  Consisting  of  chaps.  30  and  31,  contains  the  wise  instructions  of 
Agur  to  his  pupUs  Ithiel  and  Ucal,  and  lessons  addressed  to 
Lemuel  by  his  niother.  'Who  these  persons  were  is  not 
known.  The  proverbs  of  chap.  30  are  chiefly  enigmatical, 
and  the  31st  gives  a  picture  of  female  excellence  adapted  to 
that  age  and  countiy. 
The  description  of  Wisdom  given  in  chap.  i.  20-23:  8.:  and  9. 


452  TROVERBS  :   CONTENTS. 

applies  emphatically  to  the  wisdom  of  God,  revealed  and  embodied 
in  his  Son,  and  to  the  Son  himself,  as  the  eternal  Word.  Compare 
John  I.  i:  14.  10  with  chap.  8.  Pre -intimations  of  immortality 
are  also  given  in  chaps.  4.  18:  12.  28:  14.  32:  15.  24. 

The  nature  and  consequences  of  sin  are  implied  in  the  very  terms 
•which  describe  holiness,  i.  20:  see  also  i.  24:  16.  5:  21.  4:  24.  9; 
and  that  holiness  is  a  Divine  gift,  is  plainly  implied  in  i.  23. 

61.  In  expounding  and  applying  the  maxims  of  this  book 
there  are  two  crolden  rules. 

Rules  for  ° 

*roverbs  *^°  I.  Like  all  general  laws,  some  of  them  have  occa- 
sional exceptions.  Not  all  are  unlimited  or  universal. 
For  example,  Prov.  10.  27,  ''  The  fear  of  the  Lord  prolongeth  days, 
but  the  years  of  the  wicked  shall  be  shortened."  Such  is  often  the 
rule :  but  Abel  was  murdered  and  the  life  of  Cain  prolonged. 
Jonathan  and  Saul — the  one  a  very  brother  of  David,  the  other  an 
apostate — perish  in  the  same  battle:  "the  corn  cut  doA\ia  with  the 
weeds,  though  to  better  purpose."  Men  are  less  likely  to  harm  us 
if  we  be  followers  of  that  which  is  good,  and  yet  persecution,  be- 
catxse  of  our  goodness,  is  supposed,  i  Pet.  3.  13.  In  truth,  God 
has  to  teach  us  a  double  lesson — that  he  certainly  will  punish,  and 
that  he  will  pimish  hereafter.  The  shortening  of  the  years  of  the 
wicked — present  punishment — teaches  the  first :  the  lengthening  of 
their  years — the  postponement  of  punishment — the  second.  Hence 
both  the  exception  and  the  rule.  Prov.  16.  7,  "When  a  man's 
ways  please  the  Lord,  he  maketh  even  his  enemies  to  be  at  peace 
Avith  him."  So  it  was  with  Abraham  and  the  Israelites,  with 
Solomon  and  Jehoshaphat ;  so  it  was  not  with  David,  or  with  Paul. 
2.  The  force  and  significancy  of  these  maxims  will  be  most 
clearly  seen  and  felt,  if  they  be  studied  in  the  light  of  Scripture 
examples.  They  are  comprehensive  laws,  understood  best  when 
examined  in  particular  cases. 

The  following  instances  are  taken  from  Nichol's  Treatise 
on  this  book  ;  an  admirable  specimen  of  biblical  exposition. 

Prov.  I.  7,  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  knowledge: 
but  fools  despise  wisdom  and  instruction."  (Rehoboam,  i  Kings 
12.  13;  Eli's  sons,  I  Sam.  2.  25;  Athenian  philosophers.  Acts  17. 
18.) 

Pi'ov.  I.  10,  "My  son,  if  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not." 
(Adam,  Gen.  3.  6;  Balaam,  Numb.  22;  Jehoshaphat,  i  Kings  22.  4; 
prophet  of  Judah,  i  Kings  13.  15-19,  24;  Micaiah's  firmness, 
I  Kings  22.  13,  14.) 


proverbs:  contents.  4.';3 

Prov.  I.  32,  ''The  prosperity  of  fools  shall  destroy  them."  (The 
Israelites,  Deut.  32.  15-25:  Hos.  13.  6;  Tyre,  Ezek.  28.  2,  iG,  17; 
Sodom,  Ezek.  16.  49.) 

Prov.  3.5,  6,  "  Trust  in  the  Lord  with  all  thine  heart;  and  lean 
not  unto  thine  own  vmderstanding.  In  all  thy  ways  acknowledge 
him,  and  he  shall  direct  thy  paths."  (Asa,  2  Chron.  14.  9-15 ; 
Hezekiah,  2  Kings  19.  14,  etc.;  Abraham's  servant.  Gen.  24.  12-27: 
Kehemiah  2.  4:  Ezra  8.  21-23;  David,  i  Sam.  ^o.  6-8.) 

Prov.  4.  14,  "  Enter  not  into  the  paths  of  the  wicked."  (Lot, 
Gen.  13.  10-13;  David,  i  Sam.  27.  i.) 

Prov.  4.  18,  19,  ''The  path  of  the  just  is  as  the  shining  light." 
(The  wise  men,  Matt.  2.  1-13  ;  Xathanael,  John  i.  46-51;  the 
eunuch,  Acts  8.  27-40;  Cornelius,  Acts  10.;  Paul,  2  Cor.  3.  18.) 
"The  way  of  the  wicked  is  as  darkness;  they  know  not  at  what 
they  stumble."  (Ahab,  i  Kings  18.  17;  the  Jews,  Ezek.  18.  29: 
Jer.  5.  19,  25.  Also,  their  ignorance,  that  the  cause  of  their 
present  miseries  is  their  rejection  of  the  Messiah,  Deut.  28.  29.) 

Prov.  5.  22,  "His  own  iniquities  shall  take  the  wicked  himself." 
(Agag,  I  Sam.  15.  33;  Adoni-bezek,  Judges  i.  7:  Haman,  Esther  7. 
10;  Judas,  Matt.  27.  3-5.) 

Prov.  9.  8,  "  Rebuke  a  wise  man,  and  he  will  love  thee."  (David 
loved  Nathan;  Peter  loved  om-Lord,  John  21.  17;  the  two  disciples 
constrained  their  reprover  to  abide  with  them,  Luke  24.  25,  29.) 

Prov.  10.  2,  "  Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing."  (Tyre, 
Ezek.  26.  15:  27.:  28.;  the  rich  man,  Luke  16.  23.)  "But  righte- 
ousness delivereth  from  death."  (Noah,  Gen.  7.  i,  with  Heb.  ir. 
7:  Dan.  5.  6.,  Belshazzar  contrasted  with  Daniel.) 

Prov.  13.  7,  "The  memoiy  of  the  just  is  blessed."  (Elisha, 
2  Kings  13.  21;  Jehoiada,  2  Chron.  24,  15,  etc.;  Dorcas,  Acts  9.  ^f?, 
etc.;  Mary,  Mark  14.  9.)  "  But  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  i-ot." 
(Absalom,  2  Sam.  18.  17  ;  Jehoiakim,  Jer.  22.  18,  19  ;  Jezebel, 
2  Kings  9.  37;  Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  2  Eangs  13.  14.  15.) 

Prov.  10.  8,  "The  wise  in  heart  will  receive  commandments." 
(David,  2  Sam.  7;  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  John  2.  4,  5;  the  no- 
bleman, John  4.  50.)  "But  a  prating  fool  shall  fall."  (Amaziah, 
2  Kings  14.) 

Prov.  10.  24,  "The  fear  of  the  wicked,  it  shall  come  upon  him." 
(The  Canaanites,  Josh,  5;  Belshazzar,  Dan.  5;  Ahab,  i  Kings  22; 
Haman,  Esther  7.  7-10.)  "But  the  desire  of  the  righteous  shall 
be  gi-anted."  (Hannah,  i  Sam.  i:  Esther  4.  16:  8.  15-17;  Simeon, 
Luke  2.  29,  30:  see  also  Psa.  37.  4:  John  16.  23,  24.) 

Prov.  10.  25,  "As  the  whirlwind  passeth,  so  is  the  wicked  no 
more."  (Elah,  i  Kings  16.  9;  Zimri,  i  Kings  16.  18,  19.)  "But 
the  righteous  is  an  everlasting  foimdation."  (Abraham,  Gou.  17 
1-8;  David,  2  Sam.  7.  16:  see  also  Matt.  7.  24,  25.) 


454  PROVERBS  :  contents. 

Pror.  Ti.  2,  ''When  pride  cometli,  then  cometh  shame/' 
(Miriam,  Numb.  12.  10;  Uzziah,  1  Chron.  26.  i6-2i;  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Dan.  4.  -^o,  etc.)  ''But  with  the  lowly  is  -svisdom." 
(Daniel,  Dan.  2.  30;  Joseph,  Gen.  41.  16.) 

ProT.  II.  5,  6,  "The  righteousness  of  the  perfect  shall  direct  his 
way:  but  the  wicked  shall  fall  by  his  o\vn  wickedness.  The  righte- 
ousness of  the  upright  shall  deliver  them :  but  transgressors  shall 
be  taken  in  their  own  naughtiness."  (Haman,  Esther  7.  10:  8.  7; 
Daniel's  accusers,  Dan.  6.  24,  etc.;  Ahithophel's  death,  2  Sam.  17. 
23,  contrasted  with  David's  restoration  to  hLs  throne.) 

Prov.  II.  10,  "When  it  goeth  well  with  the  righteous,  the  city 
rejoiceth."  (Mordecai,  Esther  8.  16.)  "When  the  wicked  perish^ 
eth,  there  is  shouting."  (Sisera,  Judges  5;  Athaliah,  2  Kings  11. 
13,  20:  see  Rev.  19.  i-  3.) 

Prov.  II.  21,  "Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  ^vicked  shall  not 
be  unpunished."  (Tower  of  Babel,  Gen.  11.  4,  etc.;  the  kings  who 
combined  together.  Josh.  9.  i,  2;  Adonizedec,  Josh.  10.)  "But 
the  seed  of  the  righteous  shall  be  delivered."  (Mephibosheth, 
2  Sam.  21.  7;  Solomon,  i  Kings  11.  12,  34;  Abijam,  i  Kings  15.  4; 
the  Israelites  often,  Exod.  3.  15,  17:  2  Kings  8.  19.) 

Prov.  II.  25,  "The  liberal  soul  shall  be  made  fat,  and  he  that 
watereth  shall  be  watered  also  himself."  (Abraham,  Gen.  13.  9, 
14;  widow  of  Zarephath,  i  Kings  17.  10,  etc.;  the  Shunamite, 
2  Kings  4.) 

Prov.  12.  5,  "The  counsels  of  the  wicked  are  deceit."  (Geshem, 
Neh.  6.  2;  Ishmael,  Jer.  41.  1-7;  Daniel's  accusers  to  Darius,  Dan. 
6.  8;  Herod's  to  the  wise  men.  Matt.  2;  the  Pharisees  respecting 
the  tribute  money,  Matt.  22.  15;  the  Jews  laying  wait  for  Paul, 
Acts  23.  15.) 

Prov.  12.  II,  "He  that  folio weth  vain  persons  is  void  of  imder- 
standing."  (Followers  of  Abimeiech,  Judges  9;  and  of  Absalom, 
2  Sam.  15;  of  Theudas  and  Judas,  Acts  5.  36,  37.) 

Prov.  12.  13,  "The  wicked  is  snared  by  the  transgression  of  his 
lips:  but  the  just  shall  come  out  of  trouble."  (Adonijah,  i  Kings 
2.  23;  Daniel's  accusers,  Dan.  6.  24;  the  Jews,  Matt.  27.  25.) 

Prov.  12.  15,  "The  way  of  a  fool  is  right  in  his  own  eyes." 
(Lot's  sons-in-law.  Gen.  19.  14;  Pharisees,  John  9.  34.)  "But  he 
that  heai'keneth  unto  counsel  is  wise."  (Moses,  Exod.  18.  19-24; 
Apollos,  Acts  18.  24-26;  Pharaoh,  Gen.  41.  37-45;  Jacob,  Gen.  43. 
11;  Nathanael,  John  i.  46,  47.) 

Prov.  12.  19,  "The  lip  of  tinith  shall  be  established  for  ever." 
(Caleb  and  Joshua,  Numb.  13.  14;  Nathan  to  David,  2  Sam.  7, 
12-17,  with  Luke  i.  32.)  "But  a  lying  tongue  is  but  for  a  mo- 
ment."    (Gehazi,  2  Kings  5;  Ananias,  Acts  5.) 

Prov.  12.  25,  "Heaviness  in  the  heai-t  of  man  maketh  it  stoop. 


PROVERBS  :  ECCLESIASTES.  455 

but  a  good  word  maketh  it  glad."  (Neliemiah,  Neli.  2.  i,  2;  the 
^yoman  that  was  a  sinner,  Luke  7.  38,  50;  Mary  Magdalene,  John 
20.  11-18:  see  also  Luke  24.  17-32.) 

Prov.  13.  7,  ''There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath 
nothing."  (Haman,  Esther  5.  13;  chiirch  of  Laodicea  contrasted 
with  the  church  of  Smyrna,  Eev.  3.  17;  2.  9;  Ahab,  i  Kings  21.  4, 
16,  22)  "There  is  that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath  great 
riches."    (]\Iatthcw,  Luke  5.  27,  28;  Paid,  2  Cor.  6.  10:  Phil.  3.  8.) 

Prov.  13.  24,  "He  that  spareth  his  rod  hateth  his  son:  but  he 
that  loveth  him  chasteneth  him  betimes."  (Eli,  i  Sam.  3.  13; 
David,  I  Kings  i.  5,  6.) 

Prov.  14.  6,  "A  scomer  seeketh  wisdom,  and  findeth  it  not." 
(Athenian  philosophers,  Acts  17.  18;  Herod,  Luke  23.  8;  the  Jews 
looking  for  the  Messiah,  and  yet  rejecting  Christ,  Acts  13-.  41 ;  John 
9.  29.)  "But  knowledge  is  easy  to  him  that  imderstandeth." 
(Da\'id,  Psa.  119.  18,  98-100:  see  also  Jas.  i.  5  :  Matt.  11.  25.) 

Prov.  14.  8,  ' '  The  wisdom  of  the  prudent  is  to  vmderstand  his 
way."  (Job  28.  28:  Deut.  4.  6:  Eccles.  12.  13.)  "But  the  folly 
of  fools  is  deceit."  (Gehazi,  2  Kings  5.  20,  27;  Daniel's  accusers, 
Dan.  6.  24;  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  Acts  5.  i-ii.) 

Prov.  14.  32,  "The  wicked  is  driven  away  in  his  wickedness." 
(Hophni  and  Phinehas,  i  Sam.  4.  11.)  "But  the  righteous  hath 
hope  in  his  death."  (Jacob,  Gen.  49.  18;  Stephen,  Acts  7.  55-60; 
Paul,  2  Tim.  4.  6-8;  Peter,  2  Pet.  i.  14,  16:  3.  13.) 

Prov.  15.  I,  "A  soft  answer  tumeth  away  WTath."  (The  Reu- 
benites,    Josh.  22.    15,    21-30;    Gideon,   Judges   8.   1-3  ;    Abigail, 

1  Sam.  25.  23,  etc.)  "But  grievous  words  stir  up  anger."  (Reho- 
boam,  2  Chron.  10.  13,  etc.;  Paul  and  Barnabas,  Acts  15.  39;  Saul 
and  Jonathan,  i  Sam.  20.  30-34.) 

Prov.  15.  10,  "Correction  is  grievous  to  him  that  foi'saketh  the 
way."  (Asa,  2  Chron.  16.  10;  the  Jews,  Isa.  i.  5 :  Jer.  5.  3:  John 
8.  40.)      "And  he   that   hateth  reproof  shall   die."      (Amaziah, 

2  Kings  14.  11:  2  Chi'on.  25.  27;  the  Jews,  2  Chron.  36.  15-17: 
Luke  19.  42,  43-) 

Ecclesiastes  (b.  c.  997). 

62.  The  English  name  of  this  book,  which  is  taken  from 

the  Greek  version,  signifies  (as  does  the  Hebrew)  one  who 

convenes  or  addresses  an  assembly,  and  is,  on  the  whole, 

accurately  expressed  by  the  term  "  the  preacher."     The  illus- 

.  ,  , .  trious  prince,  the  author  of  the  book,  though  so 
Authorship.       .,,11.,         .    ,  ,  ^ 

richly  endowed  with  wisdom,  turned  away  from 

God,  and  sought  happiness  in  earthly  and  idolatrous  prac- 
tices, I  Kings  II.  1-13  ;  but  in  his  latter  years,  being  made 


456  ECCLESIASTES. 

sensible  of  lais  folly,  he  here  records  his  experience.  Perhaps 
the  truths  here  given  were  "  proclaimed  "  by  him  in  piibhc ; 
nor  was  it  unbecoming  his  station  or  character  thus  to  in- 
form those  who  crowded  from  all  parts  to  his  court  to  bo 
instructed  by  his  wisdom.  The  book  is  further  interesting, 
as  it  supplies  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  fact  that,  towards 
the  close  of  his  life,  Solomon  repented  of  his  unholy  practices 
and  licentious  principles,  if  in  such  a  course,  as  is  probable, 
he  had  imbibed  them. 


The  gi"eat  design  of  this  book  is  evidently  to  show  the  utter  in- 
Designoftbe  sufficiency  of  all  earthly  pursuits  and  objects,  as  the 
book.  chief  end  of  life,  to  confer  solid  happiness,  and  then  to 

draw  men  off  from  apparent  good  to  the  only  real  and  permanent 
good — the  fear  of  God  and  communion  with  him.  "Vanity  of 
vanities,  all  is  vanity,"  is  its  first  lesson.  ''Fear  God,  and  keep 
his  commandments,"  is  its  last.  In  accomplishing  this  design,  the 
writer  gives  us  a  dramatic  biography  of  his  own  life,  not  only 
recording,  but  reacting  the  successive  scenes  of  his  own  search  for 
happiness;  reciting  past  experience,  and  in  his  fervour  becoming 
the  various  phases  of  his  former  self.  He  shows  us,  moreover  (and 
this  is  a  subordinate  design  of  the  book),  how  men  ought  to  de- 
mean themselves  amidst  the  various  disajDpuintments  with  which 
they  will  have  to  contend.  Hence  the  wai-nings  and  counsels  with 
which  his  descriptions  of  vanity,  and  exhortations  to  make  the  fear 
of  God  and  the  perfoi-mance  of  moral  and  religious  duties  our  chief 
good,  abound. 

The  difficulty  and  vividness  of  the  naiTative  are  greatly  increased 

by  the  form  in  which  it  is  written.     The  author  appears 

is-  for  the         to  be  for  the  moment  what  he  himself  describes.     He 

time  what  he  geems  to  have  (what  our  older  writers  call)  fvttes  of 
describes.  .      ^  ^^       ^  -,  /  ^ 

study  (I.  12-18),  of  luxury  (2.  i-ii),  of  grossness  and 

refinement,  of  conviviality  and  misanthropy ;  tyttes  of  building, 
and  of  book-making,  all  ending  in  collapses  of  bitterest  disappoint- 
ment. We  have  in  succession  the  man  of  science  and  the  man  of 
pleasure  becoming  fatahst,  materialist,  epicui-ean,  and  stoic;  speaking 
in  each  character  much  truth,  and  interposing  some  earnest  en- 
hghtened  interludes,  the  fruits  of  his  maturer  wisdom;  and  at  last 
we  have  the  noblest  style  of  man — the  humble  and  penitent  be- 
liever. Nor  is  it,  be  it  observed,  that  he  has  given  us  descriptions 
merely  of  these ;  he  has  given  us,  in  his  own  person,  the  men 
themselves. 

If  this  fact  be  kept  in  view,  the  meaning  of  several  passages  will 


KCCLESIASTES  :   ITS   TECULIARITIES.  457 

This  fact  te  plain.  Many  of  his  conclusions  are  the  expressions 
applied.  ^f  strong  shrewd  sense ;  others  of  them  are  eminently 

holy  and  spiritual  (5.  1-3:  7.  29:  11.  s:-i2.  i,  7);  others,  again, 
are  but  partially  true,  and  some  are  absolutely  false  (3. 19:  2.  16: 
9.  2).  Many  efforts  have  been  made,  in  vain,  to  harmonize  these 
last  with  other  parts  of  Scripture,  or  with  other  sayings  of  Solomon. 
But  it  is  nut  thus  they  are  to  be  explained.  Each  picture  is  the 
likeness  of  a  sagacious  disappointed  worldling,  with  added  lights 
thrown  in  from  a  Divine  source.  The  book  is  a  narrative  of  fan- 
tastic hopes  and  blank  failures,  with  descriptions  somewhat  stronger 
than  truth,  and  appropriate  to  each.  The  conclusion  of  the  whole 
matter  is,  that  we  are  to  fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments. 
2'hat  conclusion  is  true,  as  are  many  of  the  incidental  warnings  and 
appeals;  but  much  of  the  matter  it  includes  is  not.  And  on  this 
principle  the  whole  must  be  explained.  A  comparison  may  illus- 
trate both  the  argument  and  the  end.  As  the  45th  Psalm  is  a 
lesser  Canticles,  so  we  have  a  lesser  Ecclesiastes  in  the  73rd. 

"While  all  agree  that  the  main  design  of  the  book  is  to  exalt 
religion  as  man's  "chief  end,"  different  views  (it  may  be  added) 
have  been  taken  of  the  illustrations  and  arguments.  Some  have 
held  that  the  giand  lesson  is,  the  vanity  of  everything  earthly 
apart  from  godliness,  and  with  such,  every  illustration  and  every 
part  is  true.  Luther,  on  the  other  hand,  thought  the  lesson  of  the 
book  to  be — be  godly,  and  concerning  everything  else,  be  tranquil; 
for  life  is  not  worth  your  care.  Within  certain  limits  both  views 
are  just.  Apart  from  religion,  all  things  are  vain,  though  not 
cqualhj  vain;  and  with  religion  nothing  can  harm  us,  though  even 
then  wisdom  and  folly  are  not  indifferent ;  nor  does  one  thing  hap- 
pen alike  to  all.  Some,  again,  put  the  remarks  that  are  imtrue 
into  the  mouth  of  objectors,  while  others  put  them  as  questions. 
The  sounder  view  of. the  whole  is  certainly  the  one  we  have  given.* 

i^Tote,  that  in  Ecclesiastes,  icisdom  is  used  in  the  sense  of  science. 
Wisdom,         or  sagacity;  in  Proverbs,  it  is  identical  vnth  piety. 
>vbat.  It  is  a  strange  proof  of  the  depravity  of  our  nature 

that  modem  infidels  (Frederick  the  Great,  Voltaire,  and  others) 
have  warmly  praised  those  parts  of  Ecclesiastes  in  which  Solomon 
records  the  false  principles  which  his  folly  had  for  the  moment  led 
him  to  maintain.  The  true  wisdom  of  the  book  they  entirely 
disregard,  chap.  12. 

The  canonicity  of  Ecclesiastes  is  recognised  by  the  early 
Christian  writers,  and  though  the  book  is   not 
anonici  j.     £Q^.j^^jjy  quoted  by  our  Lord  or  his  apostles,  there 
are  several  references  to  it  in  the  New  Testament. 
^  Stowe,  Stuart,  Dr.  Hamilton,  and  others. 

X 


458 


JOSHUA  1 — 11  :   EPITOMIZED. 


By  the  Jews  it  was  not  reckoned  one  of  the  poetical  books,  and 
indeed  the  whole,  except  3.  2-8:  7.  1-14:  11.  17:  12.  7,  is  written 
in  prose. 

Sec.  6.   The  whole  Arranged  and  Epitomizedy  with  occasional 
Helps. 

63.  From  the  entrance  into  Canaan  to  the  death  of  Solomon 
(475  years). 

Part  I.  (25  years). 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Naxrative. 


145 1. 

Eccl.  y.  41. 

I  m.  I  d. 


10  d. 


145 1, 
Gilgal. 


Gilgal. 
145 0-1445. 


I.   Conquest  of  Canaan  (7  years).^ 

God's  charge  to  Joshua,  Josh.  i.  1-9. 

Spies  sent  to  Jericho;  Rahab  receives  them,  Josh.  2. 
Joshua  reminds  Reuben,  etc.,  of  their  engagement 

{cf.   Numb.   22);   they  promise   obedience.     The 

Israelites  directed  concerning  the  passage  of  the 

Jordan.     God  encourageth  Joshua, 

^Josh.  I.  10-18:  3.  1-13. 
Passage  of    the  Jordan   (a.m.    2553);    a    memorial 

erected;  the  Canaanites  alarmed. 

Josh.  3.  J4-17:*'  4:"^  5.  I. 
Circumcision  renewed;  the  Passover;  manna  ceases, 

Josh.  5.  2-12. 
The  Captain  of  the  Lord's  host  apjyears  to  Joshua,  see 

230;  miraculous  capture  of  Jericho;  a  curse  on 

the  rebuilder  of  it,    Josh.  6.  i:"  5.  13-15:  6.  2-27. 
The  Israelites  discomfited  through  Achan's  sin  ;  he  is 

destroyed.  Josh.  7. 

Capture  of  Ai  by  stratagem,  Josh.  8.  1-29. 

The  Gibeonites  obtain  a  league  with  Joshua,  Josh.  9.' 
Conquest  of  several  kings  in  succession,  Josh.  lo.^ 
The  rest  of  the  conquests,  Josh.  11. 


'^  Josh.  14.  7,  10. 

^  For  this  order,  see  Bedford's  Scrip.  Chron.  quoted  in  Gray,  p. 
147,  or  Townsend,  i.  495-        "  3-  ^S't  Jordan  overflows:  see  §  404. 

d  4.  19;  40  years,  less  five  days:  §  358  h. 

*  For  order,  see  Faber's  Horse  Mos.  ii.  107. 

^  The  Gibeonites  remained  for  ages  a  moniiment  of  the  truth  of 
Jewish  history;  as  are  now  the  Jews. 

2  God  thus  proved  his  power  over  the  objects  of  Cauaanitisb 
iv'orship. 


JOSHUA  8 — JUDGES  :    EPITOMIZED. 


459 


Date  and  PIac«. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


1444. 
Ebal  and 
Geriziin. 


1444. 


Hebron,  Kir- 

jath  Arba, 

Josh.  21.  II. 

1444. 

Shiloh. 


1427. 

Shechem, 

Sjcbar  N.  T. 

1426. 

Shechem. 


1425, 
Bochim. 


The  law  written  on  a  stone  altar  (c/.  Deut.  27)  and 
proclaimed  to  all  the  people,  Josh,  8.  30-35.* 

Reuben,  etc.,  return  to  then*  land  on  the  eastern 
side  of  Jordan;  they  erect  an  altar  of  memorial; 
Isi-ael  offended,  ask  an  explanation.  Josh.  22. 

2.   General  Dkisimi  of  the  Land. 

Enumeration  of  conquests,  [Josh.  1 2]. 

Land  not  yet  conquered,  [Josh.  13.  1-6]. 

Joshua  diA'ides  the  land ;  the  nine  tribes  and  a  half. 
receive  their  portions  by  lot;*>  the  Levites  not  to 
receive  land,  [Josh.  13.  7-14:  14.  1-5]. 

Inheritance  of  Reuben,  etc.,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
Jordan,  [Josh.  13.  15-33]. 

Inheritance  of  Caleb,         [Josh.  14.  6-15:  15.  13-19]. 

Lotof  Judah,  [Josh.  15.  1-12,  20-63]. 

Lots  of  Ephi-aim  and  half  of  Manasseh,  [Josh.  16 :  17.] 

The  tabernacle  set  up.  Josh.  18.  i. 

Lots  of  the  other  tribes;  Joshua's  inheritance, 

[Josh.  18.  2-28:  19]- 

Cities  of  refuge  appointed.  Josh.  20. 

Levitical  cities,  [Josh.  21]. 

3.  Last  Acts  of  Joshua,  etc. 

Joshua's  chai'ge  to  the  elders  of  Israel,  Josh.  23.* 
Joshua  addresses  the  tribes  and  renews  the  cove- 
nant, Josh.  24.  1-28. 
Death  and  burial  of  Joshua,  Josh.  24.  29-31. 
Burial  of  Joseph's  bones,  etc.             Josh.  24.  32,  H- 


64.  (Pai-t  II). 
Jnterregnum  and  Government  of  Judges  (330  years). 

Conquests  after  Joshua's  death,  Judg.  1.  1-26. 

Nations  not  subdued  by  Israel,  Judg.  i.  27-36. 

The  angel  of  the  Lord  rebukes  the  Israelites  for  not 
driving  out  the  Canaanites,  Judg.  2.  1-5. 

Commencement  of  idolatry  in  Israel,    Judg.  2.  6-13. 

°  For  order,  see  Horsley's  Bib,  Crit.  i.  260,  and  compare  chap. 
I.  14  ;  it  immediately  follows  the  close  of  the  war. 

'^  Though  these  divisions  were  made  by  lot,  each  tribe  received 
such  an  inheritance  as  fulfilled  the  predictions  of  Jacob  and  Moses ; 
thus  illusti-ating  the  faithfulness  of  God. 

^  Ver.  3,  mark  how  God  is  honoured:  see  198. 


460 


JUDGES   2 — 1  SAMUEL  :    EPITOMIZED. 


Date  and  Place, 


B.C. 

1413. 


1406, 

Gibeali,  Jeba. 


1402-1394. 
1354-1336. 

1316-1296. 


1256. 

Bethlehem, 

Beit-el-lahm. 

1249, 

Shechem. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Account  of  Micah  and  his  image,  Judg.  17. 

A  party  of  Danites,  having  robbed  Micah  of.  his 
image,  establish  themselves  in  Laish  (afterwards 
Dan)  and  set  up  idolatry,"  Judg.  18.'' 

History  of  the  Levite  and  his  concubine;  slaughter 
of  the  Benjamites,  etc.  [J^dg.  19:  20:  21]. 

The  captivities  of  Israel  for  idolatry,  and  their 
deliverances  by  Judges,        Judg.  2.  14-23:  3.  1-4. 

Captivity  of  the  eastern  Israelites  for  8  years  to  Meso- 
potamia; Othniel,  judge  Jvidg,  3.  5-11. 

Captivity  of  the  eastern  Israelites  for  18  years  to 
Moab;  Ehud,  judge,  Judg.  3.  12-30. 

Captivity  of  the  icestern  Israelites  to  the  Philistines ; 
Shamgar,  judge,  _  Judg.  3.  31.- 

Captivity  of  the  northern  Israelites  for  20  years  to 
the  Canaanites;  Deborah,  judge;  song  of  Deborah 
and  Barak,  Judg.  4:  5. 

Captivity  of  the  eastet^n  and  northern  Israelites  for 
7  years  to  Midian,  Judg.  6.  1-6. 

The  history  of  Ruth,  an  ancestress  of  the  Messiah, 

Ruth  1.-4.*^ 

Gideon,  judge;  is  visited  by  the  angel  of  the  covenant, 
and  delivers  Israel  from  Midian;  refuses  to  be 
made  king.  Judg.  6.  7-40:   7:  8. 

Usurpation  of  Abimelech;  Jotham's  fable,    Judg.  9. 

Tola  and  Jair,  judges,  Judg.  10.  1-5. 

The  Pliilistines  and  Ammonites  oppress  Israel  for 
18  years;  Jephthah;  his  vow,  Judg.  10.  6-r8:  11. 

Slaughter  ofEphraim  by  the  Gileadites,  Judg.  13.  1-6. 

Ibzan,  Elon,  and  Abdon,  judges,         Judg,  12.  7-15. 

The  Philistines  oppress  Isr-ael  40  years,   Jvidg.  13.  i. 

Birth  of  Samson,  Judg.  13.  2-25. 

Birth  of  Samuel;  Hannah's  song,      i  Sam,  i;   2.  i-ii. 

The  wickedness  of  Eli's  sons,'^  i  Sam,  2,  12-21. 

Call  of  Samuel,  i  Sam,  3. 


1235-1232. 
1232-1188. 
1206-1188. 

1x87. 
1182-1157. 
1156-1116. 

1156. 

Shiloh. 
1143. 

^  This  idolatiy  continued  till  the  days  of  Eli,  and  was  resumed 
by  Jeroboam,  i  Sam.  4,  10,  11.  Hence,  probably,  the  omission  of 
Dan  from  the  sealed  ones,  Rev.  7. 

^  That  these  five  chaps,  belong  to  this  early  age  is  clear;  Dan  was 
not  yet  settled,  18,  i;  Phinehas,  the  grandson  of  Aaron,  was  living, 
20.  2  3,  and  the  iniquity  of  Gibeah  is  mentioned,  Hos.  10,  g,  as  the 
first  open  sin  of  Israel  in  Canaan. 

"  Compare  Ruth.  i.  i  wdth  Judg.  6.  4,  the  only  famine  mentioned 
in  Judges:  see,  for  other  reasons.  Gray,  p.  166. 

*^  On  the  chronology  of  this  part  of  the  book  of  .Jiulges,  see 
Towusend,  i.  592,  or  Calmet. 


1  SAMUEL  :   EPITOMIZED. 


461 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


1096, 

Eamah. 

JMizpeh. 

Gilgal, 

.E.  Jericho. 

1094. 


T080. 

1064, 
Bethlehem 


1063. 

1062, 
Gibeah 
Naioth. 


B.C. 

1136-1117,  Marriage  of  Samson ;  his  exploits, 

Shiloh.  Judg.  14:  15.  1-19:  [16.  1-3] 
Judgment  on  Eli's  house,     i  Sam.  2.  22-36,  [22-25]. 

1 1 16,  Capture  and  death  of  Samson, 

Gaza.  Judg.  [15.  20]:  16.  4-31. 

1 1 1 6,  Israel  twice  defeated  by  the  Philistines ;  ai  k  taken  and 

Ebenezer.  Eli's  sons  slain;  death  of  Eli,  i  Sam,  4:  [19-22]. 

Ashdod,  Azo-  The  ark  placed  in  the  house  of  Dagon;  removed' to 

tus.  Acts  8.  Ekron  {Mir),  then  to  Bethshemesh  {Ain  Shems), 

40;  Shdood,  thence  to  Kirjath-jeai-im,  where  it  remains  till  re- 

30W.  Jerus.  moved  by  David,  Town.i.  612,  i  Sam.  5:  6:  7.  i,  2. 

1 1 12,  Samuel,  judge;  he  moves  the  Israelites  to  repent- 

Mizpeh.  ance;  the  Philistines  discomfited,     i  Sam.  7.  3-17. 

1095,  Samuel    appoints   his   sous    judges ;    their   corrupt 

Kamah,  in  government ;  the  Israelites  ask  for  a  king ;  God 

Ephraim.  bids  Samuel  heai'ken  to  them,                     i  Sam.  8. 

65.  (Part  III). 
The  Eeign  of  Saul  (40  years').^ 

Samuel  privately  anoints  Saul  as  king,  and  gives  him 
three  signs,  i  Sam.  9:  10.  1-16. 

Saul  chosen  and  proclaimed  king,   i  Sam.  10.  17-27. 
Saul     rescues    Jabesh-Gilead  ;     is    inaugurated    as 
king;  Samuel's  address  to  Israel,     i  Sam.  11:  12. 
Saul  gathers  an  ai'my  against  the  Philistines ;  he  dis- 
obeys Samuel,  and  is  warned  of  his  rejection  from 
the  kingdom,  i  Sam.  13.  1-15. 

The  Philistines  discomfited;  Saul's  rash  oath  endan- 
gers Jonathan;  the  people  rescue  him;  Saul's  vic- 
tories; his  family,  i  Sam.  13.  16-23:  14. 
Saul  smites  the  Amalekites ;    spai-es  Agag  and  the 
best  of  the  spoil;  denounced  by  Samuel,  i  bam.  15. 
Samuel   secretly  anoints    David,    at  Bethlehem,    as 
futm-e  king,  i  Sam.  16.  1-13. 
David's  victory  over  Goliath;  Jonathan  loves  David, 
I  Sam.  17.  1-40,  55,  56,  41-54,  5  7.  58:  18.  1-4: 
Psa.  9.*" 
David's  victories  ;  Saul's  melancholy ;  he  attempts  to 
kill  DaAdd,    i  Sam.  18.  5-9:  16.  14-23:''  18.  10-16. 
David  marries  Saul's  daughter;  Saul  makes  various 
attempts  to  kill  him;  David  flees  to  Samuel;  Saul 
sends  after  him,  i  Sam,  18.  17-30:  19. 1-3:  Psa.  ii: 
I  Sam.  19.  4-24:  Psa.  59, 
"  Acts  13.  21.            ^  See  Lightfoot  and  Town.  i.  638. 
'  The  order  here  is  fixed  by  Bishop  Horsley.     Compare  17.  33, 
38,  39,  42,  56,  with  16.  18,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  16.  14-23  belongs 
to  a  later  period  than  17,  1-40. 


46: 


1   SAMUEL:  EPITOMIZED   AJfD   ARRANGED. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.C. 

1062.  I 

IO61, 

ISTobandGath. 
Adullam. 


Xob. 


Keilah. 

1060, 

Ziph. 

1059, 
Engedi,  Ha- 
zezon  Tamar, 

1058. 

Ziph. 

1057. 


1056. 


Gilboa, 

(Djehel  GUbo), 

Ziklag  (16 

8.w.Gath?). 


Hebron, 

1056. 

Acts  13.  21. 

1054, 


David's  covenant  with  Jonathan,  i  Sam.  20. 

David  flees  to  Ahimelech  (where  his  lie  costs  the 
lives  of  the  priests  of  the  house  of  Eli),  then  to 
Achish;  feigns  madness,     i  Sam.  21:  Psa.  56:  34. 

David  flees  again,  joined  by  several  followers,  1  Sam. 
22.  i:  Psa.  142:  I  Sam.  22.  i  I. p.  and  2:  [i  Chron. 
12.  8-18]:  2  Sam.  23.  13-17:  I  Chron.  11.  15-19. 

David  goes  to  Mizpeh,  then  to  Hareth;  slaughter  of 
the  priests  by  Saul, 
I  Sam.  22.3-19:  Psa.  52:  109:  17:  140:  35:  64. 

Abiathar  joins  David;  David  defeats  the  Philistines, 
I  Sam.  23.  i:  22.  20-23:  23.  6,"  2-5,  7-12,  Psa.  31. 

Saul  pursvies  David;  an  invasion  obliges  him  to  re- 
turn, I  Sam.  23.  13-23;  Psa.  54:  i  Sam.  23.24-28. 

Saul  pursues  David;  David  spares  Saul's  life;  Saul 
confesses  his  fault, 

I  Sam.  23.29:  24:  Psa.  57:  58:  63. 

Death  of  Samuel ;  David  and  ISTabal,  i  Sam.  25 . 

David  again  spares  Saul's  life,  i  Sam.  26. 

David  flees  to  Achish,  i  Sam.  27.  1-7:  Psa.  141 ; 
several  resort  to  him,  [i  Chron.  12.  1-7.] 

David  makes  an  excuision  on  the  Amalekites  and 
repaii's  to  Gath  with  the  booty,      i  Sam.  27.  8-12. 

The  Philistines  prepare  for  war,  and  advance  to 
Shunem  ;  David  accompanies  them ;  Saul  consults 
the  witch  of  Endor,  i  Sam.  28. 

David  dismissed  from  the  army  of  the  Philistines;  on 
his  way  back  to  Ziklag  he  is  joined  by  several, 

I  Sam.  29:  [i  Chron.  12.  19-22]. 

On  his  return  to  Ziklag,  David  finds  that  it  had 
been  sacked  by  Amalek,  and  his  family  taken; 
he  pursues  Amalek,  and  smites  them,     i  Sam.  ^o. 

Saul,  defeated  in  battle  and  his  sons  slain,  kills  him- 
self, I  Sam.  31:  [i  Chron.  10.  1-14]. 

An  Amalekite  pretends  to  have  slain  Saul,  and  is 
put  to  death  by  David,  2  Sam.  i.  1-16. 

David's  lament  over  Saul  and  Jonathan, 

2  Sam.  I.  17-27. 

66.  (Part  IV). 

The  Reign  of  David  (40  years). 

David  acknowledged  as  king  of  Judah, 

2  Sam.  2.  1-7. 
Ishbosheth  proclaimed  king  of  Israel,  2  Sam.  2.  8-1 1. 
Civil  war  ensues;  David  waxes  stronger;  Abner  and 
Ishbosheth  treacherously  slain, 

2  Sam.  2.  12-32:  3:  4. 

"  See  Townsend  on  the  order. 


2   SAilUEL:    EPITOMIZED. 


463 


Date  and  Place. 


1049, 

Hebron, 

Jerusalem. 


1048. 


1046, 

from  Kirjath 

Jearim  to 

house  of 

Obededom, 

thence  to 

Zion,  Psa.  132, 

1041. 


1038-103  7, 

Medeba. 

i036audio34^ 

Jerusalem. 

1033. 


1031. 

1028. 


1025. 
1024. 


Event  or  Jfarrative. 


David  made  king  over  all  Israel;  his  troops;  he 
dispossesses  the  Jebusites  of  the  hill  of  Zion,  and 
dwells  there,  2  Sam.  5.  1-3:  23.  8-12,  [18-39]:  5. 
4,  5,  6-IO:  I  Chron.  11.  1-3  :  [12.  23-40]  :  11. 
10-14,  20  [26-47],  4-9- 

Hiram  of  Tyre  congratulates  David ;  David's  family; 
he  twice  defeats  the  Philistines, 

2  Sam.  5.  11-25,^  [13-17]:  I  Chron.  14.  1-17. 

David  removes  the  ark ;  Uzzah,  not  being  a  Levite, 
smitten  for  touching  the  ark  (see  IsTumb.  4.  15), 
2  Sam.  6.  i-ii:  6.  12-23:  Psa.  68:  132:  105:  96: 
106:  I  Chron.  13. 1-4,^  5-14:  15. 1-16.  43,  [5-24].* 

David  forbidden  to  build  the  temple ;  great  blessings 
promised  him ;  his  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  2  Sam. 
7:  I  Chron.  17:  Psa.  2 :  45  :  22:  16:  118:  no. 

Victories  over  Philistia,  31oab,  Syria,  and  Edom, 

2  Sam.  8:  i  Chron.  18:  Psa.  60:  108. 

David's  kindness  to  Mephibosheth,  2  Sam  9.** 

David  defeats  Ammon  and  Syria, 

[2  Sam.  10]:  I  Chron.  19:  Psa.  20:  21. 

Siege  of  Kabbah;  David's  adultery  and  murder, 

2  Sam.  II.  I  [11.  2-12.  23]:  26-31:  I  Chron. 
20.1,3:  Psa.  51:  32:  33:  103.^ 

Bu*th  of  Solomon ;  Amnon,  David's  eldest  son, 
forceth  his  sister  Tamar,  David's  only  daughter; 
David  fails  to  pxinish  this  injury, 

2  Sam.  12,  [24,  25:  13.  1-22], 

Absalom  kills  Amnon,  and  flees,      2  Sam.  13.  23-39. 

Absalom  brought  back,  and  restored  to  his  father's 
presence,  2  Sam.  14.  1-7,  15-17,  8-14,^18-33. 

Absalom  raises  a  revolt  against  David, 

2  Sam.  15.  i-T2.g 

David  and  his  followers  flee ;  Zadok  and  Abiathar 
sent  back  with  the  ark;  Hushai  desired  by  David 
to  join  himself  to  Absalom  to  circumvent  Ahitho- 
phel's  coimsels,  2  Sam.  15.  13-37:  Psa.  3. 

^  Vei\  24:  see  2  Kings  7,  6. 

^  Towrf?end,  following  Chronicles,  places  the  removal  of  the  ark 
after  David's  conquest  of  Zion,  and  reads  13. 1-4  after  2  Sam.  5.1-3. 

*^  Ver.  4:  see  6.  31.  ^  gee  i  gam.  20.  15. 

^  Psa.  51  is  David's  penitential  Psalm,  and  Psa.  103  his  Psalm  of 
thanksgiving  on  being  forgiven.  The  2mmsh-inent -wsis  remitted ;  but 
as  a  chastisement,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  David's  life 
was  embittered. 

f  The  sense  requires  this  change  (Horsley). 

-15.  7:  40  years,  i.  e.,  after  David's  anointing  (Lightfoot),  or 
read  4,  as  Josephus,  Syriac,  Hales. 


464 


2  SAMUEL  :    1   CHRO^'ICIiES  :   ARRANGED. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.C. 

1024, 

Bahurim. 
Jerusalem. 

Mahanaim, 

65  N.  E. 
Jerusalem. 
Ephraim. 


1023. 
1021. 
1019. 


1016, 
Jerusalem. 


*  David  crosses 
Jordan,  Psa. 
42.  6. 

^  Samuel  omits 
the  standing 
army  (j  00,000), 
which  Chronicles 
includes,  and 
Samuel  includes 
.lerusalem 
(jo,ooo),  Avhich 
Chronicles  omits 
see  Lightfoot. 

c  Ver.  13, i.e., 
three  full  addi- 
tional years : 
compare  i  Chron 
21.      12.        See 

d  On  the  order, 
see  Townsend, 
who  differs  here 
from  Lightfoot. 


1016, 

Gibeon,  Jib, 

1 7  N.  w. 

Gilgal, 


Ziba's  treachery  to  Mepbibosheth  ;  Shimei  curses 
David,  2  Sam.  16.  1-14:  Psa.  7. 

Hushai  defeats  Ahithophel's  counsel ;  Ahitnophel 
hangs  himself,  2  Sam.  16.  15-23:  17.  1-26. 

David  furnished  with  provisions,  chiefly  by  Barzillai, 
2  Sam.  17.  27-29:  Psa.  42:''  43:  55:  4:  5:  62: 
143:  144:   70:  71. 

Absalom  defeated  and  slain  by  Joab,  2  Sam.  18. 

David  returns;  Shimei  pardoned;  Mephibosheth  ex- 
poses Ziba's  treachery  ;  David's  gratitude  to 
Barzillai,  2  Sam.  19:  20.  3. 

Eevolt  of  Sheba  (at  Abel),  2  Sam.  20.  i,  2,  4-26. 

The  three  years'  famine,  2  Sam.  21.  1-14. 

Last  wars  "with  the  Philistines  ;  David's  praise  for 
victories,  his  enemies  subdued,  2  Sam.  21.  15-22.  i: 
[22.  2-51]:   I  Chron.  20.  4-8:  Psa.  18. 

David,  in  pride,  numbers  Israel ;  the  plague, 

2  Sam.  24.  1-9:''  10-25:'^  I  Chron.  21.  1-5:  27. 
23,  24:   21.  6,  7,  8-30. 

David  prepares  materials  and  instructs  Solomon  as 
to  the  building  of  the  temple,  i  Chron.  22. 

Adonijah's  rebellion;  Solomon  anointed  and  pro- 
claimed David's  successor;  Adonijah  submits, 

I  Kings  I.  [1-4].'* 

David  arranges  the  courses  of  the  priests,  etc. 

[i  Chron.  23.-26]. 

AiTaugement  of  the  state  officers, 

[i  Chi'on.  27.  1-22,  25-34]. 

David  calls  a  solemn  assembly,  and  exhorts  both 

them  and  Solomon  to  the  work  of  the  temple ;  the 

offerings    of    the    princes    and    people  ;    David's 

thanksgiving;  Solomon  acknowledged  as  king, 

I  Chi'on.  28  [11-21]:  29.  1-25:  Psa.  72:  91:  145. 

David's  final  charge  to  Solomon ;  directs  Joab  and 
Shimei  to  be  put  to  death;  David's  last  words; 
his  death,  i  Kings  2.  1-9:  2  Sam.  23.  1-7:  i  Chron. 
29.  26-30:  I  Kings  2.  10,  II. 

Psalms  of  David,  of  which  the  date  and  occasion  are 
not  known,  Psa.  6:  8:  12:  19:  23:  24:  28:  29: 
38:  39:  40:  41:  61:  65:  69:  78:  86:  95:  loi: 
104:  120:  121:  122:  124:  131:  133:  139. 

67.  Part  V. 

The  Eeign  of  Solomon  (40  years). 
Solomon's  bui-nt-offcring;  God  giving  him  a  choice, 
he  asks  for  wisdom  ;  wealth  and  honour  added  to 
him,   I  Kings  [2.  12]:  3.  4-15:*  2  Chron    i.  1-5,* 
[6-12]. 


Passages  marked  thus  (♦;  give  the  fuller  narrative. 


1    KINGS  :    1   CHRONICLES  :   ARRANGED. 


465 


Date  and  Place 


B.C. 

IOI5, 


Jei'iisalem. 


Tyre,  Tsui-, 
102  N,  Jer. 

1012, 
Jerusalem. 
1012-1005, 
I  Kings  6. 

1-37. 

1005, 

Jerusalem. 

1002. 


lOOI, 

Jerusalem. 


993, 

Jerusalem. 

980-977. 

977- 


Event  or  Narrative. 


*  [2  Chron.  i.  13]. 
Abiathar  deposed; 


Solomon's  wise  judgment, 

I  Kings  3.  15-2? 
Adonijah  and  Joab  put  to  death 

Shimei  not  to  leave  Jerusalem,  i  Kings  2.  13-38. 
Solomon  obtains  materials  and  men  for  the  building 

of  the  temple,  i  Kings  5.  1-18:  [2  Chron.  2.  1-18]. 
Shimei  put  to  death  forgoing  to  Gath,  i  Kings  2 . 3  9-46. 
Solomon  marries  Pharaoh's  daughter,  i  Kings  3.  1-3. 
The  building  of  the  temple,    i  Kings  6.  1-8,  [15-56]: 

[7.  13-50]:  6.  9-14,   37,  38:   7.  51:  [2  Chron.  3. 

i-9,]\[3,  4,  22],  [10-14]:  [3-  15-4.  22]:  [5.  i]. 
The  dedication  of  the  temple,  i  Kings  8.  i-ii,  62-64, 

12-61,  65,  66:  2  Chron.  [5.  2-14:^    7.  4-7:  6.-7.  3, 

8,  10]:  Psa.  47  I*'  97:  98:  99:  100:  135:  136. 
Other  buildings  of  Solomon  ;  God  makes  a  covenant 
with  him,  i  lungs  7.  1-12:  [9.  1-9]:  2  Chron.  7.  11-22. 
Acquisitions  of  Solomon  ;    he  carries   out   David's 

arrangements  for  the  temple  sei-vices. 


12-16]. 


I  Kings  9.  10-14,  15-25  :  [2  Chron.  8.  i- 
Pharaoh's  daughter  brought  by  .^olomon  to  his  new- 
palace,  I  Kings  9.  24:  [: 
Solomon's  song  upon  the  occasion. 
The  greatness  of  Solomon,   i  Kings 

10.  26:   9.  26-28:  10.  14-25,  27-29:  [2  Chron.  9. 


2  Chron.  8.  11]. 

[Cant.  i.-8.]d 

4.  1-28,  [2-19]: 


26,   25:  I, 

9.  27,  28]. 


14:  8.  i; 


9.  13-21,  24: 


I.  15-17; 

[2  Chron. 


The  wisdom  of  Solomon,  i  Kings  4.  29-33 

9.22]:  Prov.  1.-3 1 :  [5:  6.  24-35:   7]. 
Solomon's  fame :  visit  of  the  queen  of  Sheba, 

I  Kings  4.  34:  10.  1-13  :  [2  Chron.  9.  23,  1-12]. 
Solomon's  wives  seduce  him  into  idolatry;    Hadad 
and  Rezon  stirred  up  against  him,  1  Kings  11.  1-25. 
Ahijah  predicts  to   Jeroboam  the   division  of  the 
kingdom;  Solomon  seeks  to  kill  Jeroboam,  who 
flees  into  Egypt,  i  Bangs  11.  26-40. 

Solomon  writes  Ecclesiastes,  probably  as  an  expres- 
sion of  repentance, 

Eccl.  or  the  Preacher,  1.-12:  [3.-11.  8]. 
"^  Ver.  3,  of  the  first  measiire,  i.  e.,  the  larger  cubit  used  before 
the  captivity,  nearly  a  yard. 

^  Ver.  II,  "white  raiment"  additional  to  i  Kings.  The  Jews 
offered  the  sacrifice,  then  prayed,  and  then  the  fire  descended; 
hence  this  order  (Townsend). 

*^  Psa.  47.  5  :  see  2  Chron.  5.  13.    The  other  Psalms  are  all  appro- 
priate to  this  service,  and  were  probably  used.     The  date  of  their 
composition  is  not  known. 
"^  Compai-e  4.  8  :  7.  4,  with  2  Chi-ou.  8.  6. 

X  3 


4G6 


PROPHETICAL  BOOKS. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

976, 

Jerusalem. 


976, 
Shechem, 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Death  of  Solomon;  Eehoboam  his  son  succeeds, 

I  Kings  II.  41-43:  [2  Chron.  9.  29-31]. 

68.   The  Division  of  the  Kingdom. 

On  the  accession  of  Eehoboam,  the  people,  headed 
by  Jeroboam,  demand  a  relaxation  of  bm'dens, 

I  Kings  12.  1-5  :  [2  Chron.  10.  1-5]. 

Acting  iTpon  the  advice  of  the  young  men  instead  of 
the  old  men,  Eehoboam  refuses  the  request  of  the 
people,  I  Kmgs  12.  6-15:  [2  Chron.  10.  6-15]. 

Ten  tribes  revolt;  Judah  and  Benjamin  adhere  to 
Rehoboam,  and  form  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 

I  Kings  12.  16-19:  [2  Chron.  10.  16-19]. 

The  ten  tribes  make  Jeroboam  their  king,  and 
form  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  i  Kings  12-20. 


CHAPTER  III. 


The  division. 


Historical  and  Prophetical  Books  from  the  Death  of 
Solomon  to  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon. 

Sec.  I.  Brief  Historical  Vieiu  of  this  Period.     The  Prophets  in 
Connection  ivith  History. 

69.  With  the  reign  of  Solomon  ended  the  glory  of  Israel. 
The  kingdom  was  thenceforth  dismembered.  Ten 
tribes,  of  wliich  Ephraim  was  chief,  separated  from 

the  rest,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  Judah,  with 
which  Benjamin  was  now  united,  alone  remaining  faithful  to 
the  house  of  David.  To  the  latter,  however,  most  of  the 
Levites,  and  many  who  feared  God  out  of  all  the  tribes,  ulti- 
mately adhered,  2  Chron.  11.  13-16. 

70.  The  history  of  these  kingdoms  presents  striking  con- 
Israel  from 
the  division 
to  the  de- 
struction of 
the  kingdom 


trasts  and  instructive  lessons. 


Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  Israel,   and  himself  an 
Ephraimite,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  God,  and  a 
conditional  promise  was  given  that  his  kingdom  should 
be  as  David's  (i  Kings  11.  38).     But  Jeroboam  had  neither  the 


PROPHECY  AND   HISTORY.  467 

fiiith  nor  the  obedience  of  David.  To  preserve  the  independence  of 
his  kingdom,  he  established  a  separate  priesthood,  and  set  up  idol- 
altars  and  images  at  Dan  and  Bethel.  He  thus  framed  a  system  of 
idolatry,  denied  practically  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God,  and 
perpetuated,  in  an  exaggerated  form,  the  evil  for  which  the  kingdom 
had  been  rent  from  Solomon  (Deut.  28.  15:  i  Kings  11.  11).  Un- 
happily, the  people  shared  his  feelings,  and  through  his  influence 
idolatry  became  ever  after  part  of  the  national  religion.  He  him- 
self, therefore,  is  branded  inhistoiy  as  "  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat, 
who  made  Israel  to  sin." 

From  the  time  of  Jeroboam,  the  first  king,  to  Hoshea,  the  nine- 
teenth and  last .  we  find  no  one  king  free  from  the  charge  of  general 
depravity.  Of  king  after  king,  it  is  said  that  he  "  did  that  which 
was  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord."  Jehu,  indeed,  destroyed  the 
prophets  of  Baal,  and  for  his  partial  obedience  was  rewarded  with 
enlarged  temporal  blessing;  but  he  ''took  no  heed  to  walk  in  the 
law  of  the  Lord,  for  he  departed  not  from  the  sin  of  Jeroboam,  who 
made  Lsrael  to  sin."  The  nation  copied  then'  kings.  There  were  a 
few  exceptions,  but  it  needed,  in  Elijah's  days,  a  direct  revelation 
to  discover  them;  and  out  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  whom 
Isi-ael  was  composed,  but  7,000  are  mentioned  as  not  having  bowed 
the  knee  unto  Baal. 

This  fearful  condition  was  the  more  guilty  because  of  the 
warnings  which  had  been  given.  Jeroboam  knew  why  God  had 
rejected  Solomon,  and  was  himself  repeatedly  rebuked  by  Ahijah 
and  others.  Withm  fifty  years  appeared  the  prophets  Jehu  and 
Micaiah,  Elijah  and  Elisha;  the  two  latter  working  more  miracles  than 
any  prophet  had  wrought  since  the  days  of  Moses  and  Joshua.  A 
few  years  after  their  proti-acted  ministry  came  Jonah,  Hosea,  and 
Amos.  All  the  messages  of  these  prophets  were  confirmed  by 
Divine  chastisements.  Jeroboam  and  his  family  were  cut  off,  as 
were  Baasha  and  Zimri.  In  the  254  years  of  the  monarchy,  nine 
different  families  occupied  the  throne,  and  nearly  their  entire 
history  is  made  up  of  bloodshed  and  confusion.  Zechariah,  the 
son  of  Jeroboam  the  second,  was  slain,  after  a  reign  of  six  months, 
by  Shallum;  and  he,  after  a  reign  of  one  month,  by  Menahem,  his 
son  and  successor.  Pekahiah  was  assassinated  by  Pekah,  and  Pekah 
is  put  to  death  by  Hoshea;  while  most  of  this  wickedness  is  ascribed 
to  an  unhallowed  adherence  to  the  poHcy  and  idolatx-ies  of  theu' 
first  king,  r  Kings  14.  9,  10:  2  Kings  17.  21-23.  Se  thought  that 
policy  essential  to  the  stability  of  his  throne;  it  proved  the  ruin 
both  of  himself  and  of  his  kingdom.  There  is,  indeed,  "a  way 
that  seemeth  right  unto  a  man,  but  the  end  thereof  are  the  ways  of 
death." 


468  PROPHECY   AND   HISTORY. 

The  distrust  of  Divine  power  and  contempt  of  Divine  law  in 
which  these  evils  originated  proved  the  means  as  well  as  the 
primary  cause  of  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom.  Pekah  sought  an 
alliance  with  Rezin  of  Syria  against  Ahaz  of  Judah.  Pekah  ^vas  at 
first  victorious,  and  Ahaz,  copying  the  sin  of  his  neighbour,  applied 
for  help  to  Tiglath-Pileser,  son  of  Pul,  king  of  Assyria.  He  came 
and  chastised  the  Israelites,  carrying  into  Media  the  two  and  a  half 
tribes  beyond  Jordan,  and  making  the  rest  tributary.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  captivity,  and  might  have  proved  a  salutary 
warning  (738  B.  c.)  Ten  years  later,  So,  king  of  Egypt,  alarmed  at 
the  power  of  Assyria,  induced  Hezekiah  and  Hoshea  to  withhold 
the  tribute  which  their  j)redecessors  had  engaged  to  pay.  This 
revolt  brought  up  Shalmaneser,  the  son  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  with  a 
large  host;  and  in  the  end  Samaria  fell;  Hoshea  was  carried  to 
Nineveh,  and  Israel  was  annexed  to  the  Assyrian  crown. 

The  conquered  country  was  afterwards  peopled  by  settlers  from 
the  region  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  They  intermarried  with 
those  of  the  Israelites  who  had  remained,  and  ultimately  took  the 
name  of  Samaritans.  At  first,  they  served  the  "  God  of  the  country" 
and  ''worshipped  idols;"  but  Josiah,  having  destroyed  the  altar  at 
Bethel,  and  carried  his  reformation  even  into  Zebulon,  they  rested 
in  a  system  of  belief  nearly  as  pure  as  that  of  the  Jews,  though  less 
regular  in  some  of  its  observances.  What  became  of  the  ten  tribes 
is  not  known.  Customs,  rites,  and  features  like  theirs  have  been 
discovered  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Many  of  them  seem  to  have 
returned  at  different  periods  to  their  own  land.  Cyrus  addressed 
his  proclamation  to  all  the  people  of  Jehovah  (Ez.  i.  1-3),  and 
some  of  the  rites  connected  with  the  consecration  of  the  temple 
imply  that  there  were  present  remnants  of  all  the  tribes;  while 
many  Israelites  seem  to  have  been  settled  in  Galilee  and  Persea 
long  before  the  days  of  our  Lord  (i  Mac.  5.  9-24). 

71.  Very  different  were  the  destinies  of  Judah.  Of  twenty 
History  of  kings,  all  descendants  of  David,  who,  for  388  years, 
Judah.  occupied  the  throne,  six  are  mentioned  with  great 

praise  (Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Hezekiah,  and 
Josiah),  and  others  are  commended.  Several,  however,  were 
fearfully  wicked ;  Jehoram,  Ahaz,  Manasseh,  and  Amon,  in- 
troducing idolatrous  worship  into  the  temple  itself,  and 
filling  Jerusalem  with  blood. 

The  fatal  error  of  the  Jews,  politically  and  religiously,  was  tlieir 
alliance  with  idolaters,  originating,  as  it  did,  in  woi'ldliness  and 
distrust,  and  tending  to  conform  them  to  their  idolatrous,  neigh- 
bours.    Ahaz  sought,  ;is  we  have  seen,  the  aid  of  Tiglath-Pileser 


PROPHECY   A^-D   HISTORY.  469 

against  the  kiugs  of  Israel  and  Syi"ia;  and  though,  at  first,  he  was 
delivered  from  impending  evil,  he  really  received  from  the 
Assyrians  "no  help  at  all."  The  payment  of  a  heavy  tribute  was 
the  first  immediate  result  of  this  alliance,  and  other  results  soon 
followed.  It  cost  Hezekiah  most  of  his  treasure,  and  but  for 
special  interposition  would  have  cost  him  his  throne.  Manasseh  it 
cost  his  libei'ty,  and  Josiah  (who  felt  himself  bound  to  oppose  the 
progi-ess  of  Necho  eastward  to  Carchemish),  his  life.  Jehoahaz,  his 
son,  was  carried  captive  to  Egypt.  Jehoiakim  (the  brother  and 
successor  of  Jehoahaz),  who  owed  his  crown  to  Necho,  was  set 
aside  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Shortly  afterwards,  his  son  Jeconiah 
was  deposed  by  the  same  monarch  and  taken  to  Babylon;  Zede- 
kiah,  the  uncle  of  Jeconiah,  and  the  third  sou  of  Josiah,  being 
made  king,  after  a  solemn  oath  of  allegiance,  in  his  room.  Tempted 
by  Pharaoh  Hophi-a,  and  against  the  remonstrance  of  Jeremiah,  he 
revolted,  and  a  third  time  Nebuchadnezzai'  came  against  Jerusalem. 
After  a  siege  of  eighteen  montlis,  the  city  was  taken  at  midnight; 
most  of  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  death,  the  children  of  Zede- 
kiah  were  slain,  and  he  himself  (his  eyes  put  out)  was  earned  in 
chains  to  Babylon.  At  the  same  time,  or  a  few  months  later, 
Xebuzaradan,  the  general  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  burned  the  city, 
destroyed  the  temple,  and  earned  off  the  remainder  of  the  sacred 
vessels  and  the  greater  part  of  the  nation,  a  few  poor  only  being 
left  to  till  the  soil. 

It  is  remarkable  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  colonize  the 
country,  as  had  been  done  in  the  case  of  Israel;  the  providence  of 
God  thus  keeping  it  vacant,  to  be  reoccupied  by  the  people  on  the 
completion  of  their  captivity.  On  the  first  visit  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
to  Jerusalem  (606),  he  carried  off  to  Babylon  Daniel  and  his  com- 
panions: on  the  second,  when  he  took  away  Jeconiah  (597),  Ezekiel 
also  was  taken;  Jeremiah  and  the  other  prophets  of  the  captivity 
being  left  in  the  laud. 

72.  Comparing  these  facts  with  prophecy,  we  have  some 
Harmony  of  instructive  conclusions.  AU  the  events  thus 
foSS-'''''^  hastily  sketched  were  foretold,  and  yet  in  every 
ledge  with  case  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  involves  a  moral 
dom  and  re*  lesson,  and  in  no  case  does  it  supersede  the  free- 
Xsfrated^n  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^  human  agency  which  accomplished  it. 
this  history.  Ahijah,  for  example,  foretells  the  division  of  the  king- 
dom, the  captivity  of  Israel,  and  even  the  place  where  they  were  to 
be  scattered  (i  Kings  14.  15).  Isaiah  foretells  the  overthrow  of 
Samaria,  as  Hosea  had  done,  and  the  date;  the  preservation  of 
Judah,  and,  finally,  its  destruction  by  Babylon,  then  a  feeble  and 


470  PROPHECY  AND   HISTOEY. 

friendly  state :  the  catastrophe  is  hopeless  to  Samaria,  "for  Ephraim 
is  to  be  broken  from  being  a  people;"  but  not  to  Judah,  for  a 
restoration  is  promised.  The  person  and  name  of  the  restorer,  hi& 
coimtry  then  scarcely  known,  the  restoration  effected  by  the  de- 
struction of  Babylon,  with  the  circumstances  of  the  siege,  the 
rebuilding  of  the  city  and  of  the  temple—  all  these  events,  and 
many  others,  are  foretold,  and  we  read  in  Scripture  of  the  accom- 
plishment of  these  prophecies;  but  in  every  case  the  moral  lesson 
and  the  freedom  of  human  agency  remain  undisturbed.  Jeroboam's 
appointment,  for  example,  was  not  kindness  to  him,  but  chastise- 
ment to  the  degenerate  family  of  David;  and  its  immediate  cause 
was  the  folly  of  Rehoboam,  who  acted  under  the  excitement  of 
human  passions,  irrespective  of  the  Divine  prediction.  What  change 
a  race  of  pious  kings  in  Israel  might  have  made  in  the  destiny  of 
that  people  need  not  be  conjectured;  but  the  final  ovei-throw  of  its 
actual  kings,  though  foretold,  was  not  less  a  fit  consequence  of 
their  sins;  which  sins,  however,  were  repeatedly  i-ebuked.  The 
prophecy  was  still  moral,  and  human  agency  still  free.  The  failure 
of  Sennacherib  in  his  attack  upon  Jerusalem  was  foretold;  and  it 
was  the  fitting  result  of  his  defiance  ''  of  the  Holy  One  of  Israel" 
(Isa.  37.  23).  Hezekiah's  deliverancQ,  too,  though  foretold,  was  no 
less  a  blessing  vouchsafed  to  a  humble  praying  frame.  Both 
Judah  and  Israel,  again,  might  have  been  punished  immediately  by 
God;  but  in  fact,  both  nations  were  suffered  to  work  out  their  own 
punishment.  Their  disobedience  was  the  very  agency  employed 
for  the  fulfilment  of  the  Divine  word.  Everywhere  in  prophecy  we 
have,  as  Davison  has  remarked,  "  God's  overruling  poitcr  and  man's 
agency  concurring  to  complete  predictions,  and  that  completion  a 
moral  end,  in  conformity  to  a  sentence  of  the  Divine  law."  In  some 
of  the  nari-atives  of  the  Bible  we  have  the  first  and  second  only;  SA 
when  Amon,  a  wicked  prince,  called  his  son  Josiah  (i  Kings  13.  2), 
not  knowing  the  prediction  till  he  had  fulfilled  it;  or  as  when  Caesar 
Augustus  issued  a  decree  that  brought  Mary  to  Bethlehem  (Luke  2. 
4) ;  or  as  when  the  cry  of  "  Galilee  "  by  the  Jewish  crowd  sent  Jesus  to 
Herod  (Luke  23.  5).  But  in  the  prophets  we  have  generally  the 
three  combined;  Divine  power,  human  agency,  and  such  dispositions 
of  heart  in  all  concerned  as  make  the  fulfilment  of  predictions  in 
harmony  with  the  principles  of  the  moral  government  of  God. 
The  fact  may  involve  mystery,  but  it  is  not  thei-efore  the  less  in- 
structive or  true.  See,  for  examples,  i  Kings  22.  34:  2  Kings  9. 
34-37,  and  the  fulfilment  of  Jer.  29.  10-15. 

The  books  73-  The  books  of  this  period  may  be  arranged 

epitomized      and  brieflj  epitomized  as  follows. 


PROPHETS  :   ARRANGED.  4/1 

(i).  I  Kings  12.-2  Kings  17^  Giving  the  history  of  Judah  and  Israel 
2  Chkon.  1 2.-3 1."  /     frona  the  division  of  the  kingdom  to 

the  captivity  of  Israel  by  Shalmaneser :  254  years. 
Jonah  :  histoiy  of  his  mission  to  Nineveh. 
Joel:  the  desolation  of  Judah;  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit; 

judgments  against  different  nations. 
Amos:  prophecies  conceming  different  nations  and  Israel. 
Hosea:  warns  Israel;  foretells  overthrow,  and  points  to  latter 

days. 
Isaiah:  various  predictions  and  warnings  to  Israel  and  Judah; 

also  to  various  nations,   1.-36.;  history,  36.-39.;  the  return 

and  the  latter  days,  40-end. 
Micah:  prophecies  to  Israel  and  Judah,  and  on  the  latter  days. 
Nahum  :  just  after  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  he  foretells  the 

destiniction  of  Nineveh. 
(2).  2  Kings  18.-25.  "4Gi\Taig  the  history  of  the  decline  and  fall  of 
2  Chron.  32.-36./     the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  of  the  cap- 
tivity by  Nebuchadnezzar:  184  years. 
Isaiah,  Nahum  :  see  above. 
Zephaniah:  warns  Judah;  prophesies  against  various  nations; 

speaks  of  the  return  and  the  latter  days. 
JERE3IIAH :  in  Jerusalem  and  Egypt,  gives  predictions  conceraing 

Judah,  Israel,  and  various  nations,  1.-39,  46.-50.,   40.-45., 

chiefly  historical;  51.  not  his. 
Habakkuk:  prophecies  on  the  return  and  on  the  Chaldees. 
Daniel:  in  Babylon,  history,  1.-6.;  prophecies  on  various  king- 
doms and  Christ,  7.-9.  (10.-12.:  see  under  3). 
Ob  API  AH :  prophecies  of  Edom  and  the  latter  days. 
Ezekiel:  on  the  Chehar,  gives  various  predictions  on  Israel, 

Judah,  heathen  nations,  and  the  latter  days. 
(3.)  Haggai,  Zechariah:  at  Jerusalem,  536-520,6.0.  \ 

Daniel:  10. -12.,  at  ."Babylon.  f 

Esther  :  in  Babylon :  Nehemiah,  in  Babylon  and  at  Jei-u-  [ 

salem,  457-445,  B.C.) 

Giving  an  accoimt  of  successive  restorations  under  Zerub- 
babel  (536,  B.C.);  Ezra  C457,  B.C.);  and  Nehemiah  (^/^Sf 
B.C.);  the  rebuilding  ana  nnal  completion  of  the  temple, 
with  prophecies  of  various  kingdoms  (Dan.)  and  the  latter 
days. 
Malachi:  rebukes  the  corruptions  of  Divine  service;  foretells 

the  coming  of  ''  Elijah"  and  of  our  Lord,  436-397,  b.c. 

*  2  Chron.  gives  the  history  of  Judah  only,  not  twenty  verses 
being  devoted  to  Israel;  both  books  contain  many  additional  facts. 


472  rnopHETs  in  lsrael. 

A  Table  of  the  Prophets,  showing  when  they  prophesied. 


KlXGSOF            M       ^       W 

JUDAH.             :2       g       ^ 

B.C.                            ^     ^     » 

Daniel. 
Hose  A. 
Joel. 

1 
< 

< 

< 
■< 

K 

cs 
•< 

< 

i 

< 

Kings  of 
Israel. 

Amaziah,  839 

1       i       1 

1 

1  Jeroboam  11- 1 

1                  825 

1      '      1. 

!    1 

1 

Uzziah,  810 

1      i       1 

\ 



1    1 

i 

n  1' 

1 

790 

1  1 

1 

1    1 

Interregnum, 
784 

1 

Menahem, 

772 

770 

1  1  ■ 

1 

Pekahiah,  761 

Jotham.  758 

l._L ._ 

— 



1   " 

Pekahj  759 

Ahaz,  742 

1 

740-           .         -  -- 

Anarchy,  739 

Hezekiah,  727 

|T 

1 



Rosea,  730 

720 

r 
1 

— 

_L 

9 

2, 

a" 
p 

E! 
."1 

^    1 

p  1 

n 

*  Malachi, 

between 

4j6  and  420. 

710 

"Manasseh,  698 

1 

090 

ii 

ficn 

1 

^5°Amon,64J 
Josiah.64r 

1 

1 

- 

— 

= 

— 

610                   ! 

1 

1 

1 

— 

T 

._!_ 

— 

Jehoahaz,  610 

1 

•  •  . 

— 

1 

'~r 

— 

— 



— 

Jeconiah,  599 

5^^i)est.of  Je- 
^Q^rusalem588 

— 

— 

IL 

1 

— 

— 



— 

efin 

1 

1    1 

-— 

1 

1 

1 

— 

— 

Zerubbabel,5j6    .... 

1 

*  *  *  ' ' 

•  "I" 

1 

- 

T 

I 

* 

1  1 

1 

1    1 

1  1 

1 

1    I 

The  date  after  each  king's  name  indicates  the  commencement  of  his  reign. — Joel  is  placed 
twice,  as  it  is  doubtful  at  which  period  he  lived. 


NATORE  OF  LATER  PROPHECIES.  473 

iSoc.  2.  The  Nature  of  Projjliecy  during  this  Period.    Predictionb 
arranged. 

74.  The  prophetic  spirit  which  we  have  seen  revived  in  the 
l*r(.phets  of  days  of  Samuel  and  David  (Pt.  ii.,  §  45),  becomes  yet 
this  period,  more  active  during  the  later  period  of  the  Jewish 
history.  We  have  in  succession  sixteen  prophets,  whose 
writings  remain,  in  addition  to  the  authors  of  some  of  the 
Psalms  and  the  large  class  who  appeared  in  Israel  and  Judah, 
such  as  Elijah  and  Elisha,  without  leaving  any  permanent 
records  of  their  teaching.  Of  the  prophets  whose  writings 
are  included  in  Scripture,  Jonah,  Amos,  and  Hosea,  addressed 
the  Israelites  before  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  as  did  both 
Isaiah  and  Micah,  though  these  latter  jjrophesied  to  Judah 
chiefly.  After  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes,  Jeremiah  pro- 
phesied briefly  concerning  them,  as  did  Ezekiel.  ]\Iost  of 
the  prophecies,  however,  are  devoted  to  the  destinies  of 
Judah,  of  heathen  nations,  and  of  the  church.      > 

75.  A  synoptical  view  of  the  i:)rophecies  of  Scripture  will 

be  seen  in  §  76,  and  though  not  minutely  accu- 
view  of  the  rate  it  wiU  give  a  just  idea  of  the  topics  and  con- 
wrif'n^s^  nection  of  the  whole.  Its  pai-tial  inaccuracy,  or, 
lessons  rather,  incompleteness,  is  owing  to  the  fact,  that 

aug  J  1 .  g^.gj^^g  foretold  are  so  closely  connected  with  one 
another,  and  predictions  so  blended  with  moral  instruction, 
that  they  can  be  grouped  only  according  to  the  aim  or 
general  purjDose  of  each.  This  has  been  done,  and  the  lessons 
taught  by  this  view  are  both  obvious  and  important. 

1.  Comparing  this  table  of  prophecy  with  the  miracles  of  the  Old 
Testament,  it  will  be  seen  that  as  prophecy  gains  greater  compass 
and  clearness,  the  evidence  of  miracles  is  withdrawn.  Before  the 
later  era  of  prophecy  begins,  in  the  days,  for  example,  of  Elijah, 
miracles  are  comparatively  fi-equent ;  but  even  then  we  have  nothing 
equal  to  those  of  Moses  and  Joshua.  Xow  they  cease.  Prophetic 
revelation  is  enlarged,  and  having  its  fulfilment  as  it  enlarges,  it 
supplies  the  place  of  all  other  exudence.  How  strikingly  it  illus- 
trates the  infinite  importance  of  the  gospel  to  notice  that,  to  sustain 
and  prove  Christ's  mission,  all  forms  of  ancient  evidence  combine. 
He  fulfils  old  predictions  and  gives  new  ones ;  while  his  very  person 
and  life  form  a  miraculous  embodiment  of  power,  wisdom,  and  love. 

2.  Prophecy  on  the  subject  of  heathen  nations  becomes  most 
copious  in  the  age  when  these  nations  seem  to  triumph  the  most. 


474  KATUEE   OP  LATER  PROPHECIES. 

Their  victories,  and  tlie  boasting  idolatrous  spirit  these  A'ictories 
cherished,  severely  tried  the  faith  of  trtie  believers,  and  seemed  to 
shake  the  credit  of  their  religion,  Psa.  79,  80:  Lament.  The  pride 
of  the  conquerors  is  therefore  rebuked,  and  the  faith  of  the  church 
confirmed  by  a  series  of  predictions  denouncing  the  overthrow  of 
the  vei-y  nations  whose  successes  are  foretold.  See  the  prophecies 
of  Isaiah  to  various  nations;  of  Nahum  to  Assyria;  of  Habakkuk  to 
the  Chaldeans;  of  Obadiah  to  Edom;  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
Daniel. 

3 .  The  gradual  extension  of  Divine  revelation,  so  as  not  only  to 
include  a  larger  range  of  topics,  but  to  reach  various  nations,  is 
highly  instructive.  Jonah  and  Nahum  address,  in  their  writtm 
prophecies.  Gentiles  only.  Gentiles  only  are  also  the  theme  of  the 
prophecies  of  Habakkuk  and  Obadiah,  and  in  most  of  the  other 
pro]Dhets  whole  chapters  are  devoted  to  them.  Plainly,  God  is  not 
the  God  of  one  place  or  people.  His  providence  rules  over  the 
earth,  and  all  people  are  subject  to  Him.  Heathen  nations,  it  is 
true,  are  introduced  into  Scripture  predictions,  as  into  Scripture 
history,  becalise  of  their  connection  Vv'ith  the  church  or  chosen 
nation,  but  the  lesson  remains.  All  are  within  his  government,  and 
it  is  distinctly  intimated  that  all  are  by  and  by  to  become  obedient 
to  his  law. 

4.  It  will  be  remarked,  also,  that  the  era  of  tlie  decline  and  fall 
of  the  temporal  kingdom  (both  of  Israel  and  Judah)  is  the  veiy  era 
selected  for  the  fullest  and  most  expressive  disclosure  of  a  new  and 
spiritual  kingdom.  As  the  first  dispensation  seems  hastening  to 
decay,  the  objects  and  promises  of  the  second  are  set  forth  to  our 
view.  All  the  prophets  who  speak  of  the  ruin  speak  also  of  the 
restoration,  and  blend  with  the  restoration  predicted  blessings, 
such  as  had  never  yet  been  possessed.  This  arrangement  clearly 
indicates  the  unchangeableness  of  the  Divine  counsel.  And  it  does 
more.  It  displays  Divine  mercy.  In  the  heart  of  the  devout  Jew, 
under  a  dispensation  which  promised  temporal  blessing  as  the  token 
of  Divine  favour,  prophecy  and  recent  events  must  have  created  the 
\itmost  perplexity.  The  threatened  and  actual  visitations  were  all 
deserved;  but  in  that  fact  he  found  no  relief.  To  quiet  the  agita- 
tions of  his  afflicted  faith,  the  evangelical  prophecies  were  inter- 
posed. By  means  of  them,  the  hopes  of  the  church  were  sent  on 
into  the  more  distant  future  and  present  anxieties  were  alleviated. 
As,  therefore,  at  first,  prophecy  lightened  the  darkness  of  fallen 
nature,  so  now  it  lightens  the  darkness  of  misused  or  neglected 
grace.  How  much  even  inspired  prophets  needed  this  consolation 
may  be  gathered  from  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  and  from 
several  of  the  Psalms,  Psa.  79.  4,  9:  74.  2.  20. 


2.'ATURE   OF  LATER   PROPKECT.  .  475 

In  the  mean  time,  also,  the  spmtuality  of  ti*ue  religioD,  and  the 
nature  of  that  work  on  which  it  is  founded,  are  more  clearly  dis- 
closed. The  prophets  bring  out  the  true  meaning  of  the  ancient 
law,  insisting  on  the  inferiority  of  ritual  worship,  and  indicating 
with  quite  evangelical  plainness  the  great  Sacrifice  of  the  cross,  the 
Divine  nature,  and  the  ultimate  rule  of  the  sufferer,  Isa.  5  3  :  Dan.  9. 
How  touching,  that  this  clearer  revelation  of  the  spirituality  of 
religion  should  be  made  at  a  time  when  all  public  religious  institu- 
tions were  corrupt,  and  after  the  temple  itself  had  been  destroyed. 

5.  The  most  remarkable  lesson  remains.  While  nearly  all  the 
prophets  point  to  the  gospel  and  the  reign  of  our  Lord,  each  speaks 
in  language  at  once  appropriate  and  peculiar.  All  foretell  a  glorious 
future,  and  the  same  glorious  futiure;  but  the  terms  in  which  they 
foretell  it  are  taken  either  from  impending  evil  or  contemplated 
good.  That  future  is  the  opposite  of  present  calamity,  or  it  is  the 
completion  of  present  blessing.  Joel,  for  example,  foresees  deso- 
lating invasions  of  Judah,  but  in  the  end  the  scene  of  desolation  is 
Egypt  and  Edom;  while  Judah  shall  dwell  for  ever,  and  Jerusalem 
from  generation  to  generation,  3.  19,  20.  Amos  foresees  the  over- 
throw of  both  Samaria  and  Zion;  but  beyond  these  calamities  he 
beholds  a  different  scene.  "In  that  day,  I  will  raise  up  the  taber- 
nacle of  David  that  is  fallen  .  .  .  and  I  "will  build  it  as  in  the  days 
of  old,"  9.  II.,  And  such  is  the  character  of  all  predictions  till  the 
end  of  the  captivity.  Restoi'ation  literally  is  the  first  theme;  but 
the  predictions  that  foretell  it,  borrow  from  it  phi'aseology  intended 
to  express  the  glory  of  the  latter  days. 

After  the  captivity,  the  building  of  the  temple  is  the  first  theme 
of  inspired  predictions.  Haggai  foretells  its  coming  glory,  2.  6-9; 
and,  under  the  type  of  Zerubbabel,  the  victories  of  our  Lord,  2. 
21-23.  Zechariah  foretells  its  completion,  i.  16,  17;  and  by  the 
symbolical  act  of  crowning  Joshua  the  priest,  connects  with  this 
work  the  coming  of  him  v/hose  name  is  the  Branch  (Isa.  4.  i ;  11.  i: 
Jer.  23.  5),  who  shall  build  the  temple  of  the  Lord  and  bear  the 
glory,  6.  10-15.  Malachi,  again,  appears  after  the  temple  is  built. 
AVhat  was  then  wantmg  was,  sincere  worship  and  a  holy  priesthood, 
I.  10,  11:  3.  10.  He  therefore  foretells  a  new  covenant,  and  the 
coming  of  a  messenger  who  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi ;  so  that 
the  offering  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  shall  "be  pleasant  unto  the 
Lord,  as  in  the  days  of  old,"  3.  4.  Here,  therefore,  as  elsewhere, 
prophecy  takes  its  phraseology  from  the  condition  of  the  people  to 
whom  it  was  addressed.  It  foretells  an  early  blessing,  and  in  terms 
which  make  this  blessing  a  pledge  and  type  of  infinitely  richer 
blessings  to  be  bestowed  in  the  more  distant  future.  Important 
rules  of  intei-pretation  are  suggested  by  this  fact. 


476 


THE  PROPHETS    ORDER, 
76.  Tabular  View  of  tlie  Prophets,  showing  the 


q    . 

6 

Amos, 

Hosea, 

Isaiah, 

i% 

:■$ 

•§  % 

810-785. 

800-725, 

765-693. 

^t 

-ioo 

C  CO 

00 

Passages  chiefly 

►? 

S'~ 

Moral,  Devotiokal   . 

25.-27.  II  .       . 

To  Israel     . 

. 

2.-8. 

4.-IJ. 

9.  8-21 :  28. 

. 

n 

ToJudah     . 

, 

. 

4.  15,  etc. : 

I. -5.:  22. 8, etc.: 

I.  8- 

12.2 

29  :  30. 

2.  12 

HiSTOBICAL     . 

I. -4. 

• 

• 

36..J9.        .       . 

• 

Prophetic  (A) - 

Israel   .... 

• 

2.-9   10 

I 

5.8-6.J 

7.    i-25:n4.  24- 
8:  9.8:1  28:17. 
15.  II    \ 

! 
1 

Judah  .... 

. 

c.2,4.5 

, 

22.1:  24:18.5-9 

X:2.     I    7. 

52. 

27 

Asssyria,  "Nineveh    . 

J  4 

9:14:  JO  :  31.   . 

Babylon.  Ghaldiea    . 

• 

JJ:      14.   24-28: 
21. 

Egypt  .... 

• 

• 

19:  20. 

Ethiopia      .       .      . 

, 

18.        .        .        . 

lidom  .       .      .       - 

. 

I.  II 

21.  II 

Moab    .... 

2.  I 

• 

15  :  16. 

Syrians 

\ 

I.  I.J.5 

* 

7.1-9:  8:  17.    . 

Tyre    .... 

^ 

'.  9 

23.       .        .        . 

Other  Nations    . 

Ammon, 
E'hiiisUa, 

Arabia,   21.  ij, 

etc. 

Pbophetic  (b)— 

Our      Lord's     first 

1. 17 

. 

II.  I:ij.i4 

7.14:  9:40.-63. 

2.28 

5. 

coming. 

Events    subsequent. 

. 

where— 

Israel  is  named  . 

. 

9.  11-15 

ij.  14    I.  10: 

28. 5 :  10.  r 

fic 

(-2.12 

J  2-14- 

20,  etc. 

12. 

1   2J 

<^8. 

Judah       „ 

14.      3. 5 

1 

22.      20: 

24.    14 A  - 

etc.:   9: 
I. -5.: 
27.-35. 

40. 
to 

2.28- 

4-5 

i 

and 

• 

Gentiles      . 

, 

9.12 

.        I 

.66. 

I   7. 

See  Acts 

Egypt  converted 

. 

15.  17 

. 

19.  I8-2J. 

Assyria      „ 

. 

, 

. 

19.  23-25. 

Moab  restored    . 

. 

, 

, 

. 

. 

Elam       „ 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

A^•D  SUEJECTS  OP  THEIR  PROPHECIES, 
ordei'  aud  chief  subjects  of  their  prophecies. 


477 


.g"  . 

U.I 

j 

. 

iS 

igo'! 

•o  ^ 

1    .— eo 

"i  d 

3r^d 

If 

Jeremiah,     "^  ?>   Daniel, 

-fn 

Ezekiel.  B.C.     £2  'r 

t^^ 

u 

P 

628-585. 

606-534- 

u 

595-536. 

«8 

^  6 

lis 

. 

. 

Lam.  1.-5.  . 

3. 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

I:    2. 
10-19 

1.1-7:7. 

1:2: 
3-  7- 
18  • 

28:  29:  32. 
1-25:   3^.- 
43.  7 :  52. 

30:  31. 

1.6. 

-' 

• 

I. 

I.-25.:     27: 
29:    33-31. 
26:33:34: 
44:46.26: 

50. 

I. 

9- 

• 

9.-24-:    33: 

36:        37: 
39.-48.? 

• 

1.7-7.: 
11. 

I.-3. 

2.13 

2.  12 
2.9 

Ammon, 
Phiii'stia, 

2. 

25.12:    37: 

50:  51. 
43  :    44.29: 

46 :  50. 

49.  7 :  Lam. 

4.21 
48.       .       . 
49.23 

Ammou, 
49:      Phi- 
listia,    47 : 
Arabia, 
Persia,  49. 

2. 

2.  36 :  4- 
19:5.25 

Persia, 

Grecia, 
Rome, 
11: the 
four 
kingd.7. 

I- 

31.  3-18. 

29.-3 1. 

30.  4-6. 
25.-35. 

25.                • 

26.-28. 

Ammon,  21. 
23 :        25  : 
Philistia, 
do.:     Gog, 
33:  39- 

■ 

■ 

31.  22:   30. 

9. 24-26 : 
7.  IJ. 

34.  23,  etc. 

2.7.9 

2. 10,  II; 
9.9:11. 
12:    12. 
10;    6: 
13:  I.  7 

3:  4* 
1-3: 

- 

» 

. 

• 

7  :  12. 

• 

f 

(30: 

hi: 

• 

• 

I"- 

10. 
<39- 

, 

23.5 

, 

. 

I 

28:    29.    23, 
21 :  36.  ^etc. 

J. 4- 

•  3.8-20 

I 

3-^3 

' 

25  :  34- 

2.6, 

I.  7-7-: 

1 

20,   21 : 

1      "7 

8.-14. 

I 

40-48: 

* 

L 

. 

7. -12. 

• 

* 

I 

^ 

48.  47. 

1 

• 

49-  39- 

1 

478  joxAH. 

Sec.  3.  TJie  Books  of  Jonah,  Joel,  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  Micahy 

Nahiim. 

The  Booh  of  Jonah  (B.C.  840-784). 
77.  Jonah  succeeded  Elisha  as  the  messenger  of  God  to 
Date  and        the  ten  tribes,  and  flourished  between  120  and  180 
history.  years  after  the  death  of  Solomon.     He  probably 

lived  in  the  reign  of  Jehoahaz,  when  Hazael  was  fulfilling  the 
predictions  of  Elisha,  2  Kings  8,  12  :  10.  32.  He  foretold 
the  enlarged  territory  and  brief  prosperity  of  Israel  under 
Jeroboam  the  second,  in  whose  reign  the  prophet  himself 
probably  lived,  2  Kings  14.  ^5.  He  was  a  native  of  Gath- 
hepher,  in  Zebulun  or  Gahlee,  and  is  thus  a  proof  of  the 
falsehood  of  the  statement  of  the  Pharisees,  that  out  of 
Gahlee  cometh  no  prox3het,  John  7.  52,  He  is  certainly  the 
most  ancient  of  the  prophets  whose  writings  have  come 
down  to  us. 

This  book,  with  the  exception  of  chap.  2,  is  a  simple  narrative, 
„  and  relates  that  Jonah,   being  sent   on   a  mission  to 

Nineveh  (which  was  at  that  time  the  chief  city  of  the 
Gentile  world,  and  was  distinguished  equally  for  its  magnificence 
and  its  wickedness),  attempts  to  flee  to  Tarshish;  but,  being  over- 
taken by  a  storm,  lie  is  cast  into  the  sea,  swallowed  by  a  great  fish, 
and  contuiues  in  its  belly  three  days  (chap,  i);  when,  earnestly 
praying  to  God,  he  is  delivered,  chap.  2.  At  the  renewed  command 
of  God,  he  goes  to  Nineveh,  and  announces  its  destruction;  upon 
Avhich  the  Ninevites,  believing  his  words,  fast,  pray,  repent,  and 
are  graciously  spared,  chap.  3.  Jonah,  fearing  to  be  thought  a 
false  prophet,  peevishly  repines  at  the  mercy  of  God,  and  wishes 
for  death.  Leaving  the  city,  he  is  sheltered  by  a  gourd,  which, 
however,  shortly  vithers;  and  Jonah,  manifesting  great  impatience 
and  rebellion,  is  shown,  by  his  concern  about  the  gourd,  the  pro- 
priety of  God's  mercy  to  Nineveh,  chap.  4. 

That  this  book  is  a  strictly  historical  narrative  is  evident,  not 
only  from  the  plain  meaning  of  the  language  employed,  but  also 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  existence  and  ministry  of  Jonah, 
together  with  the  main  facts  of  his  history,  are  referred  to  by  our 
Lord  (Matt,  12.  39-41:  16.  4:  Luke  11.  29,  30),  who,  explicitly  re- 
cognising his  prophetical  office,  as  he  does  that  of  Elijah,  Isaiah, 
and  Daniel,  represents  his  being  in  the  belly  of  the  fish  as  a  real 
miracle ;  grounds  upon  it  as  a  fact  the  certainty  of  a  future  analo- 
gous event  in  his  own  history;  and,  after  mentioning  the  prophet's 
px'eaching  at   Nineveh,    and  the    repentance   of   the   inhabitants, 


JOXAH  :   LESSOXS  :  JOEL,  479 

concludes  by  declaring  respecting  himself,  ''Behold!  a  greater  than 
Jonah  is  here." 

As  Jonah  himself  has  generally  been  considered  the  author  (a 
conclusion  which  the  Chaldaisms  of  the  original  confirm),  the 
record  of  the  sin  of  the  prophet  affords  another  illustration  of  that 
strict  regard  to  truth  which  characterizes  the  inspired  volxune. 

The  spiiitual  lessons  in  this  narrative  are  highly  instructive.  The 
Spiritual  prophet  is  in  his  own  person  a  prophetic  sign  of  Chi'ist. 
lessons.  The  miracle  of  his  deliverance  from  his  thi'ee  days  of 

death  is  "the  fvdlest  and  nearest  shadow  of  Chiist's  lying  in  the 
grave  which  the  Scripture  affords"  (Cradock).  The  first  image, 
thei-efore,  which  meets  us  in  the  opening  of  the  prophetic  canon  is 
one  that  shadows  forth,  though  dimly,  the  great  fact  of  the  resur- 
rection of  our  Lord  (Davison). 

The  whole  nai-rative  presents,  too,  the  most  striking  contrast 
between  the  tender  mercy  of  God,  and  the  rebellion,  impatience, 
and  selfishness  of  his  sers'ant;  and  further,  between  the  readiness 
with  which  the  Ninevites  repented,  at  the  preaching  of  a  prophet 
who  visited  them  as  a  stranger,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
Israelites  treated  the  sei'vants  of  Jehovah,  who  lived  and  labom-ed 
amongst  them. 

At  the  same  time,  it  might  serve  to  teach  the  people  of  Israel 
that  the  Divine  regard  and  compassion  were  not  confined  to  them 
alone,  but  were  extended  to  other  subjects  of  God's  government; 
also  to  intimate  to  them  then-  high  destiny,  in  cai-rying  the  tidings 
of  salvation  to  the  pagan  world,  and  to  keep  up  the  expectation  of 
that  happy  period,  when  repentance  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins 
should  be  preached  in  the  name  of  Christ  to  all  nations.  If  not  a 
formal  type,  the  history  is  a  real  example  of  the  genius  of  the 
gospel. 

To  all,  the  book  furnishes  encom^gement  to  humiliation  and 
prayer;  to  faithfulness  in  publishing  God's  word  to  the  guilty,  and 
to  implicit  resignation  to  his  will. 

TJie  Booh  of  Joel,  b.  c,  810-795. 

78.  We  have  no  account  in  the  Bible  of  the  personal  his- 
tory of  Joel,  nor  does  tradition  give  much  light  in  relation  to 
hhn.  He  was  the  son  of  Pethuel  (Joel  i.  i),  and  it  is  said, 
of  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  It  is  inferred  from  his  wi'itings,  that 
he  lived  in  Judah,  probably  not  later  than  the  reign  of  Uzziah, 
■which  extended  from  810  b.  c,  to  758  b.  c.  :  for  when  he 
mentions  the  enemies  of  his  country,  he  names  the  Phoe- 
nicians, Philistines,  Idumeans,  and  Egyptians,  chap.  3.  4-19  ; 


480  JOEL. 

but  makes  no  reference  to  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  ; 
which  he  probably  would  have  done,  had  those  two  empires 
been  already  formidable  to  the  Jews.  The  whole  book  indi- 
cates, moreover,  that  the  prophet  lived  at  a  time,  when  the 
people  of  Judah  had  not  fallen  into  that  extreme  depravity, 
which,  in  later  times,  drew  down  upon  them  such  heavy 
chastisements.  Uzziah  had  indeed  begun  to  hft  up  his  heart, 
2  Chron.  26.  16  :  -but  the  evil  seems  as  yet  rather  a  subject 
of  prophecy  than  of  history,  though  given  in  historical  form. 
He  was  contemporary  with  Hosea  and  Amos ;  and  as  they 
addressed  Israel,  so  he  addressed  Judah. 

In  the  first  chapter,  (1-2.  11),  the  prophet  delineates,  with 
most  graphic  force,  an  impending  devastation,  succes- 
sive armies  of  locusts  (i.  4),  and  burning  drought  (ver. 
18,  19),  representing  in  this  form,  probably,  the  calamities  conse- 
quent on  coming  invasions. 

He  then  exhorts  to  penitence,  fasting,  and  prayer  (2.  12-17),  pro- 
mising the  removal  of  these  evils,  and  rich  evangelical  blessing. 
He  foretells  in  the  clearest  terms,  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(2.  18-31:  Acts  2.  1-21:  10.  41),  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
a  prediction  given  with  such  force,  as  to  be  in  some  measure,  des- 
criptive of  the  final  judgment  (2.  30:  Matt.  24.  29;. 

In  chap.  3,  he  foretells  the  assemblmg  of  the  nations  in  the 
valley  of  the  Judgment  of  the  Lord  (Jehoshaphat),  and  their  des- 
truction, the  establishment  of  Jerusalem  as  the  holy  city,  and  the 
glorious  state  of  peace  and  prosperity  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  church 
in  the  days  of  the  Messiah. 

His  style  is  remarkably  clear  and  elegant;  obscure  only  towards 
the  close,  where  its  beauties  are  shaded  by  allusions  to 
Style.  events  not  yet  accomplished.     The  double  destruction 

foretold  in  chaps.  1-2.  11,  the  first  by  the  locusts,  the  second,  by 
the  enemies  of  whom  they  were  harbingers,  is  painted  in  terms  that 
are  reciprocally  metaphorical,  and  admirably  adapted  to  the  two- 
fold character  of  the  description.     (Gi'ay.) 

Joel  was  held  in  great  reverence  by  the  ancient  Jews,  and  is 
quoted  by  both  Peter  and  Paul,  Acts  2:  Eom.  10.  13. 

79.  There  are  dififerent  views,  it  may  be  added,  on  the 
meaning  of  the  description  given  in  chaps.  1-2.  12. 

Some  regard  the  whole  as  literal,  and  apply  it  either  to  the  famine 
Meaning  of  ^^^  drought,  of  which  Amos  speaks,  4.  7,  8 ;  or  to  the 
chaps.  I,  2.  seven  years  of  famine,  that  desolated  Juda3a  in  the  days 
of  Joram,  2  I^ngs  8.  1-3.     Others  regard  the  description  as  figura- 


JOEL:  AMOS.  481 

tive,  and  apply  it  to  the  invasion  by  Tiglatli-Pileser,  Shalmaue.sfcr, 
Sennacherib,  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  or  to  the  subjugation  of  the 
country  by  Assyiians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Others,  as 
Olshausen,  combine  these  views,  and  deem  it  a  description  of  im- 
pending calamity  generally,  both  literal  and  figiirative.  ' '  Locust " 
is  certainly  used  with  this  double  reference  in  Scripture  (see 
symbols),  and  in  the  second  chapter,  expre-ssions  are  used  with 
apparently  a  double  aspect,  as  like  expressions  were  afterwards 
used  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  24,  referring  to  an  earlier  and  a  final  visita- 
tion. Indeed,  as  all  great  and  Divine  deliverances  prefigure  or 
represent  the  deliverance  of  the  Cross,  so  all  gi-eat  punitive  visita- 
tions supply  figm-es  for  describing  the  Judgment. 

The  Booh  of  Amos,  B.  c.  810-785. 

80.  Amos  appears  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Hosea, 
and  hke  him,  was  sent  to  the  ten  tribes.  Both 
prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jero- 
boam II.,  and  Amos  saw  his  first  vision  "  two  years  before 
the  earthquake,"  which  happened,  as  we  learn  from  Zechariah, 
in  the  days  of  Uzziah  (Zech.  14.  5,  see  also  Isa.  5.  25). 

He  appears  to  have  prophesied  in  Bethel  (7.  10-13),  ^^^  ^^ 
did  not  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  being  an  inhabitant, 
and  probably  a  native,  of  Tekoa,  a  city  south  of  Jerusalem,  and 
on  the  borders  of  the  vast  open  pastures  ("  wilderness  "),  of 
the  hill  country  of  Judah.  By  profession  he  was  a  herdsman, 
and  a  dresser  of  sycamore  trees  (7.  14)  :  "  Not  a  prophet,  or 
a  prophet's  son,"  L  e.,  not  trained  to  that  office,  but  called  by 
an  irresistible  Divine  commission  (3.  8  :  7.  15),  to  prophesy 
unto  Israel.  To  this  fact  he  alludes,  when  Amaziah,  the  idola- 
trous priest  in  Bethel,  charged  him  with  conspiring  against 
Jeroboam.  His  previous  occupation  ought  to  have  removed 
all  suspicion  of  pohtical  connection  with  the  house  of  David, 
and  to  us  it  illustrates  the  grace  which  selects  its  ministers 
"  from  the  tents  of  the  shepherd,  as  well  as  from  the  palace 
of  the  sovereign,"  quahfying  each  for  the  duties  to  which  Iig 
is  called,  see  i  Cor.  i.  27,  29. 

Amos  speaks  of  himself  as  the  author  of  these  prophecies  (7.  8: 
8.  I,  2),  and  his  prophetic  character  is  established  by  the  testimony 
of  Stephen  the  first  martyr,  and  James  (Acts  7.  42,  43:  15.  15-17). 
and  by  the  exact  fulfilment  of  his  predictions.  This  book  is  enu- 
merated in  all  the  early  lists  of  canonical  authors  (see  Part  i.  §  ifio). 

The  style  of  Amos  is  simple,  but  by  no  means  deficient  in  pic- 

Y 


482  AMOS  :   HOSEA. 

turesque  beauty.  liis  manner  of  life  may  be  traced  in  the  illustra- 
tions he  selects;  ■which  are  taken  mostly  from  rural  employments: 
many  of  them  are  original  and  striking,  while  all  have  the  life  and 
freshness  of  nature.  His  knowledge  of  the  events  of  remote 
antiquity  (9.  7),  and  of  others  more  recent,  not  elsewhere  recorded 
(6.  2),  the  regular  com'se  of  his  thoughts,  and  the  correctness 
of  his  language,  all  tend  to  show  that  the  responsible  and  often 
dangerous  (3.  12),  occupation  of  a  shepherd  was  still  as  favourable 
to  mental  culture,  as  in  the  days  of  Moses  and  David. 

The  people  of  Israel  were  now  rapidly  filling  up  the  measure  of 
their  sins.  The  mission  of  Amos  was,  therefore,  rather  to  thi-eaten 
chan  to  console.  He  rebukes,  among  other  things,  the  corruption 
of  their  mannei"s,  which  kept  pace  vnih.  their  prosperity:  he  charges 
the  great  men  with  partiality  as  judges,  and  violence  towards  the 
poor:  and  he  foretells,  as  a  punisliment  from  God,  the  captivity  of 
the  ten  tribes  in  a  foreign  country;  a  prediction  accomplished  about 
sixty  yeai's  afterwards,  when  Shalmaneser,  the  king  of  Assyria^  des- 
troyed the  kingdom. 

This  book  begins  with  aunouncijig  Divine  judgments  against  the 
states  around  Juda?a,  and  against  the  two  Hebrew 
nations  themselves^  (r,  2),  The  prophet  then  sets 
before  the  Ephraimites  their  sins  in  detail :  what  God  had  done  to 
bring  them  back  to  himself;  how  they  may  return  to  God;  and 
the  chastisements  which  were  in  reserve  for  their  obduracy  (3-6). 
This  is  followed  by  symbolical  visions,  representing  successive 
punishments  to  be  inflicted  on  the  Israelites,  each  more  severe  than 
the  preceding.  The  certainty  and  the  near  approach  of  their  ruin 
is  declared  (8.  9- J  4).  But,  beyond  this  calamity,  the  prophet  is 
commissioned  to  foi-etell  new  things  in  the  distant  future.  And  he 
concludes,  with  assurances  that  God  will  not  utterly  destroy  the 
house  of  Israel ;  but,  after  sifting  and  cleansing  it  among  the  nations, 
will  raise  it  again  to  more  than  its  former  glory,  in  the  kingdom  of 
the  Messiah,  (9.  11-15).  In  the  blessings  of  this  kingdom,  the 
Gentiles  are  also  to  share  (see  Acts  15.  16,  17). 

The  Book  of  Hosea,  B.  C.  800-725. 
81.  Ilosea  was  probably  a  native  and  inhabitant  of  Israel. 
He  lived  during  the  reigns  of  the  last  six  or  seven  of  its 
kings,  fi'om  Jeroboam  11.  to  Hoshea,  a  period  of  about  sixty 
years.     He  was  contemporary  with  Isaiah,  though  he  began 
to  prophesy  some  time  before  him  (Isa.  i.  i  :  Hos.  i.  i). 
The  prophecies  of  Hosoa  are  directed  almost  exclusively  to  the 
"  Fulfilled  in  the  victories  of  Assyi-ia  and  Babylon. 


HOSEA.  483 

ten  tribes.  He  addresses  them  under  the  title  of  Israel,  of  Samaria, 
which,  had  been,  since  the  days  of  Omri,  their  capital,  of  Ephraim, 
the  most  distingmshed  of  the  tribes,  to  which  Jeroboam,  their  first 
king  belonged.  The  idolatry  which  commenced  in  his  days  at  Dan 
and  Bethel,  had  now  been  continued  for  more  than  150  years,  and 
had  diffused  every  form  of  vice  among  all  classes.  The  last  short 
interval  of  outward  prosperity  under  Jeroboam  11.,  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  general  anarchy  and  decay.  The  kings  and  princes  were 
miirderers  and  profligates  (7.  3-7):  the  idolatrous  priests  had  spread 
their  shameful  festivals  and  their  deceitful  oracles  all  over  the 
land  (4.  12-14:  10:  12:  13.  2):  the  gi-eat  parties  in  the  state  resorted 
for  help  sometimes  to  Assyria,  at  other  times  to  Egypt  (2  Kings 
15.  19:  17.  4):  while  the  whole  nation  relied  entirely  on  human 
help  (5.  13:  7.  8-12:  8.  9,  10:  10.  13,  etc.):  worldly  and  sinful 
objects  were  pursued  with  the  same  eagerness  by  Ephraim  as  by 
Canaan  (12.  7,  8):  a  listless  security  blinded  all  minds  (5.4:  12.  8) : 
giving  place  in  the  moment  of  danger  to  a  repentance  merely  of  the 
lips  (7.  16):  and,  what  was  the  root  of  all  the  other  evils,  God  and 
his  word  were  forgotten  (4.  1-6:  8.  12.) 

This  condition  the  prophet  most  earnestly  condemns,  using  the 
expressive  figures  of  adultery  to  reprove  then-  idolatry;  figures 
which  imply  the  violation  of  a  solenm  covenant,  and  the  alienation 
of  the  affections  of  the  people  from  God.  These  lessons  were  illus- 
trated in  the  assassination  of  four  kings  successively,  and  in  the 
general  disorders  of  the  state. 

For  sixty  years,  these  wanaings  and  appeals  were  continued,  with- 
out success:— a  bright  example  of  persevering  fidelity  under  the 
greatest  discouragements. 

As  Hosea  speaks  in  these  prophecies  in  the  first  person  (3.  i,  2,  3), 
no  doubt  he  compiled  them  himself.  They  contain  many  specific 
predictions,  literally  fulfilled,  and  the  book  is  cited  by  Matthew, 
by  Paul,  and  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  2.  13:  Rom.  9.  25,  26:  i  Cor. 
15.  35:  Matt.  9.  12,  13:  12.  7. 

Considering  the  long  peiiod  to  which  the  ministry  of  Hosea  ex- 
tended, it  may  appear  surprising  that  his  writings  are  comprised 
within  so  small  a  compass:  but  it  must  be  remembered,  that,  as 
in  the  case  of  others  of  the  prophets,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  this  book  contains  all  that  he  ever  uttered.  Such  portions 
only  of  his  inspired  communications  are  recorded,  as  the  Holy  Spirit 
saw  fit  to  preserve  for  the  benefit  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the  world. 

The  language  of  Hosea  is  to  us  peculiarly  difficult.     His  style  is 

very  concise,  and  abrupt,  abounding  with  figures  and 

metaphors,  which  are  often  much  intermixed;  and  the 

transitions  from  one  subject  and  figure  to  another,  are  frequent  and 

Y  2 


484  HOSEA. 

Buddeu.  The  particular  occasions  ou  which  his  prophecies  were 
delivered,  are  in  themselves  rarely  obviouf?,  and  are  never  specified 
by  the  author.  Some  parts  of  them,  however,  are  peculiarly  pa- 
thetic, animated,  and  sublime. 

Among  the  more  remarkable  of  his  predictions,  are  those  in 
which  he  foretells  the  captivities  and  sufferings  of  Israel;**  the 
deliverance  of  Judah  from  Sennacherib,  a  figure  of  salvation  by 
Christ;''  the  punishment  of  Judah  and  her  cities;'^  the  present  state 
of  the  Jews;^  their  future  conversion  and  union  with  the  Gentiles 
imder  the  Messiah;^  and  the  call  of  our  Saviour  out  of  Egypt;*' 
while  the  final  ransom  of  his  people  from  death  and  the  gi'ave,  is 
celebrated  in  the  loftiest  strains." 

All  these  predictions  are  not  equally  clear:  but  the  evangelical 
tenor  of  most,  nothing  can  exceed.  These  predictions  are  blended 
in  the  original  with  a  form  of  phraseology  closely  allied  to  the 
phraseology  of  the  ancient  law  (Hengstenbei'g). 

Chaps.  6,  13,  14,  are  peculiarly  rich  in  statements  adapted  to 
awaken  those  feelings  of  penitence  and  faith  which  become  the 
Christian  and  the  church  in  every  age. 

This  book  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  comprising,  ist.  A 
symbolical  narrative,  chaps.  1-3;  and,  2udly.  Prophetic  discourses , 
chaps.  4-14. 

1.  The  first  part  gives  a  symbolical  representation  of  the  past, 
present,  and  future  history  of  the  people  of  God.  It  describes 
their  adoption,  their  rebellion  and  infidelities,  their  chastisement 
and  rejection,  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  future  re- 
pentance and  restoi-ation  of  Israel.  These  three  chapters  ai-e  an 
abridgement  of  the  whole  book;  and  the  gracious  promises  which 
they  contain,  and  which  are  not  noticed  in  the  seven  following 
chapters,  re-appear  in  the  eleventh,  and  close  the  book. 

2.  In  the  second  part,  containing  several  prophetic  discourses 
delivered  at  different  times,  the  things  which  have  been  before 
revealed  under  a  symbolical  form,  are  further  illustrated  by  the 
most  vivid  images.  It  begins  with  i-ebukes  and  threatenings,  which 
present  to  view  in  the  fore-ground,  various  frightful  calamities;  but 
by  degrees  the  horizon  becomes  clear,  and  the  glory  of  the  latter 
time  shines  forth  with  unclouded  lustre. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the  latter  chapters 

"  5-  5-7:  9-  3,  <^-ii:  I0-5,  6,  15:  13.  16. 
'"  1.  7,  compare  2  Kings  19.  35.  '^  5.  10:  8.  14. 

'I  3.  4.  "  I.  10:  2.  23:  I.  11:  3.  5:  14-  4>  8. 

f  II.  I  (see  Matt.  2.  15):  6.  2  (see  i  Cor.  15.  4). 
8  I?.  14  (see  I  Cor.  15.  55). 


HOSEA  :   ISAIAE.  485 

of  the  book  chronologically,  but  without  success.  Tl:e  general 
diift  is  clear,  but  the  writer  has  given  us  no  other  i:iclication  of  the 
order  of  the  several  prophecies  than  their  place  in  the  book  itself. 

The  narrative  of  Hosea's  marriage  we  have  described  cs  sym- 
bolical. Some  (Augustine,  Grotius,  Horsley),  regard  it  as  literal 
history;  others  suppose  that  a  marriage  with  an  Israelitish  woman 
is  all  that  is  intended;  but  most  (Jerome,  Rosenm.,  Louth,  Hengs.), 
regard  it  as  allegory  only,  or  as  a  vision.  It  may  be  added,  that 
the  narrative-exactness  of  the  whole,  and  the  use  of  names,  are  aa 
consistent  %vith  the  supposition  that  it  is  a  parable  or  vision,  as  with 
the  supposition  that  it  is  a  real  occmrrence  which  is  described, 
Ezek.  23:  Luke  16.  20-31. 

The  Book  of  Isaiah,  B.  C.  765-698. 

82.  Though  Isaiah  has  given  incidentally,  decisive  evidences 
of  his  humility,  his  pity  for  his  countrymen,  and  for  the 
nations  whose  desolations  he  announced,"*  he  has  told  us  very 
little  of  his  own  history.  He  was  called  to  the  prophetic 
office  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and  he  continued 
to  prophesy  during  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah, 
perhaps  also  during  a  portion  of  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  Of 
nis  parentage  nothing  is  known,  though,  as  his  father's  name 
is  mentioned,  the  Jews  conclude  that  he  was  a  prophet. 
They  add,  that  Isaiah  belonged  to  the  royal  house,  and  that 
he  was  father-in-law  of  Manasseh,  by  whom  they  say  he  was 
put  tc  death,  being  sawn  asunder  for  contradicting  or  adding 
to  the  Mosaic  law ''  (Isa.  6.  i,  compare  with  Exod,  33.  20). 
His  wife  is  styled  a  prophetess  (8.  3),  and  he  had  two  sons, 
whose  names  and  history  were  intended  to  illustrate  and 
enforce  his  predictions  (7.  3  :  8.  3,  4).  His  name  means 
"  salvation  of  Jehovah,"  and  is,  in  a  large  degree,  descriptive 
of  his  character  and  writings.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
spelt  (from  the  Lxx  and  Vulgate),  Esaias.  His  father  was 
often  confounded  with  Amos,  the  prophet,  whose  name 
(DIDV,  Amos),  the  Septuagint  writes  in  the  same  way  as  the 
name  of  Amos  (f^?OK,  Amotz),  the  father  of  Isaiah,  "A/itas-, 

The  duration  of  his  ministry  is  not  known.     The  whole  of 

the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  etc.,  to  Hezekiah,  amount  to  112  years. 

From  the  last  year  of  Uzziah  to  the  14th  of  Hezekiah,  when 

we  last  find  traces  of  Isaiah  in  history  (2  Kings  20.  i  :  Isa. 

^  6.  5:  G6.  2:  21.  3:  16.  9.  ^  SeeEeb.  ir.  37. 


486  ISAIAH. 

38.  i),  is  forty-seven  years,  and  if,  according  to  Jewish  tra- 
dition, he  survived  till  the  days  of  Manasseh,  he  must  have 
been  more  than  100  years  old. 

When  Isaiah  entered  on  his  office,  the  throne  was  occupied  by 
Uzziah,  or  Azariah.  Ilis  general  character  was  that  of  integrity  and 
piety;  and  niider  his  reign  the  nation  enjoyed  great  temporal 
prosperity.  He  was  a  worshipper  of  the  true  God;  though  he  failed 
to  remove  the  groves  and  high  places  established  for  idolatrous 
worship.  Uzziah  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jotham,  whose  general 
character  was  like  that  of  his  father;  but  the  idolatrous  altars  were 
still  allowed  to  remain,  and  o\\ing  to  the  increase  of  luxury  and 
sensual  indulgence,  true  piety  declined  more  and  more.  The  next 
king,  Ahaz,  was  a  very  wicked  and  idolatrous  prince ;  and  his  reign 
was  very  disastrous.  The  law  of  God  was  broken  in  the  most  reck- 
less manner,  and  the  temple  not  only  defaced  and  plundered,  but 
at  last,  shut  up.  During  this  period,  Isaiah  came  forward  publicly, 
as  a  reprover  of  sin;  but  his  counsels  and  warnings  were  disregarded. 
HezekiaKs  character  was  the  reverse  of  that  of  his  father.  He  abo- 
hshed  idolatry,  restored  the  temple  and  woi'ship  of  Jehovah,  and 
relieved  the  people  from  foreign  oppression.  He  treated  Isaiah  with 
great  respect,  and  during  the  agitating  occurrences  of  his  reign,  the 
prophet  had  an  important  part  in  directing  the  public  counsels. 

83.  The  hfe  of  Isaiah  includes  the  last  years  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  Under  Jeroboam  li.  the  contemporary  of  Uzziah, 
Samaria  had  flourished,  but  for  several  years  it  had  been 
ruled  by  usurpers,  and  at  length,  in  the  sixth  year  of  Hezekiah, 
the  kingdom  was  overthrown,  and  its  inhabitants  removed. 

His  prophecies,  however,  have  little  reference  to  the  condition  of 
Israel,  and  are  directed  chiefly  to  Judah. 

The  relation  of  Judah  to  neighbouring  nations  it  is  important  to 
remember.  With  Moab,  Edom,  and  the  Philistines,  Judah  had 
repeated  conflicts.  Though  within  the  boundaries  of  Judah,  and 
subdued  by  David,  they  were  constantly  endeavouring  to  maintain 
an  independent  position,  and  during  the  reign  of  godless,  feeble 
kings,  their  efforts  were  generally  successful.  Assyria  had  increased 
in  strength,  and  was  extending  her  conquests  on  all  sides.  Egypt 
had  been  subdued  by  Ethiopia,  and  both  countries  were  united 
vmder  one  dynasty.  Assyria  and  Egypt  were  both  preparing  for  a 
coming  struggle,  and  each  in  succession  sought  the  alliance  of  both 
Judah  and  Israel.  The  safest  policy,  whether  we  regard  the  tem- 
poral interests,  or  the  religious  character  of  the  Jewish  kingdoms, 
was  clearly  to  stand  aloof  from  both.     Babylon,  as  Havernick  has 


ISAIAH:   GENDIXEXISS.  487 

shown,  was  at  this  tune  an  inferior  kingdom,  struggling  against 
Assyi'ia  for  independence,  and  rising  slowly  into  importance.  Hence 
the  wisdom  of  Merodach-Bidadan  in  sending  an  embassy  to  Heze- 
kiah:  hence,  also,  the  need  of  Divine  teaching,  to  foretell  the  future 
power  of  Babylon,  and  the  subjugation  by  it  of  the  kingdom  of 
Judah. 

The  two  most  remarkable  events  of  thLs  period,  are  the  invasion 
of  Judah  by  the  combined  forces  of  Syria  and  Israel,  followed  by 
the  destruction  of  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes ;  and  the  Assyrian 
invasion  of  Judah  in  the  fourteenth  yeai'  of  Kezekiah,  ending  in  the 
defeat  of  Sennacherib.  "Within  the  same  period,  and  twenty  or 
tMrty  yeai's  earlier  than  the  last-mentioned  facts,  fall  the  two  most 
remarkable  epochs  of  chi'onology ;  A.  u.  c,  753  b.  c,  and  the  era  of 
Nabonassar,  747  b.  c.  Just  before  the  days  of  Isaiah,  is  the  date 
of  the  first  Olym.,  776  B.C. 

84.  The  genuineness  of  Isaiah  has  been  much  discussed  in 
modern  times,  and  especially  the  latter  portion  of  his  pro- 
phecies, chaps.  40-66. 

The  objections  to  the  genuineness  of  this  portion  of  his  book,  are 
founded  chiefly  on  alleged  peculiaiities  of  style,  such  as  Chaldaisms, 
and  differences  in  expression  between  the  earlier  and  later  divisions 
of  his  writings.  All  these  objections,  however,  have  been  met  by 
facts,  taken  from  the  book  itself,"  and  the  genuineness  of  the  whole 
is  attested  by  universal  antiquity,  and  by  the  Xew  Testament.  Of 
the  sixty -six  chapters,  forty-seven  ai-e  dkectly  or  indirectly  quoted 
by  our  Lord  or  his  apostles;  and  out  of  the  twenty-one  cases  in 
which  Isaiah  is  expressly  named,  we  find  quotations  from  chaps,  i, 
6,  9,  10,  ir,  29,  40,  42,  53,  61,  65.  The  view,  therefore,  that  the 
whole  of  Isaiah  (the  later  and  eai'lier  portions),  had  one  author, 
is  sanctioned  by  inspired  teachers. 

85.  This  book  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts. 

(i.)  The  first  part  1-39,  contains  prophetic  addresses  and  writings 

of  different  dates,  most  of  them  bearing  immediately  on  the  morals, 

piety,  and  welfare  of  the  nation.     Of  these  there  are  four  sections : — 

I.  Reproofs,  warnings,  and  promises  addressed  to  Judah  and 

*  There  are,  for  example,  Chaldaisms  in  Isaiah,  and  this  fact  was 
made  one  reason  for  ascribing  the  book  to  different  authors.  Hirzel, 
however  (De  Chal.  Bib.  Origine,  1830),  has  shown  that,  in  all  the 
poetical  pai-ts  of  Scripture  especially,  there  are  Chaldaisms,  that  in 
Isaiah  there  are  but  four  true  Chaldaisms,  and  that  thase  are  all 
found  in  the  part  which  is  admitted  to  be  genuine,  7.  14  (?),  29.  i; 
18.  7:  21.  12. 


488  ISAIAH  :    CONTENTS. 

Israel,  chiefly  during  the  early  part  of  the  prophet's  ministxy, 
with  prophecies  of  the  success  of  the  gospel,  and  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah  to  judgment,  1-12. 

2.  Predictions  respecting  neighboui-ing  hostile  nations,  inwhicb 
are  described  the  sins  and  destruction  of  Assyria,  Babylon, 
Moab,  Egypt,  Philistia,  Syria,  Edom,  and  Tyre,  13-23. 

3.  Writings  probably  of  the  time  of  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah,  des- 
cribing the  sins  and  misery  of  the  people,  pictming  the 
Assyrian  invasion;  the  destruction  of  Samai-ia;  the  alarm, 
distress,  and  final  deliverance  of  Jerusalem,  with  many  re- 
ferences also,  to  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  under  the  gespel, 
and  the  destruction  of  all  the  enemies  of  the  church,  24-35. 

4.  History  of  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  of  the  destruction  of 
his  army,  in  answer  to  Hezekiah's  prayer.  Hezekiah's  sick- 
ness, his  miraculous  recovery,  and  the  prolongation  of  his 
life  for  fifteen  years,  36-39. 

(ii.)  The  predictions  which  form  the  second  part  of  the  book 
(40-66),  relate  chiefly  to  more  distant  events,  and  embrace  the  whole 
period,  from  the  captivity  to  the  end  of  the  Christian  dispensation. 
The  delivery  from  Babylon  is  employed  as  an  image  of  an  infinitely 
greater  redemption;  the  prophet  so  connecting  these  two  events,  as 
seldom  to  treat  of  the  first  without  pointing  to  the  second.  The 
design  of  the  whole  of  this  portion  of  the  book  is  expressed  in  chap. 
40.  I,  2. 

The  subjects  particularly  foretold,  are,  the  deliverance  of  the 
Jews  by  Cyrus  (above  200  years  before  his  birth),  and  the  overthrow 
of  their  o];)pressors,  ^  the  return  to  Judrea,  and  the  establishment  of 
their  ancient  polity;''  the  coiaing,  character,  appointment,  suffer- 
ings, death,  and  glory  of  the  Messiah;*^  the  downfall  of  idolatry, 
the  call  of  the  Gentile  w^orld;'^  the  wickedness  of  the  Jews  con- 
summated in  their  rejection  of  the  Messiah,  and  the  consequent 
rejection  of  them  by  God,  their  future  conversion  and  recovery,* 
and  the  final  triumphant  perfection  of  the  church. ^  These  subjects 
are  often  blended  together,  and  sometimes  there  is  a  rapid  tran- 
sition from  one  to  another. 

The  ofiice  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  also  distinctly  noticed,  though  it 
is  implied  that  the  full  manifestation  of  his  influence  is  reserved  for 
the  times  of  the  gospel,  63.  10-14:  44.  3. 

The  numbers  and  distinctness  of  predictions  that  refer  to  the 

»44.  28:  45-  1-5:  47.  ^44-  28. 

'40.  3,4:  42.  I,  6,  7:  49.  i:  55.  4,  5:  53-  12:  61.  I,  2:  50.  6: 
53.4-12.  **49.  5-12:  65.  I. 

*  52.  3:  65:  62.  '  59.  19:  65,  etc. 


ISAIAH:   MICAH.  489 

gospel,  are  indeed  so  striking,  that  Isaiah  has  acquired  the  title  cf 
"  the  Evangelical  Prophet,"  and  his  -vvi'itings  may  be  almost  classed 
among  the  historical  books  of  the  inspired  volume. 

In  the  writings  of  Isaiah,  we  find  several  prophecies  which  had 
an  early  or  immediate  fulfilment,  and  these,  as  they  were  fulfilled, 
confirmed  the  faith  of  the  people  ia  the  more  remote.  Syria  and 
Isi'ael,  for  example,  were  to  be  conquered  by  Assyria,  before  the 
infant  son  of  the  prophet  could  say  "  my  father.'"*  The  glory  of 
Kedar  was  to  fail  in  one  year,''  that  of  Moab  in  three  years, "^  that  of 
Ephraim  in  65  years, '^  that  of  Tyre  in  70  years;®  while  the  pre- 
dicted prolongation  of  Hezekiah's  life^  must  have  established  the 
authority  of  the  prophet,  and  illustrated  the  providence  of  God. 

Prophecies  which  were  thvis  instructive  as  evidence,  were  no  less 
so  as  moral  lessons.  The  Jews  were  proud  of  Egypt,  "  their  glory," 
and  trusted  in  Ethiopia  "  their  expectation."  God  denounced  both, 
and  thus  taught  the  folly  of  fleeing  to  them  for  protection  or  help. 
The  predictions  against  Edom  and  Babylon  were  also  rich  in  in- 
struction. They  comforted  pious  Jews  in  the  prospect  of  the 
calamities  their  nation  was  about  to  suflFer,  and  they  teach  what  the 
sins  are  which  have  brought  down  God's  indignation  in  every  age. 
The  cruelties  and  oppression  of  the  heathen  are  sufficiently 
notorious,  and  these  are  everywhere  condemned.  We  notice,  also, 
the  condemnation  of  pride  in  Babylon  and  Moab,  in  Tyre  and 
Ephraim,^  of  covetousness,  and  the  confounding  of  moral  distinc- 
tions in  Judah,**  of  a  heart  set  on  worldly  pleasure,  in  Jerusalem 
and  Babylon,'  of  self-conceit  and  unbelief  everywhere.  Predictions 
apart,  therefore,  these  prophetic  writings  are  among  the  most  in- 
structive of  the  revelations  with  which  God  has  favoured  om'  race. 


The  Book  of  Micah,  b.  c.  758-699. 

86.  Micah  calls  himself  a  Morasthite,  and  was  a  native  of 
Morasthi,  near  Gath,  or  (if  the  two  places  be  the  same), 
Mareshah,  a  place  of  some  importance,  in  the  south  of  Judah 
(i.  I,  15).  He  seems  to  have  been  commissioned  not  long 
after  Hosea,  Amos,  and  Isaiah  had  begun  their  ministry,  and 
reiterates  the  reproofs  and  warnings  which  they  had  addressed 
to  both  Israel  and  Judah.  Greek  writers  (Epiphanius  and 
others),  say  he  was  slain  by  Jehoram,  son  of  Ahab  ;  but  they 
confound  him  with  IVIicaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  i  Kings  22. 

"  Isa.  8.  4.  ^  21.  16.  °  16.  14.  ^  7.  8. 

"  23.  15.  ^38.  59.  e  14.  13:  16.  6:  23.  9:  28.  3- 

"5.8,  20.  i22.  15:  47.8. 

y3 


490  MICAH  :   CONTENTS. 

8-28  ;  Micah,  moreover,  does  not  appear  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom,  but  died  in  peace  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah, 
Jer.  26.  18,  19.  One  of  his  predictions  saved  the  hfe  of  Jere- 
miah, who  would  have  been  put  to  death  for  foretelhng  the 
destruction  of  the  temple,  had  it  not  appeared  that  Micah  had 
foretold  the  same  thing  above  a  hundred  years  before.  He, 
himself,  wrote  his  predictions  (3.  i,  8),  and  is  referred  to  as  a 
prophet  by  Jeremiah,  and  in  the  New  Testament,  Matt.  2.  5  : 
John  7.  42.  His  language  seems  also  quoted  by  Zephaniah 
(3.  19)  :  Ezekiel  (22.  27),  perhaps  by  Isaiah,  (2.  2-4  :  41.  15), 
and  by  our  Lord,  Matt.  10.  35,  36. 
His  predictions  may  be  divided  into  three  sections. 

He  first  describes  the  approaching  ruin  of  both  kingdoms;  par- 
ticularizing several  of  the  towns  and  villages  of  Judah  in  his  own 
neighbourhood,  chap.  i.  He  then  rebukes  and  threatens  the 
princes,  prophets,  and  people,  for  their  prevailing  sins ;  introducing, 
however,  an  intimation  of  mercy,  (2.  3).  In  the  second  section,  he 
proceeds  to  unfold  the  future  and  better  destinies  of  the  people; 
dwelling  at  length  upon  the  happiness  and  glory  of  the  chm-ch,  under 
the  reign  of  Christ,  in  a  prophecy  which  presents  a  beautiful  epitome 
of  the  latter  parts  of  Isaiah ;  and  then  reverting  to  the  nearer  deli- 
verance of  the  Jews,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  power, 
(4,  5).  The  third  division  exhibits  the  reasonableness,  purity,  and 
justice  of  the  Divine  requirements,  in  contrast  with  the  ingratitude, 
injustice,  and  superstition  of  the  people,  which  caused  their  ruin. 
From  the  contemplation  of  this  catastrophe,  the  prophet  turns  for 
encouragement,  to  the  unchanging  triith  and  mercy  of  Jehovah, 
which  he  sets  before  the  people,  as  the  most  powerful  inducement 
to  hearty  repentance,  (6,  7). 

Micah  has  much  of  the  poetic  beauty  of  Isaiah,  and  of  the  vigour 
of  Hosea.  His  style  is,  however,  occasionally  obscure,  through  con- 
ciseness and  sudden  transitions  from  one  subject  to  another. 

He  foretells,  in  clear  terms,  the  invasions  of  Shalmaneser  *  and 
Sennacherib;^  the  dispersion  of  Israel;  "^  the  cessation  of  prophecy;** 
the  utter  destruction  of  Jerusalem;^  nor  less  clearly,  the  deliverance 
of  Israel; '  the  destruction  of  Assyria,  and  of  the  enemies  Assyria 
represents;^  the  birth-place  of  Christ,  and  his  Divine  nature,  for 
bis  goings  forth  are  "  from  everlasting ;"*>  the  promulgation  of  his 

•   I.  6-8  (2  Kings  17.  4,  6).  ^  i.  9-16  (2  Ivings  18.  13). 

«  5.  7,  8.  d  3,  6^  y.  e  3^  j2.  f  2.  12:  4.  10:  5.  8. 

«f  5.  5,  6:  7.  8,  10.  »>  5.  2  (Matt.  2.  6). 


micah:  nahum.  491 

gospel  from  Mount  Zion,  and  its  results,"  and  the  exaltation  of  liia 
kingdom  over  all  nations.^ 

The  Book  of  Nahum^  b.  C.  720-698. 

87.  The  Book  of  JSTahum  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the 
moral  use  of  prophecy,  of  its  fitness  to  console  (so  the  name 
of  the  prophet  imphes)  the  behever,  and  strengthen  him  for 
jjresent  duties. 

Of  Nahum  himself,  nothing  is  known,  except  that  he  be- 
longed to  Elkosh,  a  place  now  unrecognised,  but  which  Jerome 
(who  lived  a  thousand  years  afterwards)  asserts  to  have 
belonged  to  Gahlee  (Pref.  to  Com.) 

He  probably  prophesied  in  Judah,  after  the  ten  tribes  had 
been  carried  captive,  and  between  the  two  invasions  of  Sen- 
nacherib. At  this  period  of  perplexity,  when  the  ovei-throw 
of  Samaria  must  have  suggested  to  Judah  many  fears  for  her 
own  safety,  when  Jerusalem,  had  been  drained  of  its  treasure 
by  Hezekiah,  in  the  vain  hope  of  turning  away  the  fury  of 
Sennacherib,  and  when  distant  rumours  of  the  conquest  of 
part  of  Egypt,  added  still  more  to  the  general  dismay,  the 
prophet  is  raised  up  to  reveal  the  power  and  tenderness  of 
Jehovah  (i.  1-8),  to  foretell  the  subversion  of  the  Assyrian 
empire  (i.  9-12),  the  death  of  Sennacherib,  and  the  dehverance 
of  Hezekiah  (i.  13-15).  The  destruction  of  Nineveh  is  then 
predicted  in  the  most  glowing  colours,  and  with  singular 
minuteness  ;  and  profane  history  tells  us,  that  these  predic- 
tions have  been  hterally  fulfilled  (see  §  190). 

Eightly  to  understand  Nahum,  compare  it  with  Jonah,  of  which 
it  is  a  continuation  and  supplement.  The  two  prophecies  form 
connected  parts  of  the  same  moral  history;  the  remission  of  God's 
judgments  being  illustrated  in  Jonah,  and  the  execution  of  them 
in  Nahum.  The  devoted  city  had  one  denunciation  more  given 
a  few  years  later,  by  Zephaniah  (2.  11),  and  shortly  afterwards 
(606  B,  c),  the  whole  were  fulfilled. 

Nineveh,  the  destruction  of  which  is  foretold  by  the  prophet, 
was  at  that  time  the  capital  of  a  great  and  flourishing  empire.  It 
was  a  city  of  vast  extent  and  population ;  and  was  the  centre  of  the 
principal  commerce  of  the  world.  Its  wealth,  however,  was  not 
altogether  derived  from  trade.     It  was  a  "  bloody  city,"  "  full  of 

*  4.  1-8  (Isa.  2.  2-4).  ^  4.  1-7,  compare  Luke  i.  33:  5.  5,  com- 
pare Eph.  2.  14;   7.  17.  18,  compare  Luke  i.  72,  73. 


492  nahum:  zephakiah. 

lies  aud  robbery,"  (3.  i).  It  plundered  the  neighbouring  natiou!» ; 
and  is  coropai-ed  by  the  prophet  to  a  family  of  lions,  which  "  fill 
then'  holes  with  prey  and  their  dens  with  ravin,"  (2.  11,  12).  At  the 
same  time  it  was  strongly  fortified;  its  colossal  walls,  a  himdred 
feet  high,  with  their  fifteen  hundred  towers,  bidding  defiance  to  all 
enemies.  Yet,  so  totally  was  it  destroyed,  that,  in  the  second  cen- 
tury after  Christ,  not  a  vestige  remained  of  it;  and  its  very  site  was 
long  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 

This  book  is  surpassed  by  none  in  sublimity  of  description.  It 
consists  01  a  single  poem;  which  opens  with  a  solemn  description  of 
the  attributes  and  operations  of  Jehovah,  (i.  2-8).  Then  follows 
(i.  9-14 1,  an  address  to  the  Assyrians,  describing  their  pei-plexity 
and  overthrow;  verses  12  and  13  beirg  thrown  in  parenthetically, 
to  console  the  Israelites  with  promises  of  future  rest  and  relief  from 
oppression.  Chapter  2  depicts  the  siege  and  capture  of  Nineveh, 
and  the  consternation  of  the  inhabitants.  Chapter  3  describes  the 
utter  ruin  of  the  city,  and  the  various  causes  contributing  to  it. 
The  example  of  No-Ammon  (or  Thebes),  a  great  and  strong  city  of 
Egypt,  which  fell  under  the  judgments  of  God,  is  introduced 
(3.  8-10),  to  illustrate  the  similar  punishment  coming  on  the 
Assyrians. 


Sec.  4.   The  Boohs  of  Zephaniah,  JeremiaJi,  Hdbakkuk,  Daniel^ 
Ezekielj  and  Ohadiah. 

The  Book  of  Zephaniah^  B.C.  640-609. 

88.  Between  the  cessation  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah, 
Micah,  and  Nahum,  and  the  days  of  Zephaniah,  Jeremiah, 
and  the  other  later  prophets,  an  interval  of  fifty  years  elapses, 
during  which  there  was  no  prophet  whose  writings  have 
reached  us,  unless  Joel  belong  to  this  period.  The  lessons 
taught  by  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  and  by  earlier  prophets, 
especially  Isaiah,  seem  to  have  been  left  to  produce  their 
proper  effects  on  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  wicked  reign 
01  Mauasseh,  moreover,  occupied  nearly  all  this  interval,  and 
seemed  to  render  reformation  by  prophetic  teaching  hopeless. 
With  Josiah,  however,  the  prophetic  spirit  revived,  and 
Zephaniah  ("Jehovah  hath  guarded")  is  the  earliest  of  the 
prophets  of  his  age.  He  seems  to  have  prophesied  near  the 
(Tommencement  of  Josiah's  reign,  and  at  all  events  before  the 
eighteenth  year,  when  the  altars  of  Baal  were  destroyed. 
He  probably  assisted  Josiah   in  his  efforts   to   restore  the 


I 


ZEPHANIAH.  493 

worship  of  the  true  God.  Of  the  prophet  personally  nothing 
is  known,  but  from  the  title  of  this  book.  As  he  traces  back 
his  pedigree  for  four  generations,  he  was  probably  of  noble 
birth.  Some  of  the  Jews,  and  Eichhorn,  suppose  him  to 
have  been  a  descendant  of  king  Hezekiah ;  but  this  con- 
clusion is  hardly  justified  by  the  text,  and  a  hundred  years 
(the  time  between  Hezekiah  and  the  projihet)  is  scarcely 
sufficient  to  admit  three  intermediate  ancestors. 

The  first  chapter  contains  a  general  demmciation  of  vengeance 
against  Judah  and  those  who  practised  idolatrous  rites;  Baal,  his 
olack-robed  priests  (Chemarin),  and  Malcham  (Moloch),  being  all 
condemned;  and  declares  "  the  great  day  of  trouble  and  distress  "  to 
be  at  hand,  (1.-2.  3).  The  second  chapter  predicts  the  judgments 
about  to  fall  on  the  PhiHstines,  those  especially  of  the  sea-coasts 
(Cherethites),  the  Moabites,  Ammonites,  and  Ethiopians;  and 
describes  in  terms  wonderfully  accurate  the  desolation  of  Nineveh  : 
prophecies  which  began  to  be  accomplished  in  the  conquests  of 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

In  the  third  chapter,  the  prophet  arraigns  Jeinisalem,  rebukes 
her  sins,  and  concludes  with  the  most  animating  promises  of  her 
future  restoration,  and  of  the  happy  state  of  the  people  of  God  in 
the  latter  days  (3.  1-7:  3.  8-20). 

Coincidences  of  expression  between  Isaiah  and  Zephaniah  are 
frequent,  and  still  more  between  Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah.  It 
may  be  added  that  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  complete  the  view 
here  given  of  the  devastations  to  be  efiected  by  Chaldsea  in  Philistia 
and  Judah. 

89.  Dr.  Keith  has  noticed  the  minute  discrimination  with 
which  Zephaniah,  Amos,  and  Zechariah,  foretell  the  destinies 
of  the  four  chief  cities  of  Phihstia — Gaza,  Ashkelon,  Ashdod, 
and  Ekron. 

Comparing  Amos  i.  6,  7,  8:  Zech.  9.  5 :  and  Zeph.  2.  4-6,  it  will 
be  seen,  that  of  Gaza  it  is  declai*ed  that  baldness  shall  come  upon 
it,  and  that  it  should  be  bereaved  of  its  king.  At  present,  amid 
ruins  of  white  marble  indicating  its  former  magnificence,  a  few 
villages  of  dry  mud  are  the  only  abode  of  its  inhabitants.  Of 
Ashkelon  and  Ashdod  it  is  said  that  both  shall  be  "without  in- 
habitants ;"  and  so  they  are.  Gaza  is  inhabited ;  Ashkelon  and 
Ashdod  are  not,  though  their  ruins  remain.  Different  from  the 
destiny  of  each  was  to  be  the  end  of  Ekron:  "it  shall  be  rooted 
up."     Now  its  very  name  is  lost,  nor  is  the  spot  known  on  which  it 


494  JEREMIAH. 

stood.    .  .  .    Clearly,  prophscy  and   providence — predictions  and 
the  events  that  fulfil  them— are  guided  by  the  same  hand. 

The  Book  of  Jeremiah,  B.C.  628-585. 

90.  Jeremiah  was  the  son  of  Hilkiah,  a  priest  of  Anathoth, 
in  Benjamin.  He  was  called  to  the  prophetic  office  about 
seventy  years  after  the  death  of  Isaiah,  in  the  thirteenth  year 
of  king  Josiah,  whilst  he  was  very  young  (i.  6)  and  still 
living  at  Anathoth.  It  would  seem  that  he  remamed  in  his 
native  place  for  several  years  ;  but  at  length,  probably  in 
consequence  of  the  persecution  of  his  fellow-townsmen,  and 
even  of  his  own  family  (11.  21:  12.  6),  as  weU  as,  under  the 
Divine  direction,  to  have  a  wider  field  for  his  labours,  he  left 
Anathoth,  and  came  to  Jerusalem.  He  also  visited  the  cities 
of  Judah,  and  prophesied  altogether  upwards  of  forty  years, 
(II.  6). 

During  the  reign  of  Josiah,  he  was,  doubtless,  a  valuable 
coadjutor  to  that  pious  monarch  in  the  reformation  of  re- 
ligion. From  his  notice  of  Jehoahaz  (22.  10-12),  he  pro- 
bably prophesied  without  hindrance  during  his  reign.  But 
when  Jehoiakim  came  to  the  throne  he  was  interrupted  in 
his  ministry ;  "  the  priests  and  prophets "  becoming  his 
accusers,  and  demanding,  in  conjunction  with  the  populace, 
that  he  should  be  put  to  death  (26),  The  princes  did  not 
dare  to  defy  God  thus  openly ;  but  Jeremiah  was  either 
placed  under  restraint,  or  deterred  by  his  adversaries  from 
appearing  in  public.  Under  these  circumstances,  he  received 
a  command  from  God  to  commit  his  predictions  to  writing ; 
and  having  done  so,  sent  Baruch  to  read  them  in  the  temple 
on  a  fast  day.  The  princes  were  alarmed,  and  endeavoured 
to  rouse  the  king  by  reading  out  to  him  the  prophetic  roll. 
But  it  was  in  vain  :  the  reckless  monarch,  after  hearing  three 
or  four  pages,  cut  the  roll  in  pieces,  and  cast  it  into  the  fire, 
giving  immediate  orders  for  the  apprehension  of  Jeremiah 
and  Baruch.  God,  however,  preserved  them  ;  and  Jeremiah 
soon  afterwards,  by  Divine  direction,  wrote  the  same  mes- 
sages again,  with  some  addditions  (36). 

In  the  short  reign  of  the  next  king,  Jehoiachin,  we  find 
him  still  uttering  the  voice  of  warning  (see  13.  18  ;  compare 
2  Kings  24.  12  and  chap.  22.  24-30),  though  without  efiect. 

In  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  when  Nebuchadnezzar's  army 


JEREMIAH.  495 

laid  siege  to  Jenisalem,  and  then  withdrew  upon  the  report 
of  help  coming  from  Egypt,  Jeremiah  was  commissioned  by 
God  to  declare  that  the  Chaldteans  should  come  again,  aiid 
take  the  city,  and  bum  it  with  j&re.  Departing  from  Jeru- 
salem, he  was  accused  of  deserting  to  the  Chaldceans,  and  way 
cast  into  prison,  where  he  remained  until  the  city  was  taken. 
Xebuchadnezzar,  who  had  formed  a  more  just  estimate  of  his 
character,  gave  a  special  charge  to  his  captain,  Nebuzar-adan, 
not  only  to  provide  for  him,  but  to  follow  his  advice.  The 
choice  being  given  to  the  prophet,  either  to  go  to  Babylon, 
where  doubtless  he  would  have  been  held  in  honour  at  the 
royal  court,  or  to  remain  with  his  own  peo^^le  ;  he  preferred 
the  latter.  He  subsequently  endeavoured  to  persuade  the 
leaders  of  the  people  not  to  go  to  Egypt,  but  to  remain  in 
the  land  ;  assuring  them,  by  a  Divine  message,  that  if  they 
did  so  God  would  build  them  up.  The  people  refused  tp 
obey,  aad  went  to  Egypt,  taking  Jeremiah  and  Baruch  with 
them  (43.  6).  In  Egypt,  he  still  sought  to  turn  the  people  to 
the  Lord  (44.)  ;  but  his  writings  give  no  information  respecting 
his  subsequent  history.  Ancient  historians,  however,  assert 
that  the  Jews,  offended  hy  his  faithful  remonstrances,  put 
him  to  death  in  Egypt :   Jerome  says  at  Tahpanhes. 

Jeremiah  was  contemporary  with  Zephaniah,  Habakkuk, 
Ezekiel,  and  Daniel.  Between  his  writings  and  those  of 
Ezekiel  there  are  many  interesting  points  both  of  resem- 
blance and  of  contrast.  Both  prophets  were  labouring  for  the 
same  object,  at  nearly  the  same  time.  One  prophesied  in 
Palestine,  the  other  in  Chaldsea ;  yet  the  substance  of  both- 
messages  is  the  same.  In  the  modes  of  expression  adopted 
by  the  prophets,  however,  and  in  their  jDcrsonal  character, 
they  widely  differed.  The  history  of  Jeremiah  brings  be- 
fore us  a  man  forced,  as  it  were,  in  spite  of  himself,  from 
obscurity  and  retirement  into  the  pubhcity  and  peril  which 
attended  the  prophetical  office.  Naturally  mild,  susceptible, 
and  inchned  rather  to  mourn  in  secret  for  the  iniquity  which 
surrounded  him  than  to  brave  and  denounce  the  wrong-doers, 
he  stood  forth  at  the  call  of  God,  and  proved  himself  a 
faithful,  fearless  champion  of  the  truth,  amidst  reproaches, 
insidts,  and  threats.  This  combination  of  quahties  is  so 
marked,  that  Havernick  regards  it  as  a  proof  of  the  Divine 
origin  of  his  mission.     In  Ezekiel,  on  the  other  hand,  we  see 


496  JEREMIAH:  co>;texts. 

the  power  of  Divine  inspiration  acting  on  a  mind  naturally  of 
the  firmest  texture,  and  absorbing  all  the  powers  of  the  soul. 
The  style  of  Jeremiah  corresponds  with  this  view  of  the 
character  of  his  mind.  It  is  peculiarly  marked  by  pathos. 
He  delights  in  expressions  of  tenderness,  and  gives  touching 
descriptions  of  the  miseries  of  his  people. 

The  prophecies  of  this  book  do  not  appear  to  stand  in  respect  to 
time  as  they  were  delivered.  Why  they  are  not  so  arranged,  and 
how  they  are  to  be  reduced  to  chronological  order,  it  is  not  easy  to 
gay.  Blayneij  proposes  the  following  arrangement:  the  prophecies 
delivered  (i),  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  comprising  1.-12.;  (2),  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim,  13. -20.:  22.:  23.:  25.:  26,:  35.:  36.:  45.-48.: 
49'  1-33;  (3)^  ill  the  time  of  Zedekiab,  21.:  24.:  27,-34.:  37.-39.: 
49'  34-39:  50--52.;  (4),  during  the  administration  of  Gedaliah,  and 
in  Egypt,  40.-44.  Chap.  52  seems  made  up  from  the  later  chaps, 
of  Kings,  (see  24.  18-25.  25),  and  repeats  part  of  chaps,  39  and  40. 
From  chap.  51.  34,  and  the  later  date  of  some  of  the  facts,  the 
whole  chapter  may  be  regarded  as  the  work  of  a  later  wi'iter,  and 
probably  of  Ezra. 

Ewald  proposes  divisions  founded  upon  the  present  order  of  the 
chapters,  and  endeavours  to  discover  the  plan  upon  which  they 
have  been  aiTanged.  He  remarks  that  various  portions  are  prefaced 
by  the  expression,  ''The  word  which  came  to  Jeremiah  from  the 
Lord,"  7.  1:  i-i.  i:  18.  i:  21.  i:  25.  i:  30.  i:  32.  i:  34.  i,  8:  35. 
i:  40.  i:  44.  I ;  or,  "The  word  of  the  Lord  which  came  to  Jere- 
miah," 14.  i:  46.  t:  47.  i:  49.  34;  that  some  other  divisions, 
chiefly  historical,  are  plainly  mai'ked  by  notices  of  time  prefixed, 
26.  i:  27.  i:  36.  i:  37.  1;  and  that  two  other  portions  are  in 
themselves  sufficiently  distinct,  29.  i:  45.  i;  thus  forming  five 
books,  namely: 

i.  The  introduction,  i.  ii.  Reproofs  of  the  sins  of  the  Jews,  2.-24., 
consisting  of  seven  sections,  namely,  2.:  3.-6.:  7. -10.:  11. -13.:  14.-17. 
18:  17.  19-20.:  and  21.-24.  iii.  A  general  view  of  all  nations,  Che 
heathen  as  well  as  the  people  of  Israel,  consisting  of  two  sections, 
25.  and  26.-49.,  ^^'ith  a  historical  appendix  of  three  sections,  26., 
27.,  and  28.,  29.  iv.  Two  sections  picturing  the  hopes  of  brighter 
times,  30.,  31,,  and  32,,  33,;  to  wliich,  as  in  the  last  book,  is  added 
a  historical  appendix  in  three  sections,  34.  1-7:  34.  8-22:  and  35. 
V.  The  conclusion,  in  two  sections,  36.  and  45.  All  this  Ewald  sup- 
poses to  have  been  arranged  in  Palestine  during  the  short  interva. 
of  rest  between  the  taking  of  the  city  and  the  departure  of  Jeremiali 
into  Egypt;  in  which  country,  after  some  interval,  he  considers 
<he  prophet  to  have  written  three  sections,  namely,  37--39':  4o.-4>'- 


JEREMIAH  :   CO^'TE^-TS.  497 

and  44.,  together  with  46.  13-26,  completing  his  earlier  prophecy 
respecting  E<j>ipt ;  and  to  have  made,  perhaps,  some  additions  to 
other  parts  previously  written. 

Jeremiah  professes  to  be  the  author  of  all  these  predictions,  but 
some  of  them  were  written  by  his  disciple,  i.  i,  4,  6,  9:  25.  13:  29. 
i:  30.  2:  51.  60:  45,  T. 

He  has  sometimes  been  regarded  as  a  prophet  to  the  Gentiles 
(r.  5-10).  He  certainly  delivered  many  predictions  that  refer  to 
foreign  nations,  and  his  predictions  were  published  to  those  nations 
themselves  (27.  3);  but  it  is  to  Jerusalem  chiefly  he  was  sent. 

He  foretold  the  fate  of  Zedekiah,  ^  the  precise  time  of  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,^  and  the  return  of  the  Jews.*^  The  downfall  of 
Babylon^  and  of  many  nations^  is  also  foretold  in  predictions,  the 
successive  completion  of  which  kept  up  the  faith  of  the  Jews  in 
those  that  refer  to  the  Messiah. ^  He  foretells  very  clearly  the  abro- 
gation of  the  Mosaic  law;  speaks  of  the  ark  as  no  more  remembered; 
foretells  the  propagation  of  a  more  spiritual  religion  than  the  old; 
the  mediatorial  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  whom  he  calls  "  Jehovaii 
our  righteousness;"  describes  the  efl&cacy  of  his  atonement;  the 
excellence  of  the  gospel  in  giving  holiness  as  well  as  pardon;  the 
call  of  the  Gentiles;  and  the  final  salvation  of  Isi-ael.° 

The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiali. 

This  book  is  a  kind  of  appendix  to  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  of 
which,  in  the  original  Scriptures,  it  formed  part.  It  expresses  with 
pathetic  tenderness  the  prophet's  grief  for  the  desolation  of  the 
city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem,  the  capti^^ty  of  the  people,  the 
miseries  of  famine,  the  cessation  of  public  worship,  and  the  other 
calamities  with  which  his  countrymen  had  been  visited  for  their 
sins.  The  leading  object  was,  to  teach  the  suffering  Jews  neither 
to  despise  "  the  chastening  of  the  Lord,"  nor  to  "faint"  when  "  re- 
buked of  him,"  but  to  tiirn  to  God  with  deep  repentance,  to  confess 
their  sin's,  and  humbly  look  to  him  alone  for  pardon  and  deliverance. 

No  book  of  Scripture  is  more  rich  in  expressions  of  patriotic 
feeling,  or  of  the  penitence  and  trust  which  become  an  aflSicted 
Christian. 

The  form  of  these  poems  is  strictly  regular.     With  the  exception 

"  34.  2,  3:  compare  2  Chron.  36.  19:  2  Kings  25.  5 :  Jer.  52.  11. 
^  25.  II,  12  (see  Dan.  9.  2).  "  29.  ic-14  (Ez.  i.  i). 

^  Jer.  25.  12.  *  See  (^Pt.  ii.  §  77). 

f  23.  3-8:  30.  9:  31.  15:  32.  36:  33.  26. 

e  3.  15-18:  31.  3i-34(see  Heb.  10.  15):  23.  5,  6:  31.  31-34:  33-  8 
(Heb.  8.  8-13):  jO.  4,  5:  19.  20. 


498  JEREMIAH:   HABAKKUK. 

of  the  last  (chap,  5),  they  are  in  the  original  Hebrew  alphabetical 
acrostics,  in  which  every  stanza  begins  with  a  new  letter.  The 
third  has  this  further  peculiarity,  that  all  the  three  lines  in  each 
stanza  have  the  same  letter  at  the  commencement. 

As  a  composition,  this  book  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety  of 
pathetic  images  it  contains ;  expressive  of  the  deepest  sorrow,  and 
worthy  of  the  subject  which  they  are  designed  to  illustrate. 

The  Booh  of  Ilahahkuh,  B.C.  612-598. 

91.  Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  of  the  parentage  and 
life  of  Habakkuk  ;  but  from  the  fact  that  he  makes  no  men- 
tion of  Assyria,  and  speaks  of  the  Chaldsean  invasion  as  just 
at  hand,  it  is  concluded  that  he  prophesied  in  Judah  during 
the  reign  of  Jehoahaz  and  Jehoiakim,  shortly  before  the 
invasion  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (i,  5:  2.  3  :  3.  2,  16-19).  He  was 
therefore  contemporary  with  Jeremiah,  and  it  is  said  that  he 
remained  amidst  the  desolation  of  his  country  rather  than 
follow  his  brethren  into  captivity.  In  the  days  of  Eusebius, 
his  tomb  was  shown  at  Bela  in  Judwh. 

This  book  was  evidently  composed  by  him  (i.  i:  2,  i,  2),  and  is 
quoted  as  the  work  of  an  inspired  prophet  by  the  evangelical 
writers,  Heb.  10.  37,  38:  Rom.  i.  17:  Gal.  3.  11:  Acts  13.  41. 

Of  all  the  nations  who  afflicted  the  Jews,  and  in  them  the  church 
of  God,  the  chief  were  the  Assyrians,  the  Chaldaoans,  and  the 
Edomites;  and  three  of  the  prophets  were  commissioned  specially 
to  pronounce  their  destruction.  Nahum  foretells  the  destruction  of 
the  Assyrians;  Habakkuk,  that  of  the  Chalda^ans;  and  pi-esently  we 
shall  find  Obadiah  foretelling  the  destruction  of  Edom. 

The  prophet  begins  by  lamenting  the  iniquities  and  lawless 
violence  that  prevailed  among  the  Jews.  God  then  declares  that  he 
will  work  a  strange  work  in  their  days,  and  raise  up  the  Chald  scans, 
then  probably  a  friendly  nation,  who  should  march  through  the 
breadth  of  then*  land  and  take  possession  of  its  dwellings.  In  this 
description,  the  prophet  gives  the  history  of  the  three  invasions  (in 
the  reigns  of  Jehoiakim,  Jeconiah,  and  Zedekiah)  ;  foretells  the 
fierceness  of  their  attack  and  the  rapidity  of  their  victories ;  he  then 
briefly  contrasts  the  scene ;  points  to  the  pride  and  false  confidence 
of  the  victors,  and  indicates  clearly  "the  change"  and  insanity  of 
Nebuchadnezzar;  the  prophet  humbly  expostulating  with  God  for 
inflicting  such  judgments  upon  his  people  by  a  nation  more  wicked 
than  themselves. 

He  then  receives  and  communicates  God's  answer  to  his  expos- 
tulation, to  the  effecfthat  the  vision,  though  it  tarry,  shall  surely 


I 


HABAKKUK  :   DANIEL.  499 

come:  that  the  just  shall  live  by  their  faith,  and  are  to  wait  for  it. 
He  theu  predicts  the  judgments  that  are  to  befall  the  Chaldseans  for 
their  cruelty  and  idolatry;  their  gi^aven  images  cannot  profit;  but 
the  Lord  only  "in  his  holy  temple"  ('2). 

The  prophet,  hearing  these  promises  and  threatenings,  concludes 
his  book  with  a  sublime  song,  both  of  praise  and  of  prayer.  He 
celebrates  past  displays  of  the  power  and  grace  of  Jehovah,^  suppH- 
cates  God  for  the  speedy  deliverance  of  his  people,  and  closes  by 
expressing  a  confidence  in  God  which  no  change  can  destroy.  This 
psalm,  which  was  evidently  intended  for  use  in  public  worship,  was 
designed  to  afford  consolation  to  the  pious  Jews  vmder  their 
approaching  calamities. 

Ancient  Jewish  writers  apply  2.  3  to  the  times  of  the  Messiah, 
and  the  apostle  regards  it  as  ha\Tiig  a  still  future  fulfilment,  Heb. 
10.  37,  38.  In  fact,  as  faith — patient  waiting  for  God,  and  trust  in 
him — is  the  great  principle  of  the  di\-ine  life,  so,  in  every  age, 
complete  salvation  has  been  a  matter  of  faith  rather  than  of  sight. 
The  Christian  chai-acter  is,  that  "he  lives  by  faith;"  and  in  relation 
to  the  promised  deliverance  from  sin  and  all  its  fruits  his  attitude 
is,  "that  he  waits  for  it." 

See  Rom.  i.  17:  Gal.  3.  2:  Rom.  5.1-3:  i  Cor.  i.  7. 

The  Book  of  Daniel  (e.g.  606-534). 
92.  Of  Daniel,  little  is  known  beyond  what  may  be  gathered 
Daniel's         from  his  own  writings.     He  was  not  a  j)riest,  like 
history,  Jeremiah   and   Ezekiel ;    but,  like   Isaiah,   of  the 

tribe  of  Judah,  and  probably  of  the  royal  house,  Dan.  i.  6,  3. 
He  was  carried  to  Babylon  in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim 
{i.  e.,  B.  c.  606),  eight  years  before  Ezekiel,  and  probably  be- 
tween the  twelfth  (Ignatius)  or  the  eighteenth  year  (Chry- 
sostom)  of  his  age,  i.  4.  There  he  was  placed  in  the  court  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  became  acquainted  with  the  science  of 
the  Chaldees,  compared  with  whom,  however,  God  gave  him, 
as  he  records,  superior  wisdom.  By  Nebuchadnezzar  he 
was  raised  to  high  rank  and  great  power ;  a  position  he  re- 
tained, though  not  uninterruptedly,  under  both  the  Baby- 
lonish and  Persian  dynasties.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
having  prophesied  during  the  whole  of  the  captivity  (i.  21) ; 
and  his  last  prophecy  being  delivered  two  years  later,  in  the 
third  year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus. 

*  Teman  is  Edom ;  Cushan,  part  of  Arabia  (Chusistan) :  see  also 
Numb.  13,  15:  Exod.  15.  15:  Numb.  31.  2-ri:  Judg.  3.  10:  7.  i. 


600  DANIEL. 

The  first  event  wliicli  gained  Daniel  influence  in  the  couii,  of 
Chronology  Babylon  was  the  disclosure  and  explanation  of  the 
of  his  book,  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  This  occurred  in  the  second 
year  of  the  sole  reign  of  that  monax'ch,  i.  e.,  in  603.  Three  and 
twenty  years  later,  as  Usher  thinks  (B.C.  580),  his  companions  were 
delivered  from  the  burning  furnace  (3);  Daniel  himself  being 
probably  engaged  elsewhere  at  the  time  in  the  aflfaii'S  of  the  empire. 
Ten  years  later  occm-red  the  second  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (4.) ; 
and  during  the  seven  years  of  his  madness  Daniel,  it  is  thought, 
acted  as  viceroy.  The  date  of  the  events  recorded  in  chap.  5  is 
B.C.  538,  towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Belshazzar,  when  it 
appears  Daniel  was  in  private  life,  ver.  12,  13.  That  night  the 
king  was  slain  and  the  dynasty  changed.  The  dignity  which 
Belshazzar  conferred  on  Daniel  in  the  last  horns  of  his  monarchy 
was  confirmed  by  Darius  and  Cyrus. 

The  book,  it  will  be  seen,  is  divided  into  two  parts;  the  histoincal, 
^.  .  .  I. -6.,  and  the  prophetic,  7.-12.  Chaps.  2.  4:-7,  ai-ewi'itten 

in  Chaldee;  the  rest  in  Hebrew.  The  latter  half  of  the 
book  is  avowedly  written  by  Daniel.  In  the  former  part  he  is  spoken 
of  in  the  third  person;  but  he  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  the 
author  of  the  whole,  Ezekiel  speaks  of  him  (B.C.  584)  as  a  shhiing 
example  of  upiightness  and  wisdom,  ranking  him  with  Noah  and 
Job,  14.  14,  18,  20:  28.  23.  Our  Loi'd  quotes  him  as  a  prophet, 
Matt.  24.  15.  Paul  alludes  to  him  in  Heb.  11.  33,  34;  and  in 
the  Apocalypse,  John  takes  his  language  as  the  model  of  his 
own.  The  fullest  discussion  of  the  genuineness  of  this  book  may 
be  seen  in  the  Treatise  of  Hengstenberg  on  Daniel,  and  in  the 
general  Introduction  of  Havernick;  the  foi-mer  of  which  has  been 
published  in  English,  and  is  epitomized  in  Home  (Introd.) 

The  later  portion  of  the  book  is  divisible,  hke  the  earlier,  into 
periods.  The  first  prophetic  vision  occurred  in  the  first  year  of 
Belshazzar  (555  B.C.),  7.;  the  second,  two  years  later  (553),  8.;  the 
third,  in  the  first  year  of  Darius  the  Mede  (538),  9.;  and  the  last, 
in  the  third  year  of  Cyrus  (534),  10. -12.  The  dream  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar (2.)  is  also  prophetic. 

The  predictions  of  this  book  have  much  of  the  distinctness  of 

,      history,  and  have  long  formed  an  important  part  of  the 

evidence   of  Scripture.      From   Porphyry   downwards, 

indeed,  the  only  resource  of  infidelity  has  been  to  maintain  that 

they  were  written  after  the  events  they  describe;    a  subterfuge, 

entirely  unfounded  in  fact. 

Chap.  2  contains  a  brief  history  of  the  kingdoms  which  form  the 
chief  subject  of  the  book.  The  image  represents  the  Babylonian 
monai'chy    und«r    tlie    dynasty    of    Nebuchadnezzai-,    the    Medo- 


DANIEL  :   PREDICTIONS.  50i 

Pci-sian  empire,  the  Grecian,  and  the  Eoman.  The  last  is  seen 
divided  into  ten  kingdoms,  and  gives  way  to  the  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah,  represented  by  a  stone  cut  out  without  hands— of  mean, 
yet  mii'aculous  origin;  mighty  as  a  moimtain,  and,  finally  superior 
to  the  finest  metals,  the  most  splendid  earthly  thrones.  In  later 
chapters,  one  or  other  of  these  kingdoms  again  and  again  appears. 

In  chap.  7,  the  first  four  of  these  kingdoms  are  represented  by 
beasts,  all  highly  significant.  Of  the  ten  kingdoms  into  which  the 
fourth  is  divided,  three  are  subdued  by  a  little  horn,  or  the  papal 
power,  ver.  8.  That  power  (of  which  we  read  again  subsequently) 
exercises  its  tyranny  for  1260  years,  and  then  comes  the  triumph  of 
the  saints.  This  view  of  the  four  empires  has  special  reference  to 
their  religious  connexions,  as  the  former  view  had  to  their  political. 

In  chap.  8,  we  have  the  history  of  the  Medo-Persian  and  Grecian 
empires,  beginning  Avith  Cyrus  and  Alexander :  the  ram  with  two 
horns,  the  one  greater  than  the  other,  representing  the  Persian  and 
Median  dynasty,  with  its  conquests,  ver.  4,  and  overthrow  by 
Alexander,  the  notable  horn:  his  conquests,  and  the  division  of 
his  kingdom  into  four  parts,  out  of  which  comes  a  little  horn, 
probably  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  a  false  crafty  tyrant.  This  view  of 
the  "  little  horn,"  of  chap.  3,  is  sustained  by  nearly  all  antiquity; 
but  there  are  also  reasons  for  concluding  that  this  application  of  it 
was  precursive  and  partial,  the  complete  fulfilment  of  the  pre- 
diction taking  place  \mder  the  Roman  power. 

Chap.  9  foretells  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  In  seven  weeks,  i.e. 
forty-nine  years,  reckoning  from  the  decree  of  Artaxerxes,  Ezr. 
7.  8-1 1,  B.  c.  457;  the  walls  and  the  city  were  to  be  rebuilt,  though 
m  troublous  times.  In  sixty-two  weeks  (434  years),  Christ  was  to 
appeal',  in  his  ministry,  and  in  the  midst  of  one  week,  i.  e.,  about 
three  and  a-half  years,  he  was  to  be  cut  off. 

Chap.  10  represents  the  opposition  of  the  prince  of  Persia  to  the 
decree  of  Cyrus,  in  favour  of  the  Jews,  and  the  successful  struggle 
against  him  of  Michael,  the  prince,  see  Rev.  12.  7. 

In  chap.  II,  the  history  of  Persia  and  Greece  is  resumed — with 
important  additions.  Four  kings  of  Persia  (Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus, 
Smerdis,  Darius,  and  Xerxes),  are  foretold,  and  the  rise  of  Alex- 
ander. Then  follows  the  history  of  his  kingdom,  and  of  his  suc- 
cessors in  Egypt  (the  south),  andSyria  (the  north),  till  the  times 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  Ptolemy  Philometer,  ver.  25.  Their 
character  and  destinies  are  clearly  defined.  In  ver.  30,  the  conquest 
of  Syria  by  the  Romans  is  foretold;  and  thence  to  the  end  of  the  book 
we  have  a  series  of  predictions,  of  which  the  fulfilment  is  found  by 
some  few  in  the  history  of  Antiochus,  but  by  most  in  the  history  of 
tl;e  church  of  Christ,  and  of  the  papacy  till  the  end  of  time.     The 


502  DANIEL:   EZEKIEL. 

later  verses  of  chap,  ii,  are  certainly  applied  in  2  Thess.  2,  to 
Antichrist,  and  the  1260  years  of  chap.  12,  are  referred  to  in  the 
Apocah^pse,  as  the  time  after  which  a  great  deliverance  is  to  be 
effected  for  the  church. 

For  the  fullest  literal  and  restricted  exposition  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel,  see  Moses  Stuart's  Commentary,  and  Dr.  Lee's  "  Events 
and  Times  of  the  Visions  of  Daniel."  For  an  extended  discussion 
of  its  application  to  the  events  of  the  gospel  economy,  with  a  full 
examination  of  its  references  to  early  profane  history,  see  Birks  on 
the  ''-first  two,"  and  on  the  "  two  later"  visions  of  Daniel.  For  a 
popular  and  striking  exhibition  of  the  visions  and  their  fulfilment, 
see  Bp.  Newton,  Diss.  13-17,  and  Dr.  Keith's  Evidence  of  Prophecy. 
To  tmderstand  much  of  the  phraseology  of  the  Book,  and,  as  most 
hold,  of  its  facts,  compare  Rev.  chaps.  11-20. 

Quite  apart  from  the  significancy  of  these  predictions,  are  many 
Spiritual  °^  ^^®  moral  and  spiritual  lessons  of  this  portion  of 

lessons.  inspired  truth.     It  was  written  in  the  darkness  of  the 

most  terrible  captivity  which  the  people  of  God  had  ever  known, 
and  yet  it  contains  some  of  the  grandest  revelations  of  the  future 
glories  of  the  church,  .  .  .  Everywhere,  moreover,  the  providence 
of  God  is  seen,  working  or  oveiTuling  all  for  her  good.  .  .  .  The 
predictions  of  the  book  extend  from  the  establishment  of  the  Medo- 
Persian  monarchy  to  the  general  resurrection,  the  faith  of  believers 
being  confirmed  by  the  fulfilment  of  intermediate  predictions,  fore- 
telling the  speedy  punishment  of  two  proud  and  impious  kings,  and 

the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem The  history  of  the  temptations 

of 'Daniel  and  his  companions,  their  constancy  and  deliverance,  is 
highly  instructive,  illustrating  at  once  the  mystery  of  the  Divine 
dispensations,  and  the  spirit  of  fidelity  and  patience  with  which  good 
men  submit  to  them.  .  .  .  The  promise  of  the  rebuilding  of  the 
temple  was  given  to  a  penitent  and  prayerful  prophet,  the  promise 
more  comprehensive  than  the  prayer  he  presented.  He  asked  con- 
cerning Jerusalem:  the  answer  told  also  of  Messiah  the  Piincc. 
The  clear  announcement  of  Chiist's  atonement,  and  of  the  time  when 
he  was  to  appear  (9.  24-26) ;  his  future  dignity,  and  his  coming  in  the 
clouds  of  heaven  (see  Acts  i.  11),  make  this  poi-tion  of  the  book 
of  the  deepest  interest  to  the  church. 

TJie  Booh  of  the  Prophet  EzeJciel,  B.C.  595-574. 
93.  Ezekiel  (Ood  will  strengthen,  or  prevail)  was,  like  Jere- 
miah, a  priest  as  well  as  a  prophet.  He  was  carried  captive 
with  Jehoiakim  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  B.C.  599,  eleven  years 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  All  his  prophecies 
were  delivered  in  Chaklcea,  on  the  river  Chebar  (Khabur)^ 


EZEKIEL,  603 

which  falls  into  the  Euphrates  at  Carchemish,  about  200 
miles  north  of  Babylon.  Here  he  resided  (i .  1:8.  i),  and  here 
his  wife  died  (24.  18).  Tradition  says  that  he  was  put  to 
death  by  one  of  his  fellow-exiles,  a  leader  among  them, 
whose  idolatries  he  had  rebuked ;  and  in  the  middle  ages 
what  was  called  his  tomb  was  shown,  not  far  from  Bagdad. 

Ezekiel  commenced  prophesying  in  the  fifth  year  after  the  cap- 
tivity of  Jehoiakim  (i,  2),  that  is,  in  Zedekiah's  reign,  and  con- 
tinued till  at  least  the  twenty-seventh  year  of  his  own  captivity 
(29.  17).  The  year  of  his  first  prophesying  was  also  the  thirtieth 
from  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Nabopolassar  and  from  the 
era  of  Josiah's  reform.  To. one  of  these  facts,  or  perhaps  to  his 
own  age  (see  Numb.  4.  3),  he  refers  in  chap,  i.  His  influence  with 
the  people  is  obvious,  from  the  numerous  visits  paid  to  him  by  the 
elders,  who  came  to  inquire  what  message  God  had  sent  through 
him  (8.  i:  14.  i:  20.  r,  etc.) 

His  w-ritings  show  remarkable  vigour,  and  he  was  evidently  well 
fitted  to  oppose  "the  people  of  stubborn  front  and  hard  heart,"  to 
whom  he  was  sent.  His  characteristic,  however,  was  the  subordi- 
nation of  his  whole  life  to  his  work.  He  ever  thinks  and  feels  as 
the  prophet.  In  this  respect  his  writings  contrast  remarkably  with 
those  of  his  contemporary  Jeremiah,  whose  personal  history  and 
feelings  are  frequently  recorded.  That  he  was,  nevertheless,  a  man 
of  strong  feehng  is  clear  fi*om  the  brief  record  he  has  given  of  his 
wife's  death  (24.  15-18). 

The  central  point  of  his  predictions  is  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

Ezekiel's  predictions  were  dehvered  partly  before,  and  partly 
after,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  Before  this  event,  his  chief 
object  was  to  call  to  repentance  those  living  in  careless  security;  to 
warn  them  against  indulging  the  hope  that,  by  the  help  of  the 
Egyptians,  the  Babylonian  yoke  would  be  shaken  off  (17.  15-17: 
compare  Jer.  37.  7) ;  and  to  assure  them  that  the  destruction  of 
their  city  and  temple  was  inevitable  and  fast  approaching.  After 
this  event,  his  principal  care  was  to  console  the  exiled  Jews  by 
promises  of  future  deliverance  and  restoration  to  their  own  land; 
and  to  encourage  them  by  assiuances  of  future  blessings.  His  pre- 
dictions against  foreign  nations  come  between  these  two  great 
divisions;  having  been  for  the  most  part  uttered  during  the  in- 
terval between  the  Divine  intimation  that  Nebuchadnezzar  was 
besieging  Jerusalem  (24.  2)  and  the  arrival  of  the  news  that  he  had 
taken  it  (33.  21).  The  periods  at  which  the  predictions  on  these 
different  subjects  were  delivered  are  frequently  noted. 


504  ezekiel:  divisioxs. 

The  book  is  divided  by  Havernick  into  nine  sections,  and  it  seems 
probable  that  the  arrangement  was  made  by  Ezekiel  himself. 

r.  Ezekiei's  call  to  the  prophetic  office,  1.-3.  21.  Here  God 
appears,  in  a  cloxid,  and  from  between  the  cherubim  gives  the 
prophet  a  commission ;  shows  him  a  roll  inscribed  with  prophetical 
characters,  and  bids  him  eat  it,  that  is,  digest  its  contents. 

2.  Predictions  and  symbolical  representations,  foretelling  the 
approaching  destruction  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  3.  22-7.  The 
390  years  of  Israel's  defection,  and  the  forty  yeai's  dm-ing  which 
Judah  had  been  specially  rebellious,  are  set  forth  in  the  typical 
siege  of  chap.  4.  The  threefold  judgments  of  pestilence,  sword, 
and  dispersion,  are  set  forth  by  the  symbolical  representations  of 
chap.  5. 

3.  Visions  presented  to  the  prophet  a  year  and  two  months  later 
than  the  former,  in  which  he  is  shown  the  temple  polluted  by  the 
worship  of  Tbammuz  (afterwards  Adonis) ;  the  worshippers  turning, 
like  Persian  idolaters,  to  the  east:  the  consequent  judgment  on 
Jerusalem  and  the  priests,  a  few  faithful  being  marked  for  ex- 
emption (9.)  ;  and  closing  with  promises  of  happier  times  and  a 
purer  worship,  8. -11. — Mark  how  the  symbol  of  the  Divine  presence 
is  gradually  withdrawn :  it  moves  from  the  temple  first,  and  then 
from  the  city. 

4.  Specific  reproofs  and  warnings,  12. -19.  Here  he  shows  the 
captives  by  two  signs  (12.)  what  was  about  to  be  the  fate  of  the 
people ;  exposes  the  false  prophets  who,  at  Jerusalem  and  at 
Babylon  (Jer.  23.  16:  29.  8),  spoke  of  peace  and  rest,  Ezek.  13.  18; 
repeats  his  threatenings  to  some  elders  who  visited  him  in  the  hope 
of  getting  something  from  him.  that  might  contradict  Jeremiah,  14.; 
sets  forth  Israel  as  a  fruitless  vine  (15.)^  aiid  as  a  base  adulteress 
(16).  "He  showsby  one  eagle  (Nebuchadnezzar),  who  had  taken 
away  the  top  of  the  cedar  (Jehoiakim),  and  by  another  eagle 
(Pharaoh),  to  whom  the  vine  that  was  left  (Zedekiah)  was  turning, 
the  uprooting  of  the  whole;  and,  digressing  to  upbraid  Zedekiah 
for  the  oath  which  he  was  now  breaking  (compare  ver.  15  with 
2  Chron.  36.  13),  he  predicts  the  replanting  and  flounshing  of  the 
whole  under  Messiah  the  Branch""'  (17).  He  shows  that  this  suf- 
fering is  the  consequence  of  their  own  acts  (18.),  and  not  only  of  the 
acts  of  their  fathers. 

5.  Another  series  of  warnings,  given  about  a  year  later,  when 
Zedekiah  had  revolted  to  Egypt:  Zedekiah  to  be  overthrown, 
Jehoiakim  to  be  raised  (21.  26:  see  17.  15),  and  all  future  changes 
preparing  for  Christ  (21.  27),  20.-23. 

6.  Predictions  uttered  two  yeai's  and  five  months  later,  on  the 

*  Leifchild. 


EZEKIEL  :   OBADIAH.  505 

very  day  wlien  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  commenced  (24.  i:  compare 
2  Kings  25.  i),  announcing  its  complete  overthrow  (24).  His  own 
wife  removed  on  that  day;  he  weeps  not,  as  a  sign  to  them  that  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  would  be  to  them  a  hardening  calamity,  leaving 
no  time  or  opportunity  for  mourning. 

7.  Predictions  against  foreign  nations  (25.-32.),  extending  over  a 
period  of  three  years,  during  which  time  Jerusalem  was  besieged, 
and  no  prophecy  was  delivered  against  Israel:  see  24.  27.  The 
speedy  accomplishment  of  many  of  these  predictions,  besides  giving 
evidence  to  all  ages  of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  assured  the  Israelites 
of  the  certain  accomplishment  of  the  rest, 

8.  His  predictions  concerning  Israel  renewed;  the  promised  sign 
(a  refugee  from  Jerusalem)  having  come  (compare  24.  26  and  33. 
21).  Exhortations  to  repentance;  a  prophecy  against  Edom;  the 
triumph  of  Israel  and  the  progress  of  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth 
foretold  (33.-39)- 

9.  Symbolic  representations  of  the  Messianic  times ;  the  grandeur 
and  beauty  of  the  new  city  and  temple  (40.-48). 

These  closing  chapters  are  confessedly  obscm-e.  Some  regard 
them  as  descriptive  of  what  Solomon's  temple  was;  others,  of  what 
the  second  temple  should  be ;  and  others,  still,  of  a  glorious  building 
hereafter  to  be  reared.  From  the  description  itself,  from  the  analo- 
gous language  of  the  last  chapters  of  Revelation,  and  from  the 
general  tenor  of  prophetic  language,  the  whole  is  deemed  by  most 
authorities  (Havernick,  Fairbaim,  and  others)  to  be  descriptive  of 
the  vastness,  glory,  and  certain  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 


Tlie  Booh  of  Oladiah,  B.C.  588-583. 

94.  The  time  when  Obadiah  delivered  his  prophecy  is 
somewhat  uncertain,  but  it  was  probably  between  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldaeans  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar (588  B.C.)  and  the  conquest  of  Edom,  which  took 
place  five  years  afterwards.  Others  give  an  earlier  date  to 
this  book  (time  of  Hezekiah),  though  with  less  reason.  The 
personal  history  of  the  prophet  is  not  known,  but  several 
eminent  persons  of  his  name  are  mentioned  in  Scripture.  A 
contemporary  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  he  treats  of  the  same 
subjects.  Between  the  writings  of  the  three  there  is  an  occa- 
sional resemblance.* 

*  Obad.  I. -4.:  Jer.  49.  14-16:  Obad.  6.  8:  Jer.  49.9,  10:  Obad.  9: 
Ezek.  25.  13,  ver.  12,  and  Ezek.  35.  15. 

Z 


506  obadiah:  the  captivity. 

Israel  had  no  gi'eater  enemy  than  the  Edomites.  They  were 
proud  of  their  wisdom,  ver.  8,  and  of  their  rocky  and  impregnable 
position,  ver.  3.  But  the  prophet  foretells  the  uncovering  of  their 
treasures,  and  rebukes  their  unkind  treatment  of  the  Jews,  their 
kinsmen,  in  rejoicing  over  their  calamities  and  encouraging  Nebu- 
chadnezzar utterly  to  exterminate  them  (Psa.  137.  7);  for  all  which 
an  early  day  of  retribution  was  to  come:  "As  thou  hast  done  it 
shall  be  done  unto  thee,"  ver.  15. 

But  the  chosen  race  themselves  had  just  been  carried  into  cap- 
tivity; the  holy  land  was  deserted;  and  the  chastisement  denounced 
against  the  Edomites  might  therefore  appear  not  to  differ  from  that 
which  had  already  been  inflicted  upon  the  seed  of  Jacob.  The 
prophet  therefore  goes  on  to  declare  that  Edom  should  be  as 
though  it  had  never  been,  and  should  be  swallowed  up  for  ever  (a 
prophecy  which  has  been  remarkably  fulfilled_) ;  v/hile  Israel  should 
rise  again  from  her  present  fall ;  should  repossess  not  only  her  ovm 
land,  but  also  Philistia  and  Edom;  and  finally  rejoice  in  the  holy 
reign  of  the  promised  Messiah.      See  Pt.  i.  §  188. 

Compare  Amos  i.  11,  12;  9.  11-15:  Joel  3,  19,  20:  Ezek.  35. 

The  Captivity. 

The  Babylonish  captivity  was  a  remarkable,  and,  at  the 
ticQe  it  occurred,  an  unexampled  dispensation  of  Providence. 
The  people  of  Israel,  in  the  time  of  the  judges,  had  often 
been  brought  under  their  enemies ;  and  the  ark,  the  symbol 
of  God's  presence,  had  once  forsaken  the  tabernacle  of  Shiloh, 
and  had  been  carried  away  into  the  land  of  the  Philistines ; 
but  the  captivity  was  attended  with  much  heavier  calamities. 

The  whole  land  was  now  desolated,  the  ark  destroyed,  the 
temple  burned  to  the  ground,  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem  laid  waste; 
while  the  body  of  the  people  were  delivered  into  the  hands  of  bar- 
barous enemies,  and  taken  out  of  their  own  into  a  distant  country. 
It  is  not  easy  to  describe  tho  feelings  of  distress  and  amazement  of 
the  faithful  servants  of  God  whose  lot  was  cast  in  these  dark  and 
calamitous  times.  But  in  the  short  book  of  the  "Lamentations" 
of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  who  lived  in  the  midst  of  these  scenes, 
there  is  a  heart-touching  memorial  of  them,  which  gives  a  faithful 
delineation  of  this  visitation  and  of  its  results. 

Yet,  painful  as  these  events  were,  they  were  remarkably  over- 
ruled for  tlie  further  development  of  tlie  pui-poses  of  God  and  the 
advancement  of  true  religion.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon 
tended  gi'catly  to  cure  tnem  of  the  sin  of  idolatry,  to  which  they 
had  been   addicted  for  so  many  ages;   a  result  which  all  their 


THE  CAPTIVITY.  507 

previous  warnings,  corrections,  and  judgments,  had  failed  to  pro- 
duce. It  diffused  the  fear  of  Jehovah  among  the  heathen,  and 
elicited  from  Cyrus,  from  Nebuchadnezzar,  from  Darius,  acknow- 
ledgments of  his  perfections  and  claims.  It  also  prepared  the  way 
for  the  coming  of  Christ  and  the  dispensation  of  the  gospel,  by 
taking  away  many  of  those  things  wherein  consisted  the  glory  of 
the  Jewish  dispensation,  and  by  causing  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews 
throughout  a  great  part  of  the  known  world.  Those  dispersed 
Jews,  carrying  with  them  the  holy  Scriptures  containing  the  pro- 
phecies of  the  Messiah,  became  the  means  of  diffusing  some  know- 
ledge of  the  true  religion,  and  of  raising,  to  some  extent,  a  general 
expectation  of  the  coming  of  the  Saviour. 

These  events  were  also  of  gi'eat  importance,  as  presenting  a 
striking  fulfilment  of  prophecy.  Long  before  the  desolation  and 
captivity  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  their  relative 
destinies  had  been  foretold.  "N^Tien  these  two  kingdoms  stood  up 
together  at  the  time  of  their  separation,  no  human  calculation 
could  have  determined  which  would  be  the  more  stable  or  pros- 
perous of  the  two.  That  of  Samaria  seemed  rather  to  have  the 
advantage,  considering  her  greater  territory  and  numbers.  But  the 
voice  of  prophecy  decided  the  question.  The  earliest  three  prophets 
who  refer  to  this  subject,  Hosea,  Amos,  and  Isaiah,  all  announce 
the  earlier  downfal  and  the  utter  desolation  of  Israel.  Israel  was 
to  be  "broken  within  threescore  and  five  years,"  and  to  ''cease 
from  being  a  people,"  Isa.  7.  6-8;  and  the  Assyrian  power  was  fore- 
shown, by  Hosea's  prediction,  to  be  the  instrument  of  the  Divine 
judgment,  Hos.  ii.  5,  etc. 

The  captivity  of  Judah  was  first  expressly  foretold  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  upon  the  occasion  of  his  displaying  to  the  ambassadors 
from  Babylon  his  treasures,  and  the  wealth  and  splendour  of  his 
kingdom,  Isa.  39.  2:  2  Chron.  32.  27,  And  the  fulness  of  the  pre- 
dictions on  the  subject  of  the  Babylonish  captivity  is  vex-y  remark- 
able. They  not  only  describe  the  calamity  which  was  about  to 
overwhelm  the  Jewish  people,  but  they  disclose  tlie  reasons  and 
Ijurposes  of  God's  providence  in  bringing  it  to  pass.  They  represent 
it  as  a  judicial  visitation  for  an  extent  of  sin  and  corruption  not 
otherwise  to  be  purged  away;  and  as  designed,  not  for  punishment 
to  their  destruction,  but  for  discipline  to  repentance  and  humilia- 
tion. They  foretell,  also,  the  time  of  its  continuance,  which  they 
limit  to  seventy  years,  and  its  issue,  together  with  the  penitent 
state  of  heart  and  the  course  of  events  on  which  that  issue  was  to 
depend.  The  restoration  of  Judah,  an  event  so  little  to  be  expected 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  things,  was  foretold  as  plainly  as  the 
captivity.     See  Isa.  14,  3:   44.  26-28:  45-  i-4,   I3:  Jer.  25.  9-135 

z2 


■308  iHE  restoration:  ezra. 

29.  10-14;   50.  4,  5:  51.:   Ezek.  II.  16,   17:  12.  15:  20.  34,  and 
other  passages. 

The  characteristic  pecuharities  of  prophecy  during  this 
period  have  been  already  noticed  (Part  ii.)  Its  extended 
range  and  expHcit  denunciations  against  the  heathen,  its 
cvangehcal  disclosures  of  a  coming  kingdom,  the  growing 
spirituality  of  its  precepts,  are  all  deeply  instructive,  and  are 
rendered  appropriate,  if  not  necessary,  by  the  depressed  con- 
dition of  the  Jewish  church. 

The  Bestoraticyn. 

Babylon  had  now  fallen,  as  had  been  foretold,  and  Daniel, 
there  is  reason  to  beheve,  stood  high  in  the  esteem  of  the 
conqueror  Cyrus.  To  that  monarch  he  j)robably  showed  the 
predictions  of  Isaiah,  and  now  that  at  the  end  of  seventy 
years  of  captivity  Cyrus  found  the  sovereign  power  in  his 
hands,  he  issued  a  decree,  in  which,  after  acknowledging  the 
supremacy  of  Jehovah,  he  gave  permission  to  the  Jews  in 
any  part  of  his  dominions  to  return  to  their  own  land,  and  to 
rebuild  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The  results  of 
this  decree,  and  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Jews  till  the 
close  of  the  Old  Testament  canon,  are  found  in  the  remaining 
books  of  the  Bible.  Attention  to  the  chronological  order  of 
the  books  is  important.  The  arrangement  wiU  be  found  in 
Pt.  ii.  §  6. 

Sec.  5.  The  Boohs  of  Ezra^  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Esther^  Nehemiahf 
Malachi. 

The  Booh  of  Ezra,  b.  c.  536-457. 

95.  Ezra  was  one  of  the  captives  at  Babylon,  where  he  was 
probably  born.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Seraiah,  the  chief 
priest,  who  was  slain  at  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  25, 
1 8-2 1 ),  and  therefore  a  descendant  of  Aaron.  He  was  a  "  ready 
scribe,"  or  rather  instructor,  in  the  law  of  God.  He  was  a 
man  of  deep  humihty  (9.  10-15),  of  fervent  zeal  for  God's 
honour  (7.  10 :  8.  21-23),  deeply  grieving  over  the  sins  of  the 
people,  and  sparing  no  pains  to  bring  them  to  repentance 
(9.  3  :  10.  6,  10).  He  joined  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  many 
years  after  their  return,  going  up  thither  with  the  second 
large  company. 


EZR-V.  509 

Part  of  the  book  (4.  8-6.  19:  7.  I--2  7,  is  wi-itten  iu  CLaldee,  and 
consists  chiefly  cf  conversations  or  decrees  in  that  tongue.  Ezra 
speaks  of  himself  as  the  author,  in  7.  27,  28:  8.  i,  25-29:  9.  5. 
The  whole  period  comprehended  in  the  book,  extends  from  536  to 
45  7  B.  c,  or  about  seventy-nine  years. 

The  history  in  this  book  consists  of  two  portions,  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  considerable  interval  of  time.  The  frst 
contains  the  history  of  the  returning  exiles,  and  of  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  temple,  which  had  been  decreed  by  Cyrus,  in  the  year 
S36  B.  c,  and  completed  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  in  the 
year  515  B.  c.  The  second  portion  contains  the  personal  history 
of  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem,  with  commission  from  Artaxerxes, 
in  the  year  45  7  B.  c. ;  and  his  exertions  for  the  reformation  of  the 
people. 

The  contents  of  the  book  may  be  divided  as  follows : 

(i. )  The  return  of  the  Jews  from  their  captivity  in  Babylon,  and  the 
rebuilding  of  the  temple. 

The  proclamation  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jenisalem  and 
the  temple,  chap.  i.  The  people  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel, 
the  grandson  of  king  Jehoiachin,  and  Joshua,  the  grandson  of 
Josedek,  with  then*  offerings  for  the  temple,  2.  Erection  of  the 
altar  of  burnt-offering;  and  laying  the  foundation  of  the  temple,  3. 
Opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  and  suspension  of  the  bmlding,  4. 
Prophecies  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah;  recommencement  of  the  build- 
ing; letter  of  the  Samaritans  to  Darius,  5.  Decree  of  Darius;  com- 
pletion and  dedication  of  the  temple,  6 . 

(ii.)  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  reformations  which  ho 
effected. 

Ezra's  commission  from  Artaxerxes;  and  his  journey  from  Babylon 
to  Jerusalem,  with  his  companions,  7,  8.  Ezra's  mourning  for  the 
sins  of  the  people;  and  confession  and  prayer,  9.  Repentance  and 
reformation  of  the  people,  ic. 

The  book  of  Ezra  should  be  read  in  connection  with  the  prophecie.^} 
of  Haggai  and  Zechariah. 

In  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon,  we  see  the  fulfilment  of 
the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  (44.  28),  and  Jeremiah  (25.  12:  29.  10); 
the  foi-mer  had  predicted  the  name  of  then-  deliverer,  and  the  latter 
the  exact  time  of  their  deliverance,  as  well  as  the  state  of  heart  witli 
which  it  should  be  accompanied.  This  restoration  of  the  Jewish 
church,  temple,  and  worship,  was  an  event  of  the  highest  conse- 
quence, as  tending  to  preserve  true  religion  in  the  world,  and  pre- 
paring the  way  for  the  appearance  of  the  Great  Deliverer,  an  ancestor 
of  whom,  Zerubbabel,  or  Sheshbazzar,  was  appointed  in  the  provi- 
dence of  God  to  lead  his  people  from  Babylon. 


510  EZRA  :  HAGGAI. 

This  deliveraxice  of  the  Jewish  people  is  much  spoken  of  by  the 
prophets  as  a  most  glorious  display  of  the  providence  of  God;  and, 
like  the  redemption  of  their  forefathers  out  of  Egypt,  it  may  be 
viewed  as  a  type  of  the  great  salvation  of  Christ,  and  of  the  joui'ney 
of  his  redeemed  people  to  the  heavenly  Canaan,  under  the  care  and 
guidance  of  God  their  Saviour,  Isa.  32.  2:  42.  16:  51.  11. 

Among  the  remarkable  dispensations  of  Providence  recorded  in 
this  history,  we  may  notice  especially  how  wonderfully  God  inclined 
the  hearts  of  several  heathen  princes,  Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Artaxerxes, 
to  favour  and  protect  his  people,  and  to  aid  them  in  the  work  of 
rebuilding  their  city  and  temple,  1:4:  6:  7.  Mark,  too,  how  God 
overruled  the  opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  the  decree  of  Darius 
being  much  more  favourable  than  that  of  Cyrus  (Ezr.  i.  and  5:  6.) 
There  is  also  another  display  of  God's  special  and  discriminating 
providence  in  fulfilment  of  his  promises  to  his  people.  Whilst  in 
the  land  of  Samaria,  colonies  of  strangers  had  been  planted,  which 
filled  the  territory  of  Israel  with  a  heathen  race,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  return  of  the  ancient  inhabitants;  it  appears  that,  in  the  land 
of  Jiuddh,  full  room  was  left  for  the  return  and  restoration  of  the 
Jews. 

Unlike  Nehemiah,  Ezra  seems  to  have  remained  at  Jeru- 
salem. He  is  said  to  have  lived  to  the  same  age  as  Moses, 
120  years;  and  is  esteemed  by  the  Jews  as  next  to  him  for 
the  services  he  rendered  to  their  religion.  He  appears  to 
have  exercised  civil  authority  for  nearly  twelve  years.  '  We 
read  of  him  in  the  next  book  as  emj^loyed  in  his  sacred  duties, 
and  zealously  co-operating  with  Nehemiah,  who  succeeded 
him  in  the  government,  in  promoting  the  reformation  of  the 
people. 

The  Booh  of  Ilafjgai,  B.C.  520-518. 

96.  Haggai  is  generally  thought  to  have  been  bora  in  the 
captivity,  and  to  have  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezr.  2.  2).  He  is  the  first  of  the  three  prophets  who 
flourished  among  the  Jews  after  their  return  to  Judaea,  and 
was  raised  up  by  God  to  encourage  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua 
the  high  priest  to  resume  the  building  of  the  temple,  which 
had  been  interrupted  for  nearly  fourteen  years  by  the 
Samaritans  and  others  artfully  attempting  to  defeat  the  edict 
of  Cyrus  (Ezr.  4.  24).  Though  this  interraption  was  now 
removed,  the  Jews  showed  no  desire  to  recommence  the 
work.     The  time  they  said  was  not  come  to  build  the  house 


HAGGAI.  511 

of  the  Lord.  They  were  more  anxious  to  build  and  adorn 
their  own  houses,  to  cultivate  their  fields,  and  multiply  their 
flocks.  This  worldhness,  however,  brought  its  own  punish- 
ment. They  "looked  for  much,"  and  "it  came  to  httle." 
Drought  and  mildew  were  sent  to  rebuke  their  neglect  of 
what  ought  to  have  been  their  first  work,  and  Haggai  and 
Zecliariah  were  raised  up  to  reform  and  encourage  them,  i. 
4-II  :  2.  15-19  :  Zech.  8.  9-12. 

This  book  contains  four  prophetic  messages  (r.  i:  2.  i,  10,  20), 
all  delivered  in  about  four  months.  They  are  so  brief,  that  they 
are  supposed  to  be  only  a  summary  of  the  original  prophecies. 

In  the  first,  Haggai  reproves  the  Jews  for  neglecting  the  temple, 
and  promises  that  the  Divine  favom*  shtill  attend  its  erection. 
Twenty  four  days  after  this  prophecy,  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua, 
and  all  the  people,  resumed  their  work,  and  were  encouraged  by  a 
gracious  message  from  God,  chap.  i. 

About  four  weeks  afterwards,  the  zeal  of  the  people  appears  to 
have  cooled;  and  many  doubts  arose  in  their  minds.  To  remove 
these,  Haggai  declares  that  the  Lord  of  hosts  is  with  them;  and 
that  the  glory  of  the  new  temple  shall  be  gi-eater  than  that  of  the 
formez",  2.  1-9. 

Two  months  afterwards.  Haggai  addresses  them  a  third  time, 
rebuking  their  hstlessness,  and  promising  them  the  Divine  blessing 
from  the  time  the  foundation  of  the  Lord's  house  was  laid, 
2.  10-19.  And  on  the  same  day  another  prophecy  was  delivered, 
addressed  to  Zerubbabel,  the  head  and  representative  of  the  family 
of  David,  and  the  individual  with  whom  the  genealogy  of  the 
Messiah  (through  both  Joseph  and  Mary:  see  Matt.  i.  12:  Luke 
3.27)  began  after  the  captivity,  promising  the  preservation  of  the 
people  of  God,  amidst  the  fall  and  ruin  of  the  kingdoms  of  the 
v\'orld,  2.  20-2?. 

These  signal  predictions,  which  gained  for  Haggai  the  character 
of  a  prophet  (Ez.  5.  i:  6.  14),  were  both  referred  by  the  Jews  to 
the  time  of  the  Messiah,  Eph.  2.  14:  Heb.  12.  26,  27  (Grotius). 
The  second  temple  was  to  witness  the  presence  of  the  Gi-eat  Teacher 
himself;  and  though  that  temple  was  nearly  wholly  rebuilt  by 
Herod,  this  was  a  very  gi-adual  work,  occupying  more  than  forty- 
;nx  years;  nor  did  Jewish  writers  ever  speak  of  Herod's  temple  in 
other  terms  than  as  the  second.  In  the  closing  prediction,  Christ 
himself  is  spoken  of  under  the  type  of  Zerubbabel ;  and  the  tem- 
poral commotions  which  preceded  his  first  coming,  and  are  to  pre- 
cede his  second,  are  represented  by  the  shaking  and  overthi-ow  of 
earthly  kingdoms. 


612  ZECHARIAH. 

The  Boole  of  ZecJiariaJi,  B.C.  520-510. 

97.  Zechariah,  the  son  of  Barachiali  and  grandson  of  Tddo, 
was  probably  of  the  priestly  tribe  (see  Neh.  12.  4),  and  re- 
turned from  Babylon,  when  quite  a  youth,  with  Zerubbabel 
and  Joshua.  Whether  Iddo  was  himself  a  prophet  is  not 
clear  (compare  Hebrew  and  LXX).  His  grandson,  Zechariah. 
began  to  prophesy  about  two  months  after  Haggai  (i.  i  : 
Ezr.  5.  I  :  6.  14:  Hag.  i.  i),  in  the  second  year  of  Darius 
Hystaspes,  and  continued  to  prophesy  for  two  years,  7.  i. 
He  had  the  same  general  object  as  Haggai,  to  encourage  and 
urge  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  temple.  The  Jews,  we  are  told^ 
"prospered  through  the  prophesying"  (Ez.  6.  14),  and  in 
about  six  years  the  temple  was  finished. 

Zechariah  collected  his  own  prophecies  (i.  9:  2.  2),  and  is  very 
frequently  quoted  in  the  New  Testament.  Indeed,  next  to  Isaiah, 
Zechariah  has  the  most  frequent  allusions  to  the  chai'acter  and 
coming  of  our  Lord. 

The  genuineness  of  the  closing  chps.,  9. -14.,  has  been  doubted. 
Mede  and  others  refer  them  to  Jeremiah,  deeming  the  reading  in 
Matt.  27.  9,  10,  and  internal  evidence,  in  favour  of  this  view. 
Jahn,  Blayney,  Hengstenberg,  and  others,  refer  the  whole  to 
Zechariah,  and  suppose  the  reading  to  be,  as  it  easily  might  be,  an 
error  of  copyists.'* 

While  the  immediate  object  of  Zechariah  was  to  encourage  the 
Jews  in  the  restoration  of  public  worship,  he  has  other  objects 
more  remote  and  important.  His  prophecies,  like  those  of  Daniel, 
extend  to  the  ''times  of  the  Gentiles;"  but  in  Zechariah,  the 
history  of  the  chosen  people  occupies  the  centre  of  his  predictions; 
and  that  history  is  set  forth  both  in  direct  pi-ophecy  and  in  sym- 
bolical acts  or  visions. 

As  Zechariah  aboimds  in  symbolical  imagery,  we  shall  give, 
instead  of  a  brief  summary,  an  outline  of  his  diflferent  visions,  with 
such  interpretations  as  are  approved  by  eminent  commentators. 

98.  The  book  of  Zechariah  may  be  divided  into  three  parts: — 

1.  Chaps.  1-6,  containing  nine  visions,  in  addition  to  the  warnings 
given  in  i.  i-6.  The  first  showing  that,  though  seventy  years  had 
elapsed  since  the  ninth  of  Zedekiah,  shortly  after  which  time  the 
temple  was  burned,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  earth  had  rest,  the  Jews 

*  The  name  is  wanting  in  some  Mss.  and  in  the  Syriac  ;  Z«;^;ag.-» 
is  found  in  othex's:  and  to  confound  Zg<«  with  l^/»  is  easy  enough. 


zechariah:  exposition.  513 

were  still  molested;  the  angel  of  God  {i.e.,  either  Messiah  or  the 
church  1  asks  how  long;  and  good  and  comfortable  words  are  spoken 
in  reply  in  the  hearing  of  the  prophet,  i.  7-17.  The  prophet  then 
sees  the  horns,  or  four  kingdoms,  by  whom  the  Jews  had  been,  or 
were  yet  to  be  scattered;  and  also  four  carpentere,  or  helpers,  by 
whose  aid  the  horns  are  to  be  cast  out,  1.  18-21.  The  prophet  has 
now  a  third  ^^sion,  of  a  man  with  a  measuring  line,  to  imply  the 
rebuilding  and  enlargement  of  Jei'usalem:  she  shall  overflow,  or 
break  down  her  walls,  and  Jehovah  will  be  at  once  a  wall  of  fire 
round  about  her  and  the  glory  in  the  midst.  He  exhorts  the  Jews 
still  in  Babylon  to  return,  and  foretells  yet  larger  accessions,  2. 
I -1 3.  He  then  predicts  the  mcreased  pui-ity  of  the  priesthood  in 
the  person  of  Joshua,-  thence  he  passes  to  the  office  of  Christ,  as  a 
Branch  out  of  David's  root  (Isa.  4.  2 :  Jer.  23.5:33,15);  a  Stone  for 
a  foundation,  having  seven  eyes,  to  indicate  his  perfect  intelligence, 
and  Divinely  engraven  or  adorned.  In  his  day  all  shall  dwell  safely 
and  in  peace,  3.  i-io.  In  the  fifth  vision,  the  prophet  sees  a  golden 
candlestick,  supplied  by  two  olive-trees  dropping  their  oil  into  it; 
and  these  show  how,  by  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord  in  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua,  the  temple  and  the  church  should  be  completed,  without 
external  help  (ver.  6),  and  against  all  opposition  (ver.  7),  4.  1-14: 
compai"e  ver.  12  and  Rev.  11.  4.  He  is  then  taught,  by  the  vision 
of  a  flying  I'oll,  the  swift  judgments  that  are  to  fall  upon  thieves 
and  false-swearers  :  by  another,  of  an  ephah,  or  measure,  and  a 
woman  sitting  upon  it  with  a  talent  of  lead  upon  her,  and  two 
winged  women  carrying  the  whole  to  Shinaar,  he  is  taught  the 
heavy  judgment  of  some  nation  that  has  flUed  up  the  measure  of  her 
iniquity  and  is  to  be  established  and  settled  in  the  East,  5.  1-4,  5-11. 
In  the  eighth  vision,  mountains— fixed  Divine  purposes — are  seen  to 
send  out  chariots  and  horses,  instrximents  of  Divine  providence. 
They  quiet  the  spirit  of  the  prophet  (ver,  8 :  compare  Judg,  8.  3), 
by  inflicting  punishment  upon  Babylon  (ver.  8:  compare  Jer.  i. 
14).*  In  the  closing  vision, •>  Joshua  is  seen  crowned  with  two 
crowns  of  silver  and  gold,  and  becomes  in  that  condition  a  type  of 
Christ,  the  Branch,  who  vmiting  in  himself  the  priestly  and  kingly 
offices,  is  to  build  the  temple  and  bear  the  glory,  6,  1-15. 

2.  Chaps.  7,  8.    In  the  second  part,  messengers  from  Babylon 

^  Pi'obably  the  four  chariots  denote  the  four  empires  of  Daniel'a 
vision;  the  red  horses,  the  Babylonians;  the  black,  the  Persians, 
who  overthrew  Babylon;  the  white,  the  Macedonians,  who  were 
peaceful  to  the  Jews  ;  and  the  spotted  ba!y,  the  Romans.  The 
general  import  is  at  least  clear. 

*>  Or  Bvmbolical  action. 

z  3 


614  zechariah:  exposition. 

come  to  learn  from  the  prophet  whether  God  had  sanctioned  tlie 
new  fasts  instituted  at  the  commencement  of  the  captivity  for  the 
destruction  of  the  city  and  temple.  The  pi'ophet  replies  that  God 
had  not  sanctioned  them,  and  that  what  he  requires  is  a  return  to 
obedience,  which  the  me.ssengers,  or  people,  i*efuse,  7.  1-14,  Pro- 
phecies, intermixed  with  warnings,  follow:  fasting  seasons  are  to 
become  cheerful  feasts,  and  the  Jews  are  to  be  a  universal  blessincr, 
8.  1-23:  ver.  13,  23. 

3.  Chaps.  9-14.  The  third  part  contains  the  history  of  the  Jews, 
and  of  the  church,  to  the  end  of  time.  Syria,  Tyre,  and  Sidon,  are 
to  be  conquered,  though  the  house  of  the  Lord  will  be  preserved, 
even  while  heathen  armies,  and  Alexander  (9.  6),  pass  through  the 
land:  and  at  length  Messiah  is  to  come  and  establish  a  peaceful 
kingdom,  which  shall  finally  extend  over  the  earth  (ver,  9 :  Matt. 
21.  4,  3):  9.  1-17.  Idols  are  to  be  everywhere  abandoned,  Judah, 
and  even  Ephraim  restored,  (ver.  7):  10.  1-12.  A  sad  scene,  how- 
ever, is  to  intervene.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  is  again  fox'c- 
told,  in  terms  taken  probably  from  the  history  of  her  first  over- 
throw, the  prophetic  office  is  to  be  in  the  lowest  repute  (ver.  1 2), 
the  wands  or  crooks,  S3^mbolical  of  the  shepherd's  office,  are  broken, 
and  false  hireling  shepherds  are  honoured :  all  which  has  its  fulfil- 
ment in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans,  in  the  impious 
rejection  of  Christ  by  the  Jews,  the  mean  undervaluation  of  him 
by  Judas,  and  the  powerlessness  and  ignorance  of  the  Jewish  rulers ; 
"the  arm  dried  up,  and  the  right  eye  darkened,"  (ver.  17):  11.  1-17. 
Nevertheless,  Jerusalem  shall  be  a  burdensome  stone  to  all  nations. 
The  Jews  shall  mourn  over  their  sins,  and  especially  over  the  sin 
that  destroyed  them,  the  crucifixion  of  om*  Lord  (John  19.  37),  and 
all  shall  be  forgiven,  12.  1,-13.  i.  The  idols  shall  be  cut  ofl";  false 
prophets  shall  cease;  the  prophetic  office  itself,  shall  bring  persecii- 
tion;  the  shepherd  being  smitten,  the  sheep  shall  be  scattered, 
though  a  remnant  of  them  shall  survive  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish 
state,  13.  2-9.  Jerusalem,  howevei',  will  be  destroyed,  and  the 
people  scattered,  Christ  shall  ascend  from  Olivet,  and  thaice  shall 
Jewish  Christians  be  forced  out  by  persecutions,  and  extend  the 
church  on  all  sides,  the  barriers  which  surrounded  the  Jewish 
people  and  state  being  removed.*  Then,  and  for  long  after,  the 
church  is  to  remain  in  a  state  of  mingled  prosperity  and  aufiering, 
and  at  the  close,  not  night,  but  day  more  glorious  than  ever,  shall 

*  Some,  however,  regard  this  prediction  on  the  clearing  of  Mount 
Olivet,  as  referring  to  the  coming  of  our  Lord,  in  his  premillenial 
gloiy  (see  Pt.  i.  §  447).  The  view  given  above,  is  taken  cliiefly  from 
Leifchild's  Help, 


ESTHER.  515 

shine  over  all  the  earth,  and  the  world  shall  become  "  Holiness 
unto  the  Lord,"  14. 

It  may  be  added  that,  in  the  version  of  the  LXX,  several 
Psalms  are  ascribed  to  Haggai  and  Zechariah  (13S,  146-148)  ; 
and  though  nothing  can  be  decided  Avith  certainty  as  to 
these  particular  Psalms,  it  is  highly  probable  that  both 
prophets  were  concerned  in  the  composition  of  some  of  those 
which  were  produced  after  the  retui'n  from  captivity. 

Tlie  Booh  of  Esther,  B.C.  462-452. 
99.  But  few  comparatively  of  the  Jews  availed  themselves 
of  the  privilege  to  return  to  the  land  of  their  fathers.  Most 
of  the  existing  race  had  been  born  in  Babylonia ;  they  had 
made  that  country  their  home,  and  had  gathered  around 
them  comforts  which  were  not  easily  abandoned.  Not  more 
than  50,000  persons  had  gone  up  under  Zerubbabel ;  and  the 
second  band,  under  Ezra,  more  than  seventy  years  later, 
numbered  in  all  about  6,000  persons.  Yet  later,  other  bands 
probably  sought  the  city  and  temple  of  God,  but  even  still 
the  great  bulk  of  the  people  remained  in  the  land  of  their 
exile. 

Some  suppose  that  this  book  was  written  by  Mordecai;  but  the 
more  probable  opinion  (and  one  which  may  account  for  the  omission 
of  the  name  of  God)  is,  that  it  is  an  extract  from  the  records  of  Persia. 
The  Asiatic  sovereigns,  it  is  well  known,  caused  annals  of  their 
reigns  to  be  kept.  Numerous  passages  in  the  Books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles,  prove  that  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  had  such  annals. 
And  this  book  itself  attests,  that  Ahasuerus  had  similar  histoi^ical 
records,  2.  23:  6.  i;  from  which  it  appear.?  probable  that  this  his- 
tory of  the  Jews,  under  queen  Esther,  might  be  derived,  see  chap. 
10.  2.  This  supposition  accounts  for  the  retaining  of  the  Persian 
word  Purim,  9.  24-32;  for  the  details  given  concerning  the  empire 
of  Ahasuerus :  and  for  the  exactness  with  which  the  names  of  his 
ministers,  and  of  Haman's  sons  are  recorded;  also  for  the  Jews 
being  mentioned  only  in  the  third  person,  and  Esther  being  fre- 
qiiently  designated  by  the  title  of  '^  the  queen,"  and  Mordecai  by 
the  epithet  of  "  the  Jew,"  It  would  also  account  for  those  pa- 
rentheses which  occur  in  the  course  of  the  narrative;  the  object  of 
which  appears  to  have  been  to  give  illustrations  necessary  for  a 
Jewish  reader;  and  for  the  abrupt  termination  of  the  narrative,  by 
one  sentence  relative  to  the  power  of  Ahasuerus,  and  another  con- 
cerning Mordecai's  greatness. 


516  ESTHER  :   XEHEMIAH. 

The  facts  here  related,  come  in  between  the  sixth  and  seventh 
chapters  of  Ezra.  The  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purirn,  and  its 
continued  observance  to  the  present  time,  is  an  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  this  book.  It  has  always  been  received  as  canonical  by 
the  Jews,  who  hold  it  in  the  highest  veneration. 

The  contents  of  this  book  may  be  thus  stated : 

It  relates  the  royal  feast  of  Ahasuerus,  and  the  divorce  of  Vashti, 
chap.  I.  The  elevation  of  Esther  to  the  Persian  throne,  and  the 
service  rendered  to  the  king  by  Mordecai,  in  detecting  a  plot  against 
his  life,  2,  The  promotion  of  Haman,  and  his  purposed  destruc- 
tion of  the  Jews,  3.  The  consequent  aflliction  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
measures  taken  by  them,  4.  The  defeat  of  Haman's  plot  against 
Mordecai,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Esther;  the  honour  done 
to  Mordecai;  and  the  execution  of  Haman,  5,  6,  7.  The  defeat  of 
Haman's  general  plot  against  the  Jews;  the  institution  of  the  fes- 
tival of  Purim,  in  commemoration  of  this  dehverance;  and  Mor- 
decai's  advancement,  8,  9,  10. 

The  book  of  Esther  shows  how  these  Jews,  though  scattered 
among  the  heathen,  were  preserved,  even  when  doomed  by  others 
to  destruction.  Though  the  name  of  God  is  not  found  in  the 
book,  his  hand  is  plainly  seen,  anticipating  threatened  evil,  de- 
feating and  overriding  it  to  the  greater  good  of  the  Jews,  and  even 
of  the  heathen,  i,  2,  4-10.  Nor  was  it  the  safety  of  the  Jews  in 
Babylon  only  that  was  in  peril;  if  Haman  had  succeeded,  as  the 
power  of  Persia  was  then  supreme  at  Jerusalem,  and  throughout 
Asia,  the  Jews,  throughout  the  world,  must  have  perished,  and 
•with  them,  the  whole  of  the  visible  church  of  God. 

Mark  and  admire  the  providence  of  God,  using  what  seems  the 
most  trifling  circumstance  to  accomplish  his  will  (6).  Mark  also 
the  faith  of  Mordecai,  whose  fear  of  the  imalterable  Persian  decree 
was  less  than  his  tnist  in  the  faithfulness  of  God  (4.  14).  Though 
he  knew  not  how,  he  foresaw  indemnity  to  Israel ;  and  he  asks  the 
aid  of  Esther,  rather  for  ?ier  honour,  than  for  their  delivei'ance. 


The  Book  of  Nehemiah,  B.C.  445-428. 

100.  This  book  was  anciently  united  with  Ezra,  thougn 
written  or  compiled  by  Nehemiah.  Chap.  7.  6-73  was  pro- 
bably compiled,  vcr.  5;  as  was  12.  1-26  (ver.  23).  In  the 
rest  there  are  clear  proofs  of  Nehemiah's  authorship  (see 
I. -7.  and  12.  27-43  :  13.  6-31. 

The  book  of  Nehemiah  takes  up  the  history  of  the  Jews,  about 
twelve  yeai-s  after  the  close  cf  the  book  of  Ezi*a;  and  it  .gives  an 


NEHEMIAH.  517 

account  of  the  improvements  in  the  city  af  Jerusalem^  and  of  the 
reformations  among  the  people,  which  were  carried  on  by  Nehemiah. 
Though  the  temple  had  been  rebuilt  under  the  administration  of 
Ezra,  the  walls  and  gates  of  the  city  were  yet  in  the  state  of  ruin 
in  which  the  ChaMseans  had  left  them;  and  consequently,  the  in- 
habitants were  exposed  to  the  assault  of  every  enemy,  Nehemiah 
was  the  instrument  raised  up  for  their  protection.  Though  a  Jew 
and  a  captive,  he  had  been,  through  the  overruling  pro\'idence  of 
God,  appointed  cup-bearer  to  the  king  of  Persia;  an  office  which 
was  one  of  the  most  honourable  and  confidential  at  the  court. 
Though  thus  in  the  midst  of  ease  and  wealth,  yet  when  he  heard  of 
the  mournful  condition  of  his  countrymen,  he  was  deeply  afflicted 
by  it.  He  made  it  the  subject  of  earnest  prayer;  and  after  four 
months,  the  sadness  of  his  countenance  having  revealed  to  the  king 
his  sorrow  of  heart,  an  opportunity  was  given  him  of  petitioning 
for  leave  to  go  to  Jerusalem.  The  king  (probably  influenced  by 
Esther,  his  queen),  appointed  Nehemiah  governor  of  Jerusalem, 
with  a  commission  to  rebuild  the  walls,  and  protect  the  people,  i : 

2.   1-8. 

The  rebuilding  of  the  city  wall  was  accomplished  in  fifty-two  days, 
notwithstanding  the  difficulties  created  by  Sanballat  and  Tobiah, 
who  were  leading  men  in  the  rival  colony  of  Samaria;  they  first 
scofied  at  the  attempt,  then  threatened  to  attack  the  workmen, 
and  finally  used  various  stratagems  to  weaken  Nehemiah's  authority, 
and  even  to  take  his  life.  In  addition  to  these  dangers  from  with- 
out, Nehemiah  encountered  hindrances  from  his  own  people,  arising 
out  of  the  general  distress,  which  was  aggravated  by  the  cruel 
exactions  of  the  nobles  and  rulers.  These  grievances  were  redressed 
on  the  earnest  remonstrance  of  Nehemiah,  who  had  himself  set  a 
striking  example  of  economy  in  his  office.  It  appears,  also,  that 
some  of  the  chief  men  in  Jerusalem  were  at  that  time  in  conspiracy 
with  Tobiah  against  Nehemiah,  2.  9-20:  5.-6.  Thus  the  wall  was 
built  in  "troublous  times,"  Dan.  9.  23;  and  its  completion  was 
joyously  celebrated  by  a  solemn  dedication  under  Nehemiah's 
direction,  12.  27-43. 

Nehemiah  next  turned  his  attention  to  other  measures  for  the 
public  good.  He  appointed  various  officers,  7.  1-3:  12.  44-47; 
and  excited  among  the  people  more  interest  in  religion,  by  the 
public  exposition  of  the  law;  by  an  unexampled  celebration  of  the 
feast  of  tabernacles,  and  the  observance  of  a  national  fast;  and  by 
inducing  the  people  to  enter  into  a  solemn  covenant  "  to  walk  in 
God's  law,"  8.- 10. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  city  being  as  yet  too  few  to  insure  it? 
prosperity,  Nehemiah  brought  one  out  of  every  ten  in  the  country 


618  nehemiah:  malachi. 

to  take  up  his  abode  in  the  ancient  capital,  which  then  presented 
80  few  inducements  to  the  settler,  that  "  the  people  blessed  all 
the  men  that  willingly  offered  themselves  to  dwell  at  Jerusalem," 
7.  4:  ir.  1-19.  In  all  these  important  public  proceedings,  Nehe- 
miah  appears  to  have  enjoyed  the  assistance  of  Ezra. 

After  about  twelve  years  (5.  14),  Nehemiah  returned  to  Babylonia; 
he  subsequently  went  back  to  Jerusalem,  and  exerted  himself  to 
promote  the  fm-ther  reformation  of  his  countiymen,  particularly  in 
the  correction  of  those  abuses  which  had  crept  in  during  his  absence, 
13.  The  whole  administration  of  Nehemiah  is  supposed  to  have 
lasted  about  thu*ty-six  years,  and  with  this  book  closes  the  Ilistonj 
of  the  Old  Testament, 

Nehemiah  presents  a  noble  example  of  true  patriotism,  founded 
on  the  fear  of  God  (5.  15),   and  seeking  the  religious 

^'*°^*  welfare  of  the  state.  His  respect  for  the  Divine  law, 
his  reverence  for  the  sabbath  (13.  18),  his  devout  acknowledge- 
ment of  God  in  all  things  (i.  11:  2.  18),  his  practical  perception  of 
God's  character  (4.  14:  9.  6-53),  his  union  of  watchfulness  and 
prayer  (4.  g,  20),  his  humility  in  ascribing  all  good  in  himself  to 
the  gi-ace  of  God  (2.  12:  7.  5),  are  all  highly  commendable.  In  the 
ninth  chapter,  we  have  an  instructive  summary  of  the  history  of  the 
Jews,  in  its  most  important  light,  showing  at  once  what  God  is,  and 
what  men  are.  Few  books,  indeed,  of  the  Bible,  contain  a  I'icher 
illustration  of  Divine  philosophy — that  is,  of  true  religion  taught 
by  example. 

The  Booh  of  Malachi,  B.C.  420-397. 

loi.  Malachi  ("my  messenger")  is  the  last  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment prophets,  as  Nehemiah  is  the  last  of  the  historians ; 
and  the  time  of  his  ministry  nearly  coincides  with  Nehemiah's 
administration.  The  second  temple  was  now  built,  and  the 
service  of  the  altar,  with  its  offerings  and  sacrifices,  was 
established  ;  for  it  is  a  profane  and  insincere  spirit  in  that 
service,  especially  among  the  priests,  which  he  labours  to 
correct.  He  complains  also  that  divorces  and  intermarriages 
with  idolaters  have  greatly  multiplied — the  very  evils  Avhich 
Nehemiah  so  earnestly  condemns.'"  He  lived  between  the 
years  436  and  397  b.  c. 

Malachi  begins  his  message  by  reminding  the  Jews  how  God  had 
preferred  them  to  Edcm,  and  upbraids  them  with  their  ungrateful 

■  Mai,  2.  II,  compare Neh.  13.  23-27:  Mai.  2.  8:  3.  8,  10:  Neh.  ij. 
10,  II,  29. 


REIG^'S  OF  REHOBOAM  A^^D  JEROBOAM. 


519 


retui'us;  be  reproves  the  priests  (i.  6:  2.  i),  and  the  people  (2. 11); 
alludes  to  the  Divine  institution  that  made  two  one  flesh,  ver.  15, 
that  the  seed  might  be  holy;  threatens  all  with  punishment  and 
rejection,  declaring,  that  God  will  "  make  his  name  great  among 
the  Gentiles,"  for  that  he  was  wearied  with  the  impiety  of  Israel, 
i:  2. 

He  then  proclaims  the  approach  of  Christ  to  that  temple,  and  his 
puiification  by  doctrine,  judgment,  and  mercy,  of  both  service  and 
worshippers,  marking  the  happiness  of  the  select  few,  who  in 
corrupt  times,  take  counsel  together  for  religious  ends,  whom  God 
will  preserve,  manifesting  at  last  to  all  men,  that  they  are  his 
own,  3.-4.  1. 

He  closes  the  book,  with  an  assui-ancc  of  approaching  salvation, 
predicts  the  coming  of  the  harbinger  of  the  Sun  of  righteousness, 
and  enjoins,  till  that  day,  the  observance  of  the  law,  Luke  i.  17. 

102.  The  last  predictions  of  Scripture,  therefore,  are  like 
the  earliest.  They  rebuke  corruption  and  promise  deliverance. 
They  uphold  the  authority  of  the  first  dispensation  and  reveal 
the  second.  The  prophet  is  still  the  teacher ;  and  his  last 
words  are  of  the  law  and  spiritual  obedience,  and  again  of  the 
gospel  and  its  healing  glory,  4.  2. 

Sec.  6.  The  whole  Arranrjed  and  Epitomized. 

From  the  Death  of  Solomon  till  the  dose  of  the  Canoji. 

103.  (i.)  History  of  the  Tico  Kingdoms. 


Jldah.  j    B.C.  Israel. 

Kehoboa?!,   king  (17  years),       976    Jeroboam,    king  (22    years); 

1  Kings  14.  2i,/./>.  (/!<(ZaA);!   [975,       he    establishes   himself   at 

2  Chi-ou.     12.    13,     f.p.  Usher]      Shechem,      i  Kings  12.  25. 
{reigned). 

Rehoboam,  preparing  to  at- 
tack the  ten  ti'ibes,  is  for- 
])idden  by  Shemaiah, 

I  Kings  12,  21-24: 

2  Chron.  11.  1-4. 

Rehoboam  fortifies  his  king-       974 

dom ;   the   priests  and  Le- 

vites  of  Israel  resort  to  him, 

Rehoboam' s  family, 

[2  Chron.  11.  5-23]. 

Xotc. — The  names  of  prophets  are  here  piinted  in  bold  type, 
cf  new  kings  in  Roman  cajtitals,  and  of  the  first  kings  of  new 
dynasties  in  Italic  capitals. 


Jeroboam,  having  set  up 
golden  calves  at  Dan  and 
Bethel,  is  reproved  by  a 
Man  of  God,  i  Kings  12. 
26-33:   13.  I-IO. 


520 


ABU  AH  :   ASA  :   NADAB  :   BAASHA. 


JUDAH. 


Kehoboam's       and      Judah's 

idolatry,  i  Kings  14.  22-24: 

2  Chron.  12.  i. 
Shishak  plunders  Jeinisalem, 

I  Kings  14.  25-28:  2  Chron. 

12.  2-12. 
Character  and  death  of  Reho- 

boam,   I  Kings  14.  21,  I.  p. 

29-31:  2  Chron.  12.  13,  I. p. 

14-16. 
Abijah,  or  Abijam,  king  (3 

years),   i  Kings  15.  i,  2,  6: 

2  Chron,  13.  i,  2. 

Abijah   defeats  Jeroboam   in 

battle,      2  Chron,  13,  3-21. 
His  heart  uot  perfect. 
Character  and  death  of  Abijah. 

Asa,  king  (41  years), 

I  Kings  15.  3-10:  2  Chron. 
13.  22:  14.  I. 


Asa  puts  away  idolatry  and 
strengthens  Ids  kingdom, 
I  Kings  15. 1B-15 :  2  Chron. 
14.  2-8:  15.  16-18. 
Asa's  victory  over  the  Ethi- 
opians,   2  Chron.  14.  9-15. 
Moved  by  Azariah,  Asa  makes 
a  solemn  covenant  with  God, 
2  Chron,  15.  r-15,  19. 
Asa  bribes  Ben-hadad,  king  of 
Syria,  to  attack  Baasha, 

1  Kings  15.  16-22. 
Asa,  reproved  by  Hanani  for 

applying  to  Ben-hadad,  puts 
him  in  prison, 

2  Chron,  16.  7-10. 
Hi-.:  idolatrous  alliance  with  Syria, 

and  his  imprisoiiinent  of  the  pro- 


B.  C. 


973 


972 
[970, 

Usher] 
959 
[95  «, 

Usher] 

959 

[958, 

Usher] 

958 

957 
956 


955 
953 
951 

944 
942 

941 


Israel. 

Seduced  by  an  old  prophet  of 
Bethel,  the  Man  of  God  dis- 
obeys the  woi"d  of  the  Lord, 
and  is  slain  by  a  lion, 

I  Kings  13.  11-32. 

These  calves  boirowed  from 
Egypt,  where  Jeroboam  had 
resided. 

Twice  warned,  by  the  Man  of 
God  and  by  Ahijah,  yet 
persisting  in  his  idolatry. 

The  step  seemed  politic.  It  seemed 
a  form  of  Morship  something  like 
that  established  at  Jenisaleiu,  and 
attracted  the  tribes,  but  in  the  end 
it  proved  the  niin  of  the  kingdom. 


Ahijah  denounces  Jeroboam, 
]  Kings  13.  33,  54:  14.  1-18. 

Very  touching  is  the  narrative  of  the 
visit  of  the  wife  of  the  king  ol 
Israel  to  Ahijah,  to  learn  the  fate 
of  her  sick,  but  pious  son,  14, 

Jeroboam's  death.       Nadab, 

king  (2  years),    i  Kings  14. 

19,  20:   15.  25,  26. 

Nadab  slain  at  Gibbethon. 

Baasha,  king  (24  years), 

1  Kings  15.  27-34. 


Baasha,  attempting  to   build 

Ramah,  is  attacked  by  the 

king  of  SjTia, 
2  Chron.  16.  i-6. 
Ver.  I,  I.e.,  the  j6th  year  of  Asa's 

kingdom     (Lft.),    or    read    24tb 

(Hales). 


ASA  :   JEHOSHAPHAT  :    ZIMRI  :   AHAZIAH. 


521 


JCDAH. 

phet,  after  all  his  reformations, 
prove  his  ruin.  In  his  sickness,  I 
he  trusts  not  in  God,  but  in  his  I 
r)hvsicians. 


Asa's  death.  Jehoshaphat, 
king  (25  years;;  his  piety 
and  prosperity, 
I  Kings  15.  23,  24:  22.  41- 
47;  2  Chron.  16.  ir-14:  17. 
1:20.31-3,:  17.  2-iq:  eom- 
pai*e  ver.  6  and  20.  33. 

His  great  error  is  his  alliance  with 
Ahab,  whose  daughter,  Athaliah, 
his  son  Jehovam  marries.  Hence 
his  expedition  to  Rauioth,  which 
nearly  cost  him  his  life. 


Jehoshaphat  visits  Ahab,  and 
joins  with  him  in  battle 
against  the  Syrians, 

2  Chron.  18. 

Jehoshaphat  reproved  by  Jehu 
for  joining  with  Ahab.  He 
visits  his  kingdom,  and  ex- 
hortb  the  judges,  etc.,  to  be 
faithful,  2  Chron.  19  :  Psa.82. 

Overthrow  of  Moab,  etc.     Je- 

horam  regent,  2  Chron.  20. 

1-30:  Psa.  115 :  46. 

Jehoshaphat  joins  Abaziah. 
Being  reproved,  and  his 
ships  wrecked,  he  refuses 
to  join  in  a  subsequent  ex- 
pedition, I  Kings  22.  48,  j 
49:  2  Chron.  20.  35,  37.  | 

Afterwards  joins  Joram  a-  { 
gauist  Moab,  and  is  saved  j 
only  by  a  miracle,  2  Kin^  3.  j 


B.  c. 

93i 


930 


926 


917 
915 
L914 
to 
912, 
Usher 
910 
to 
906 


902 
and 
901 

900 


Israel. 
Baasha  denounced  by  Jehu: 
his   death.     Elah,   king   (2 
years),  i  Bangs  16.  1-8. 

Elah  slain.  Zimri,  king  (7 
days) ;  destroys  Baasha'& 
house.  Omri  elected  king. 
Zimri  destroys  himself, 

I  Kings  16.  9-20. 
Omri,    king    (12  ^years,    in- 
cluding 6   years'    civil  war 
withTibni).    Samaria  built, 
I  Kings  16.  21-26. 
Omri  dies.     Ahab,   king  (22 
years).      Jericho  rebuilt  by 
Hiel,    who    reaps  Joshua't* 
curse,       I  Kings  16.  27-34. 
I  Kings  i5  25,  comp.  Mic.  6.  26: 
1  Ivings  16.  j4 :  Josh.  6.  26. 

Elijali  prophesies  a  famine; 
raises  the  widow's  son;  his 
trial  with  the  prophets  of 
Baal.    Elisha  a  prophet, 

I  Kings  17.-19. 

Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria. 
The  Syrians  twice  defeated. 
Ahab  denounced,  i  Kings  20. 

Ahab  seizes  Xaboth's  \'ine- 
yard.  Elijah  denounce.^ 
him,  I  Kings  21. 

Ahab  makes  war  on  Sj'ria,  and 
is  slain,  as  Micaiah  pre- 
dicted.    Ahaziah,  king, 

I  Kings  22.  1-35,  36-40,  5^-53- 
[Ver.  59:  see  Amos  i.  15.} 


Psa.  82  placed  here  from  internal 
evidence,  (Towns.) 

Psa.  115  and  46  ("Wells,  Eosenmnl). 

The  schools  of  the  prophets  (Naioth), 
1  Sam.  10. 10  :  19.  20  :  2  ivings  2. 2» 
seem  to  have  trained  at  this  time 
a  large  number  of  religious 
teachers. 


Ahaziah  falling  sick  and  send- 
ing to  inquire  of  Baalzebub, 
is    denounced     by    Elijah, 


522 


JEHORAM  :    AHAZIAH  :   JORAM. 


JUDAH. 

On  the  trade  between  Judaea  and 
India,  see  IMd.  Con.  i.  p.  7. 
[On  2  Chron.  20.  ij:  see  Joel  2. 16,] 


2  Kings  9.  2,  I  j.  Read,  therefore,  in 
I  Kings  ig.  16,  grandson ;  and  by 
Elijah  anointing  Jehu,  understand, 
ordering  Elisha  to  do  it.  Jehu 
was  anointed  to  exterminate  the 
house  of  Ahab. 

Jehoram  begins  to  reign  in 
consort  with  Jehoshaphat, 

2  Kings  8.  16. 
2  Chron.  21.  5.  Three  dates  are  given 
for  the  beginning  of  Jehoram's 
reign ;  b.  o.  897,  when  he  was  re- 
gent durhig  his  fathers  absence 
'(2King6i.i7  J.  I);  891,  (2  Kings 
8.  16) ;  and  889,  (Lit.) 

Death  of  Jehoshaphat.  Je- 
horam, or  JoRAM,  king  (8 
years);  his  wicked  and 
troubled  reign.  Elijah's  let- 
ter, written  before  his  trans- 
lation, brought  to  him, 
I  Kings  22.  45,  50:  2  Kings 
8.  17-22:  2  Chron.  20.  34: 
21.  1-18. 

Ahaziah  begins  to  reign  as 
viceroy  to  his  father, 

2  Kings  9.  29. 

Death    of    Jehoram.      Aha- 
ziah,   king   (i    year) ;   his 
evil  reign,       2  Kings  8.23, 
24,  25-27:  2  Chron.  21. 19, 
20:  22.  1-4 

Ahaziah  joins  Joram  against 
Hazael,  and  afterwards 
visits  liim  at  Jezreel, 

2  Kings  8.  28,  29. 

Ahaziah  slain  by  Jehu, 

2  ('hrou.  22.  7-9. 


894 


893 


891 


890 


889 
to 

887 


886 


885 


884 


Israel. 
Jehoraji,    or    Joram,    his 
brothel',  king  (12  years), 
2  Kings  1 :  3.  1-3 

EKjah  translated.  Elisha  ac- 
knowledged as  his  successor; 
his  miracles,         2  Kings  2. 

Joram,  joined  by  Jehoshaphat 
and  the  king  of  Edom,  de- 
feats Moab,  2  Kings  3.  4-27. 

Elisha  multiplies  the  widow's 
oil;  promises  a  son  to  the 
Shunamte.,  2  Kings  4.  1-17. 

Naaman  healed,        2  Kings  5 . 

Elisha  causes  iron  to  swim; 
discloses  the  Syrian  king's 
purpose,  and  smites  his 
army  with  blindness, 

2  Kings  f-i.  r-23. 

Ben-hadad  besieges  Samaria; 
severe  famine  ensues ;  plenty 
restored  by  the  sudden 
flight  of  the  Syrians, 

2  Kings  6.  24-33  :  7. 

Elisha  raises  to  life  the  wi- 
dow's son :  other  miracles, 
2  Ivings  4.  18-44:  8.  I,  2. 

2  Ivings  4.44.  This  is  Eliaha,' s^tudftk 
miracle,  Elijah  having  wrought 
six.  Townsend  place.^s  4.  18  alter 
4.  17 ;  but  there  is  clearly  an  in- 
terval of  two  years  or  so  between 
them. 

2  Chron.  21.  12.  Elijali's  letter,  Lft. 

I     thinks,  was  sent  to  Jehoram  in 

I      897.    Hales  reads  Jilistia.    Wall 

I      supposes  another-  Elijah.    Patrick 

!     and  others  take  the  view  given 

I     in  the  opposite  colmnn. 


Return  of  the  Shunammite. 
Hazael  kills  Ben  hadad  and 
becomes,  as  Elisha  pre- 
dicted, king  of  Syria, 

2  Kings  8.  3-15. 

Joram,  being  wounded  in  bat- 
tle by  the  Sjrrians,  retires 
to  Jezreel, 

2  Chrun.  22.  5,  6. 

Jehu  anointed,  2  Kings  9. 1-13 

Joram  slain  by  Jehu, 

2  Kings  9.  14-28. 


JOASH:   A3IAZIAH:   JEHU:   JOASH. 


523 


JUDAH. 

[Athaiiah  usurps  the 
throJie  (6  years).  Joash, 
the  son  of  Ahaziah,  rescued], 
2  Kings  ir.  i-j:  2  Chron. 

22.  IO-I2. 

Jehoash,    or     Joash.      king 

(40  years).     Athaliah  slain, 

2  Kings  1 1.  4-12.  2 :  2  Chron. 

23.-24.  3. 


Joash  repairs  the  temple, 
2  Kings  13.  4-. 6:  2  Chron. 
24.  4-14. 
Death  of  Jehoiada, 

2  Chron.  24.  15,  16. 


Joash  and  the  people  fall  into 
idolatry ;  Zechariah,  re- 
proving them,  is  slain  in 
the  temple-com't  (cf.  Matt. 
23.35).  The  Syrians  invade 
Joash,  2  Chron.  24.  17-22, 
23,  24:  2  Kings  12.  17,  18. 

Joash  slain  by  his  servants. 
Amaziah,  king  (29  years), 
2  Kings  12.  19-21:  14.  1-6: 
2  Chron.  24.  25-27:  25.  1-4. 


Amaziah  hires  an  army  of  Is- 
raelites to  assist  liim  against 
Edom,  but  at  a  prophet's 
command  he  sends  them 
back,        2  Chron.  35.  5-10. 

Amaziah  smites  the  Edomites 
and  worships  their  gods, 
2  Chron.  25.  11 :  2  Kings  14. 
7:  2  Chron.  25.  12,  14-16. 

Amaziah  provokes  the  king  of 


877 

860 
855 

850 
849 

842 
841 

840 


838 


836 
827 


826 


Israel. 
Jehu,  king  (28  years);  slays 
Jezebel,  Ahab's  sons,  Aha- 
ziah's  brethren,  and  Baal's 
worshippers, 
2  Kings  9.  30-37:  10.  1-3 1. 


Hazael  oppresses  Israel, 

2  Kings  10,  32,  33. 
Death  of  Jehu.     Jehoahaz, 
king  (17  years), 
2  Kings  10,  34-36:  13,  I,  2. 
History  of  Jonah, 

Jon.  I. -4.?     [See  808]. 

Israel   given  over  by  God  to 

Hazael  and  Ben-hadad   and 

delivered,     2  Kings  13.  r-7. 

Jehoash   begins    to    reign  in 

consort  with  Jehoahaz, 

2  Kings  13.  10. 


Death  of  Jehoahaz.  Jeho- 
ash, or  Joash,  king  (16 
yeai's).  He  visits  Elisha, 
who  promises  three  vic- 
tories. Hazael  dies,  2  Kings 
13.  8,  9,  ir,  14-19,  22-24. 

Elisha  dies.  A  corpse  thrown 
into  Elisha's  sepulchre  re- 
vives,     2  Kings  13.  20,  21. 

Jehoash  thrice  beats  the 
Syrians,         2  Kings  13.  25. 


The  Israelites,  who  had  been 
dismissed  by  Amaziah, 
plunder  the  cities  of  Judah 
as  they  return, 

2  Chron.  25.  13. 

Jehoash  defeats  the  king   of 


524 


UZZIAH  :   JEROBOAM  II.  :   PEKAH. 


JUDAH. 
Israel  to  battle,  aud  is  taken 
prisoner  by  him, 

2  Kings  14.  8-14- 


Amaziah  slain.  Uzziah,  or 
AzARiAH,  king  (52  years). 
During  the  days  of  Zecha- 
riah  he  reigns  well, 
2  Kings  14.  17-22  :  15.  1-4: 
2  Chron.  25.  25:  26.  15. 


Amos  7.  10-19,  Liglitfoot  and  others 
place  after  2  Kings  14.  28. 

On  the  increase  of  Uzziah's 
army,  Joel  foretells  the  over- 
throw of  Judah,     Joel  I. -3. 


Hos.  1 :  2  :  J.  So  Ligbtfoot,  Gray, 
and  others:  see  i.  i.  The  three 
children  liave  names  given  to 
them,  indicating  the  place  of  the 
■wickedness  of  the  house  of  Ahab 
(ver.  4:  see  i  Ivings  21.  i);  their 
punishment,  vot  Jindivg  mercy  in 
calamity,  and  their  rejection,  no 
longer  the  people,  of  God.  They 
are,  however,  to  lie  gathered  again 
under  Messiah,  tlieir  one  Head, 
ver.  II ;  ver.  -j,  see  2  Kings  19.  35, 


Uzziah    struck   with   leprosy 

for    invading    the    priest's 

office.     Jotham,  regent, 

2  Kings  15.  5  :  2  Chron.  26. 

16-20,  21. 

2  Ivings  15.  5,  several,  i.e.,  lone  or 
separate,  see  120. 


B.C. 


823 


822 


808 

to 

800 


801 


793 


787 
783 

771 
770 

769 

765 
761 

759 


Israel. 
Judah,   and    plunders   the 

temple, 

2  Chron,  25.  17-24. 

Death  of  Jehoash.  Jero- 
boam II.,  king  (41  years); 
he  reigns  wickedly,  2  Kings 
13.  12,  13:  14.  15,  16,  23,24. 

Jeroboam  restores  the  coast 
of  Israel  according  to  the 
word  of  Jonah, 

2  Kings  14.  25-27. 

[Jonah  I. -4.?]     See  B.C.  850. 


Hosea  makes  his  first  appeal 
to  the  teu  tribes,  [Hos.  1.-3.] 

Amos  denounces  judgment  a- 
gainst  the  surrounding  na- 
tions, and  against  Israel  and 
Judah,  [Amos.  1.-9.] 

I.  3.  see  2  Kings  16.  9 ;  ver.  6,  see 
2  Kings  18.  8 ;  1.8,  see  2  Chr.  26. 
6;  ver.  11,  see  Numb.  20.  14;  5. 
27,  see  2  Kings  10.  32 :  17.  6. 

Death  of  Jeroboam, 

2  Kings  14  28,  29. 

An  interregnum  for  eleven  years. 

State  of  Israel  during  the 
interregnum ,  Hosea  de- 
nounces judgment,  [Hos.  4]. 

Zechariah,  fourth  from  Jehu, 
king  (6  months).  Shallum 
slaj'-s  him,  2  Kings  15.  8-12. 

Shallum,  king  (r  month). 
Menahem  slays  him, 

2  Kings  15.  13-15. 

Menaiiem,    king    (10  years); 
2  Kings  15.  16-18. 

Pul,  of  Assyria,  coming  a- 
gainst  Israel,  is  bribed  to 
return,    2  Kings  15.  19,  20. 


Death   of   Menahem.    Peka- 
HiAH,  king  ( 2  years), 

2  Kings  15.  21-24. 
Pckahiah  slain  by  Pekah. 
Pekah,  king  (20  years), 

2  Kings  15.  25-28. 


JOTHAM  :   HEZEKIAH  :   HOSHILV. 


»25 


JUDAH. 

Isaiah  designated  in  a  vision 
to  the  prophetic  office.  He 
prophesies  of  Christ's  king- 
dom, and  of  judgment  on 
the  people  for  their  slas, 
Isa.  I,  I :  6:   2:  3:  4;  5. 

Death   of  Uzziah.     Jotham, 
king   (16  years);   his  pros- 
perity,        2  Kings  15.  6,  7, 
3^-35:  2  Chron.  26.  22,  23: 
27.  1-6. 

Micah  reproves  the  wicked- 
ness of  Jxidah,      Mic   i:  2. 

Judah  begins  to  be  afflicted 

by  Syria  and  Israel.    Death 

of  Jotham,  2  Kings  15. 

36-38:  2  Chron.  27.  7-9. 

Ahaz,  king  (16  years),  2  Kings 
16.  I,  2-4:  2  Chron.  28.  r-4. 

Invasion  of  Pekah  and  Rezin. 
Isaiah  prophesies  on  the  oc- 
casion, deuovmciug  Ahaz's 
intended  alliance  with  As- 
syria, 2  Kings  r6.  5  : 
Isa.  7.-9.:  10.  1-4. 

Isaiah  prophesies  the  ruin  of 
Damascus  and  of  the  ten 
tribes,  Isa.  17. 

Judah  devastated  by  Syria 
and  Israel ;  the  latter  restore 
their  captives,  by  advice  of 
Oded,        2  Chron.  28.  5-15. 

Ahaz,  being  assailed  by  ene- 
mies, hires  Tiglath-pileser, 
the  king  of  Assyria,  against 
them.  Obadiah  and  Isaiah, 
2  Kings  16.  6-8,  9:  2  Chron. 
28.  16,  21,  17-19,  20: 

Obad.:  Isa.  i.  2-31:  28. 

Sacrilege  and  idolatry  of  Ahaz, 
2  Chron.  28.  22,  23-25  : 
2  Kings  16. 10-18:  Hos.  5  :  6. 

Obad.  On  order,  see  2  Chron.  28.  17. 


Death  of  Ahaz,       2  Elings  16. 

19,  2c:  2  Chron.  28.  26,  27: 

Isa.  14.  28-32. 

Hezekiah,  king  (29  years), 

2  Kings  18.  I,  2:  2  Chron. 

29.1. 


B.  C. 

757 


756 

753 
742 


740 


740 


738 

730 
726 


Israel. 
[Isa.  I.I.  On  this  order,  see  Town- 
send,  2.  230. 
Isa.  7. -10.  4.  On  the  order,  compare 

7.  I  with  2  Kings  16.  5. 
Isa.  I.  2-ji.  On  order,  see  ver.  7,  8, 

comp.  with  2  Chron.  28.  6-9. 
Isa.  6.  I,  see  John  12.  41. 
Isa.  6.  I  J,  see  2  Kings  25.  12. 
Isa.  2   19,  see  Rev.  6.  1 5. 
2  Chron.  27.  2,  see  chap  26.  19. 
Isa.  7.  8,  sec  2  Kings  17.  24. 
Reign  of  Ahaz.     .     15 
„        Hezekiah,     29 
„        2nd  Manas.  21 

65  years. 
Isa.  7.  16,  see  2  Kings  15.  29. 
Isa.  8.  1,  a  Ttuin's  pen,  i.e.,  common 
writing;  see  Rev.  ij.  18  :  21.  17. 

Mic.  I.  s,  see  i  Kings  16.  j2. 
Mic.  I.  IJ,  see  Jer.  }.\.  7.] 


Isa.  17.,  see  2  Kings  16. 9:  18. 11. 


Tiglath-pileser  ravages  Gilead, 
Galilee,  and  Naphtali,  and 
carries  captive  their  in- 
habitants to  Assyiia, 

2  Kings  15.  29. 

Isa.  5.  21,  see  2  Sam.  5.  20.' 
Pekah  slain  by  Hoshea, 

2  Kings  15.  30,  31. 
[Oa  date,  see  J58  c]. 

Anarchy  for  nine  years. 
HosBKA,      king     (9      years). 
Shalmaneser,    king   of    As- 
sjTia,  invades  his  territory 
and  makes  him  a  tributary, 
2  Kings  17.  1-3. 
Isa.  14.  28-J2,  against  Philistia,  soe 
2  Cliron.  26.  6.    Ahab,  who  sub- 
dued them,  was  dead ;  but  a  cock- 


526 


CAPTIVITY   OF   ISRAEL, 


JVDAU. 

Reformation  by  Hezekiah, 
2  Kings  i8.  3,  4-6:  2  Chron. 
29.  2,  3-36:  30:  31 

Moab  deuotmced,  Isa.  15:   16. 

Micah  supports  Hezekiah's  re- 
formation, Mic.  3.-7. 

Sec  Jer.  26.  18 :  Mic. 


Hezekiah's  prosperity, 

2  Kings  18.  7,  8. 


Prophecy  of  the  restoration 
of  the  ten  tribes,  of  the 
punishuieut  of  Egypt,  and 
conversion  of  Egypt  and 
Ass>Tia,  Isa.  18:  19. 


723 


723 
721 


Israel. 

atrice  ont  of  that  nest,  Hezekiab, 
was  still  to  bite  them,  2  Kings  18. 8. 


Isa.  15.  The  destruction  of  Moab  by 
Shalmaneser  foretold.  They  are 
exhorted  to  renew  their  tdbutc, 
16.  I ;  see  2  Kings  j.  4. 

Hoshea  attacked  and  impri- 
soned by  Shalmaneser  for 
not  giving  the  tribute. 
Hosea  predicts  the  captivity 
of  the  ten  tribes,  and  ex- 
horts to  repentance, 
2  Kings  17.  4:  Hos.  7.-14. 

Corap.  on  order  Hos.  12.  i. 

Shalmaneser  besieges  Samaria, 

2  Kings  17.  5  :   18   9. 

The   ten  tribes  carried    into 

captivity  unto  Assyria, 

2  Kings  17.  6-23 :  18. 10-12. 


History  of  Judah.from  the  overthrow  of  Israel  to  tJie  end  of  the 
Captivity,  B.  C  720  to  E.  c.  536  ;   184  years. 

104.  (2.)  History  of  Judah  to  the  Captivity,  114  years. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

715. 

714. 


Judasa. 


«  For  date,  see 
Tcr.  16. 

Jerusalem. 


b  On  order,  see 
Towns.  2.  547.     I 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Tyre  denounced,  Isa.  23 .     Prophecy  concerning  the 
invasion  by  Assyria,  Isa.  10.  5  :i4.  27. 

The  desolation  and  recovery  of  Judaea  predicted,  etc. 
Isa.  24  [26.  17,  i8]:-27. 
Isaiah  predicts  the  invasion  by  Assyria  and  the  des- 
truction of  Babylon.    Sennacherib  comes  up  against 
Judah,  but  being  pacified  by  a  tribute,   retires. 
Isaiah  denounces  Egypt,  and  warns  Jerusalem, 
Isa.  22.  1-14:  2i:-*  2  Kings  18.  13-16:  2  ChJron. 
32.  1-8:  Isa.  36.  i:  20:  29:-3i. 
Sickness   of    Hezekiah;    his  song  of   thanksgiving. 
Isaiah  predicts  the  blessings  of  Christ's  kingdom, 
and  judgments  of  the  enemies  of  Zion, 

2  Kings  20,  1-6,  8,  9-1 1,  7:  Isa.  38.  1-6,  22,  "j,  8, 
21;  0-20:  2  Chron.  32.  24:  Isa.  }2:-35.*' 


JUDAH,   B.C.   713-612. 


627 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

713, 
712, 

Jeinisalem. 


711, 
Judsea. 


710-699. 

697, 
Jerusalem. 


a  Towns.  2. 427, 

678, 
Samaria. 

677, 
Babylon. 

642, 

Jerusalem. 

640. 


628. 
628. 

623, 
Jerusalem. 


623. 

G22, 
Jerusalem. 

612. 
b  For  order,  see 
Ter.  6, 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Nineveh  denounced  by  Nahum,  Nah.  1.-3. 

Hezekiab  showing  in  pride  to  the  Ambassadors  from 
Babylon  his  treasures,  Isaiah  predicts  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity, 

2  Kings  20.  12-19:  Isa.  39:  2  Chron.  32.  25,  26. 
Second  invasion  of  Sennacherib;  destruction  of  his 
army, 

2  Kings  18.  17-37  [26-28]:  19.  1-37:  Psa.  44,  73, 

75,    76:    Isa.   36.    2   [11,    i2]-22  :    37.    1-38: 

2  Chron.  32.  9-21,  22,  23. 

V\rious  prophecies  of  Isaiah,       Isa.  4o:-66  [57.  3-9], 

Hezekiah's  wealth;  his  death.     Manasseh,  king  (55 

years);   his  scwful  impiety;  judgment  denounced 

by  God's  prophets, 

2  Kings  20.  20,  21:  21.   T-16:    2   Chron.  32, 

27-31.  32,  33:  33,  i-io- 
Isaiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  Shebna,  Isa.  22. 15-25.* 
The  heathen  nations,  who  had  been  transplanted  to 
Samaria  in  place  of  the  Israelites,  being  plagued  by 
lions,  make  a  mixture  of  religions,  2  Kings  1 7.  24-41. 
Manasseh  taken  captive  by  the  king  of  Assyria  ;  his 
conversion  and  restoration ;  he  puts  down  idolatry, 
2  Chron.  33.  11-17.* 
Death  of  Manasseh.     Amon,  king  (2  years);  his  im- 
piety, 2  Kings  21.  17-22:  2  Chron.  ^^.  18-23. 
Amon  slain  by  his  servants.     Josiah,  king  (31  years), 
2  Kings  21.  23-26:  22.  I,  2:  2  Chron.  33 

24,   25:    34.   I,   2_. 

Josiah  vigorously  puts  down  idolatry, 

2  Chron.  34.  3-7. 
Jeremiah  called;  he  expostulates  with  the  Jews,  on 
account  of  their  sins,  Jer.  i.  2  [3.  1-5]. 

Josiah  provides  for  the  repair  of  the  temple.  The 
Book  of  the  Law  having  been  found,  Josiah  con- 
sults Huldah;  he  causes  it  to  be  read  publicly,  and 
renews  the  Covenant, 

2  Kings  22.  3-20  :  23.  1-3,  4-20;  2  Chi'on.  34. 

8,  28,  29-32,t  33. 

Zephaniah  exhorts  to  repentance,         [Zeph.  i,  2,  3]. 

A  most  solemn  celebration  of  the  Passover  by  Josiah, 

2  Kings  23.  21-23,  24-27:  2  Chron.  35.  1-19. 

Jeremiah  reproves  the  backsliding  of  the  people,  and 

bewails  the  coming  captivity, 

Jer.  3.^  [6-11],  12-25:  4:-6. 


♦  In  Kings,  no  account  is  given  of  Manasseh's  repentance, 
t  With  qualification,  see   2  Kings  23.  26,  and  Jer.  3.  10, 
the  change  was  chiefly  external. 


etc. 


628 


JUDAH,  B.C.  612-606. 


Date  and  Place. 


B.C. 

6l2. 

Cii. 

6io. 

609, 

Megiddo  and 

Jerusalem. 


Riblah. 


b  Jer.  1.-12.,  in 
Josiah's  days ; 
Towns.  2.  434 -g- 

608. 
606. 

c  For  order,  see 
ver.  2.  Comp. 
Ez.  29.  17. 


.  Jerusalem. 
606. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Habakknk  predicts  judgment,  [Hab.  i:-3], 

Jeremiah  exhorts  the  people  to  repentance,  and  la- 
ments their  approaching  calami^-ies,         Jer.  7:-io. 

Jeremiah  reminds  the  people  of  the  Covenant  of 
Josiah,  Jer,  11:  [15],  12. 

Josiah  slain  in  battle  with  the  king  of  Egypt. 
Jeremiah  and  the  people  lament  him.  Jeeoahaz 
king  (3  months), 

2  Kings  23.  29,  30,  28,  30  I. p.,  31,  32:  2  Chron. 
35.  20-27:  36.  I,  2. 

Jehoahaz  deposed  and  imprisoned  by  Pharaoh-Necho 
and  subsequently   taken  to  Egypt.     Jehoiakim, 
king  (i  r  years), 
2  Kings  23.  33,  34,  35,  36,  37:  2  Chron.  36.  3,  4,  5. 

Jeremiah  delivers  various  predictions  and  appeals  to 
the  Jews  respecting  the  captivity  and  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  I3:-I9.''» 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  fate  of  Pashur,  Jer.  20.;  of 
Shallum,  i.  e.,  Jehoahaz,  and  Jehoiakim,  22.  1-23. 

Apprehension  and  arraignment  of  Jeremiah,  Jer.  26. 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  overthrow  of  the  army  of 
Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, Jer.  45. "^  I -1 2. 

The  obedience  of  the  Rechabites  to  their  father  con- 
trasted with  the  disobedience  of  the  Jews,  Jei\  35. 

Jeremiah  predicts  the  captivity  of  the  Jews  for 
seventy  years,  and  the  subsequent  judgment  on 
Babylon,  Jer.  25. 

Jeremiah  desires  Baruch  to  write  his  prophecies  on  a 
roll,  aud  then  to  read  it  publicly  in  the  temple, 

Jer.  36.  1-8:  4$. 

Nebuchadnezzar  takes  Jerusalem,  and  puts  Jehoiakim 
in  fetters,  intending  to  take  him  to  Babylon,  but 
afterwards  releasing  him,  makes. him  a  tributary, 
and  spoils  the  temple, 
2  Kings  24.  1 :  2  Chron.  36.  6,  7:  Dan.  i.  i,  2. 

Nebuchadnezzar  orders  the  master  of  his  eunuchs  to 
select  and  send  to  Babylon  some  of  the  royal  family 
and  nobility,  to  stand  in  the  king's  palace.  Daniel, 
Hauaniah,  Mishael,  and  Azariah  (otherwise  called 
Belteshazzar,  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego), 
are  taken  there,  Dan.  i.  3,  4,  6,  7. 


PERIOD   OF  THE  CAPTIVITY,   B.  C.   605-590. 


529 


1^5-  (3-)  From  the  first  capture  of  Jerusalem,  B.C.  6o6,  to  the 
decree  of  Cyrus,  for  the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  b.  c.  536  ; 
70  years. 


Date  ar,d  Place. 


Babylon. 
603. 

603. 

Babylon. 


599. 


597' 
595. 


Babylon, 
a  On  order,  see 
Towns,  vol.  ii. 

594- 
Babylon. 

595. 
Jerusalem. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


590. 


Events  at  Jerusalem,  v:ith  contemporaneous  events 

at  Babylon. 

Daniel  meets  with  kindly  treatment,  Dan.  i.  5,  8-17. 

Bariich  again  reads  the  Prophetic  Eoll;   Jehoiakim 

bums  it,  Jer.  36.  9-32. 

Jehoiakim  rebels  against  Xebuchadnezzar, 

2  Kings  24.  I  I.  p.,  24. 
Daniel  before  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  i.  18-21. 

Interprets  Nebuchadnezzar's   dream,  Dan.   2.;   des- 
cribing the  Babylonian,    32;  Medo-Persian,    32-39; 
Macedo-Grccian.    32-39;    and  Rom-ini  EmpAres,   ^^, 
40-43;  -mth.  Jfessiah's  Kingdoyn,  34,  35,  44,  45. 
Death  of  Jehoiakim.    Jehoiachin  or  Jeconiah,  king 
(3  months),        2  Kings  24.  3-9:  2  Chron.  36.  8,  9: 
Jer.  22.  24-30:  23. 
Second   capture   of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Jehoiachin  is  earned  to  Babylon,  with  many  of  hi.9 
subjects.      Zedekiah   or  Mattamah,    king   (11 
years),         2  Kings  24.  10-19:  2  Chron.  36.  10-12: 
Jer.  52.  r,  2:  24. 
Predictions  of  the  diu-atiou  of  the  captivity, 

Jer.  29.  1-14,  16-20,  15,  21-32. 
Of  the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  Jer.  30.,  31. 

Predictions  against  the  surrounding  nations,  Ha- 
naniah  the  false  prophet  denounced, 

Jer.  27,  28,  48,  49. 
Prophecies  against  Babylon,  Jer.  50:51. 

Ezekiel's  vision  in  Babylon;  his  commission,*  Ezek. 
I,  2,  3..  1-2 1.  He  prophesies  of  the  miseries  of 
Jerusalem,  Ezek.  3.  22-27  [4:-7]- 

Visions  of  the  idolatries  which  occasioned  the  cap- 
tivity, Ezek.  8,  10  [iij. 
"Various  predictions  against  the  false  prophets,  Jeini- 
salem,  and  the  Jewish  nation. 

Ezek.  12. -19  [16,  18.  5-18]. 
Prophecies  addressed  to  the  Elders  of  the  Jews, 

Ezek.  20:  [2i:-23]. 

Zedekiah's  rebellion  and  wickedness,      Jer.  37.  j,  2: 

2  Kings  24.  20:  2  Chron.  36.  13:  Jer.  52.  3, 

The  wickedness  of  priests  and  people  (the  cause  of 

the  captivity,  v.  15,  16),  with  a  summary  account 

of  the  judgments  that  followed,  2  Chron.  36. 14-21. 

Nebuchadnezzar  lays  siege  to  Jerusalem  for  the  third 

time,      2  Kings  25.  i:  Jer.  39.  i:  52.  4;  37.  5,  4, 

2  A 


PERIOD   OF  THE  CArTIVITT,   B.  C.   589-587. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

Babylon. 

Jerusalem, 
a  See  1  owns, 
ii.  559- 

589. 

Babylon. 

Jerusalem. 

b  For    order, 
see  J  2,  2. 


587. 

c  On  order, 
compare  29.  i, 
and  26.  I ;  ver. 
17-21  -written 
sixteen  years 
later. 


Ezekiel  foretells  tlie  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 

Ezek.  24. 

Capture  of  the  city  foretold.  The  people,  at  Jere- 
miah's  word,  release  their  Hebrew  bond-servants, 

Jer.  34.  i-io.* 

Jeremiali  shut  up  in  prison;  his  predictions  there, 

Jer.  32:  33.^ 

Ezekiel  in  Babylon,  prophesies  against  Egypt,  Ezek. 
29.  1-16;'^  and  against  Tyre,  Ezek.  26.:  see Isa,  23. 

The  Chaldseans  raise  the  siege  to  march  against  the 
approaching  Egyptian  army.  Jeremiah  predicta 
the  destruction  of  the  Philistines,     Jer.  3  7.  5  :  47. 

On  the  departure  of  the  Chaldajan  army,  the  people 
recall  their  bond -servants,  for  which  Jeremiah 
denounces  them,  and  predicts  the  speedy  return  of 
the  Chaldseans,  Jer.  34.  11-22:  37.  6-10. 

Jeremiah  again  imprisoned,  Jer.  37.  11-21;  continues 
to  denounce  Zedekiah,  21:  he  is  put  into  the 
dungeon  of  Malchiah,  38:  39.  15-18. 

Ezekiel  in  Babylon,  again  prophesies  against  Egypt 


and  Mneveh, 


Ezek.  30.  20-26:  31. 


(1  On  order, 
comp.  30. 20,  and 
29.1. 

e  Comp.  ver. 
5,  7  ;  Town.  ii. 
579. 


Jerusalem  finally  taken.     Zedekiah  carried  to  Baby- 
lon.    Jeremiah  delivered, 

2  Kings  25.  2,  4-7:  Jer.  52.  5-7:  39.  2-7,  11-14. 

Nebuzaradan  burns  the  temple,  and  carries  aAvay  the 

people,  leaving  a  few  poor  persons  to  till  the  land, 

2  Kings  25.  8-21:  Jer.  52.  12  30:  39.  8-10: 

Psa.  74:^  79:  83:  94. 

Jeremiah  bewails  the  desolation  of  his  country. 

Lamentations  i:-5. 
Gedaliah  appointed  governor.     Jeremiah  and  many 
others  attach  themselves  to  him, 

2  Kings  25.  22-24:  Jer.  40.  1-16. 

Ishmael  slays  Gedaliah,  and  attempts  to  cai-ry  away 

the  people  to  the  Ammonites ;  Johanan  intercepts 

him;  the  people,  fearing  the  ChaldDeaus,  flee  into 

Egypt,  contrary  to  the  command  of  God, 

2  Kings  25.  25,  26:  Jer.  41:  42:  43.  1-7. 
Jeremiah  prophesies  against    Egypt  and   the  idola- 
trous Jews,  '    Jer.  43.  8-13:  46.  13-28:  44. 
Brief  summary  of  the  captivities,  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 

Jer.  52.  28-30, 

jRcmainder  of  the  Ilistonj  of  the  Jews  in  Captivity — 
Bah'jlon. 

Babylon.       Ezekiel  predicts  the  utter  desolation  of  Judiua, 

i  Ezek.  II.  :i-33. 


FEEIOD   OF  THE   CAPTIVITY,   B.  C.    587-536. 


531 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Xarrative. 


B.C. 

587. 


573- 
572. 

570. 
569. 

568-563. 

561. 

558. 

538. 

537. 
.'136. 


Jerusalem 
and  Babylon. 


Predictions?  a;^inst  Ammon,  Moab,  Edom,  Philistia, 
Tyre,  and  Egypt,  Ezek.  25:27:  28:  32. 

Ezekiel  appeals  to  the  captives, 

Ezek.  33.  1-20. 
Evil  nilers  denounced;  restoration  of  the  Jews  pro- 
mised; predictions  of  2Iessia/i's  kingdom, 

Ezek.  34:-3  7  [17,  last  clause]. 

Prophecies  of  tlie  church  and  its  enemies,  and  of  the 

conversion  of  the  Jews,  Ezek.  38:  39. 

Ezekiel's  vision  of  the  future  temple,      Ezek.  40:-48. 

Last  prediction  against  Egypt, 

Ezek.  29.  17-21:  ^o.  1-19. 
Nebuchadnezzar  sets  up  an  image,  Dan.  3, 

Daniel  interprets  Nebuchadnezzar's  second  dream, 

Dan.  4.  1-27. 

The  fulfilment  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream,  in  hia 

madness,  and  subsequent  recovery,  Dan.  4.  28-37, 

Evil-Mei'odach,  king  of  Babylon,  releases  Jehoiachin, 

2  Kings  25.  27-30:  Jer.  52.  31-34. 

Daniel's  first  vision  of  the  Living  Creatures,    Dan.  7 

Belshazzar's  Feast.     Babylon  taken,  Dan.  5 

Daniel's  vision  of  the  Ram  and  He-goat,  Dan.  8 

Daniel's  prayer   for  the   restoration   of  Jerusalem 

Proj>hecy  of  the  Seventy  Weeks,  Dan  9. :  Psa.  102 

Daniel  cast  into  the  den  of  lions,  Dan.  6 

Decree  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  and 

restoration  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  country, 

2  Chron.  36.  22,  23:  Ezra  i.  1-4:  Psa.  126:  85. 

Psalms  written  during  the  distresses  and  afflictions 

of  the  churcli,  chiefly  in  the  Babylonish  captivity, 

Psa.  10,  13,  14,  15,  25,  26,  27,  36,  37,  49.  50>  53, 

67,  77,  80,  89,  92,  93,  123,  130,  137. 


106.  (4.)  From   the   decree   of   Cyrus,   B.  c.    536,  to  the  final 
■prop]iecy  of  the  Old  Testament,  B.  c.  420-397  ;  about  139  years. 


Date  and  Place. 


Event  or  Xarrative. 


I.  From  the  return  of  the  Jeics,  to  the  Dcdixdion  of 
the  Second  Temple. 

Return  of  the  Jews.     Cyrus  restores  the  vessels  of 
the  temple.     An  altar  set  up, 

Ezra  1.  5-11:  [2:],  3.  1-7:  Psa.87,  107,  III,  112, 
113,  114,  116,  117,  125,  127,  128,  134. 


536, 
Jerusalem. 


532 


THE   RESTORATION,   B.  C.    535-445. 


Date  and  I'laoe. 


Event  or  Narrative. 


B.  C. 

535, 

Jerusalem. 

534. 

Babylon. 

520, 

Jerusalem. 


519. 
516. 


486. 
464. 

Susa. 

458. 

457. 

Jerusalem. 


Susa. 
45  3>  452. 


445, 

Susa. 

Jerusalem. 


Susa. 


Foundation  of  the  second  temple,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Zerubbabel,  Ezra  3.  8-13;  Psa.  84,  66. 
The  building  of  the  temple  interrupted  by  the  Sa- 
maritans, Ezra  4.  1-5,  24:  Psa.  129. 
The  last  vision  of  Daniel,  Dan.  10.-12. 
Building    of    the   temple    resumed.       Haggai    and 
Zechariah  incite  tlie  people  to  the  work,  and  ex- 
hort them  to  repentance, 

Ezra  4,  24:    5.  i:  Hag.   i.  i-ii:   Ezra  5.  2: 

Hag.   r.   12-15:  2.  1-9:  Zech.   i.  1-6:  Hag. 

2.  10-23:  Zech.  I.  7-21:  2:-6  [2.  5]. 

The  Ijuilding  of  the  temple  again  interrupted,  and 

resumed,  Ezra  5,  3-17:6.  1-13  :  Psa.  138:  Zech.  7:  8. 

Dedication  of  the  second  temple, 

Ezra  6.  14-22:  Psa.  48,  81,  146,  147,  148,  149,  150. 

2.  From  the  opposition  to  the  Jews  in  the  rcijn  of 

Xerxes,  to  the  Death  of  Haman. 

Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  Ezra  4.  6. 

Opposition  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus, 

Ezra  4.  7-23. 
Artaxerxes    (or    Ahasuerus)    divorces    Vashti,    his 

queen,  Esth.  i. 

Ezra  commissioned  tb  visit  Jerusalem,  Ezra  7  [2-14], 
Artaxerxes  makes  Esther  queen,  Esth.  2.  1-20. 

Ezra  comes  to  Jerusalem ;  causes  the  people  to  put 

aAvay  their  heathen  wives,  Ezra  8  :-io  [18-44]. 

Concluding  prophecies  of  Zechariah,         Zech.  9:-i4. 
Mordecai  discovers  the  conspu-acy  against  Ahasuerus, 

Esth.  2.  21-23. 
Plot  of  Haman  to  destroy  the  Jews,  and  its  defeat. 

The  feast  of  Purim,  Esth.  3  :-io. 

3.  From  the  first  commission  of  Nehemiah,  to  the 

closing  of  the  Canon, 

Nehemiah  receives  a  commission  from  Artaxerxes  to 
visit  it,  and  rebuild  the  wall,  Neh.  i :  2.  1-8, 

Nehemiah  ariives  at  Jerusalem.     Sanballat  strives  to 

hinder  the  work;  the  builders  Avork  under  arms, 

Neh.  2.  9-20:  [3:],  4. 

Nohemiah  relieves  the  Jews  oppressed  by  usury;  his 
own  generosity,  Neh.  5 , 

The  wall  completed  by  the  Jews  and  dedicated, 

Neh.  6:  [12.  27-43]. 

Nehemiah  returns  to  Persia,  Neh.  7.  1-4. 


THE  RESTORATION,  B.C.   444-397, 


533 


Date  and  Place. 


B.  C. 

444, 
Jerusalem. 

433. 


428. 
397- 


Event  or  Narrative. 


Second  cominissioii  of  Xehemiali,  and  reformation^ 
Neh.  7  [6-73]:  8:  9:  [10:],  n  [12.   1-9,  44-47]: 
13.  1-3:  Psa.  I.  119. 
Malachi  prophesies  against  the  corruptions  intro- 
duced dui-ing  the  second  absence  of  Nehemiah, 

Mai.  1:2:3.  1-15. 
Further  reformation  by  Nehemiah,  Neh.  13.  4-31- 
Final  prophecy  of  the  Old  Testament, 

Mai.  3.  16-18:  4. 
Detached  Genealogies,  etc.,  inserted  probably  at  the 
completion  of  the  Canon, 

I  Chron.  i:-9:  Neh.  12.  10-26. 


Sec.  7.   Chronolcrjy  of  Scrijjture,  and  early  prof ane  History. 

IC7.  The  chronology  of  the  earlier  history  of  Assyria  and  Egj-pt,— the  most 
„    ,      ,  ancient  of  the  nations  mentioned  in  Scripture,  involves  difficulties, 

iLarly  cnro-  y^^.^^i^]^^  i,j  ^i^g  present  state  of  our  knowledge  are  inextricable.  Ctesijis 
nology:  aim-  ^^^^  Herodotus  (the  two  profane  historians  on  whom  we  rely  for  in- 
culties.  formaiion  on  Aisyria),  diO'er  in  chronology  by  800  years,  and  prupor- 

tionably  in  their  dynasties  ;  Herodotus  fixing  the  duration  of  the  Assyrian  dominion 
in  .Upper  Asia  at  520  j-ears  ;  and  Ctesias  (wliose  historical  authority  is  very  low), 
at  1305  (Diod.  Sic.  ii.  21).  Semiramis  is  supposed,  in  one  account,  to  have  lived 
B.C.  2oi'7,  and  in  another  (Dr.  Hales),  B.C.  747.  The  mode  of  solving  these,  and 
some  other  difficulties,  Is  to  asstune  the  existence  of  two  Assyrian  empires  ;  an  a.s- 
sumption  supported  by  some  passages  m  Herodotus  (i.  c.  95,  102,  106,  185).  The 
difficulties  in  the  case  of  Egyptian  History,  arise  from  the  fact,  that  many  contem- 
poraneous dynasties  are  given  by  ancient  authorities,  and  the  same  king  has  often 
several  names. 

In  the  Tables  of  Egyptian  History,  we  adopt  the  chronology  of  the  English  Bible. 
.  ,,  ...  For  the"facts,  we  use  the  Tabies  of  Mr.  Cory,  published  by  Pickering  ; 
f  II    °"ri  for  Assyrian  History,  the  Tables  of  Dr.  Russell, 

tollowca.  jj^  jjj^y  ^  observed,  that  from  the  date  of  Solomon's  temple  (b.c. 

1012),  downwards,  there  are  no  serious  discrepancies  between  competent  authorities, 
o.\cept  in  relation  to  Assyria  (1012  to  771).  For  the  whole  of  this  later  period,  we 
adopt  the  dates  of  "  Clinton's  Fasti,"  which  seldom  differ  more  than  a  year  from 
those  of  the  authorized  version. 

Tabular  History  of  Egypt^  etc.,  from  the  Deluge  to  the 
days  of  Solomon. — From  Csher. 


B.C. 

2J43 
2192 


Egypt. 


The  Peluge. 

Foimdation  of  kingdom  of  Egypt.* 
i6th,  or  1st  earthly  dynasty. 


Palestine,  etc 


B.C. 
22J4 


Nimrod  estabhshes 
regal  government 
(Hales  2554)- 


*  In  this  Table  the  following  abbreviations  are  used :— (D.)  Diodorus  .SiculuK. 
(E.)  Eratosthenes.  (H.)  Herodotus.  (M.)  Manetho.  (M.  J.)  Manetho  according 
to  Josephus.  (M.  JI.  and  M.  T.^  Memphite  and  Thinite  list  of  :Manetho.  (S.) 
Sanchoniatho.  (S.  S.)  Bible.  Champollion,  Wilkinson,  Syncellus,  and  ancient 
classic  authors  are  also  quoted. 


534 


EARLY   PROFANE   HISTORY;   EGYPT,   ETC. 


Tabular  History  of  Egypt,  etc. 

— continued. 

Egypt.                                    ' 

Palestine,  etc. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

2192 

I.  3fenai.    Menes  (H.),  Misor  (S.),  Mizraim 

Babylon  foiuided. 

(S.  S.)                                                            1 

2147 

Asshur  (or  Nimrcd? 

2130 

2.    Thoth    I.        Athothes    (E.),     Tosortlius 

or  Ninus?)   founds 

(l\r.  M.),  inventor  of  letters  iind  medicine,  jl 

Nineveh. 

jEsculap.                                                          |l  2124 

Death     of    Nimrod. 

2071 

3.  Thoth  u.    Athothes (E.),Kenkeres(M.T.)  | 

Ninus.?  or  Belus? 

2o;9 

4.  Biabies  (E.),  Messocbris  (JI.  M.) 

2069 

Ninus,  the  beautiiJer 

2021 

5.  Femphos  (E.),  Sonthis  (M.M). 

of  Nineveh. 

Pyramids  hegiiii  ? 

2C59 

The  Assyrian  empire. 

2002 

Invasion  of  shepherds :  not  fully  expelled  for 

Babylon  taken. 

511  years. 

2017 

Semiramis     succeeds 

Native  kings,  1 7th  dyu.         Shepherd  kings. 

Ninus. 

2002 

I.  Sulatis. 

1906 

Abraham  born. 

1983 

2.  Beov. 

1978 

Victories    of    Semi- 

I9?9 

3.  Apachnas. 

ramis. 

I9j6 

6.  Kercs. 

1975 

Ninyas  succeeds  Se- 

1920 

7.  Osirtesen  i.     Tosertasis  (?>!.  M.),  Misar- 

miramis. 

tesen  (Pliny) ;  several  obelisks  and  monu- 

Abrah. visits  Egyjit. 

ments  left  by  him. 

Now  follow  the  reigns 

190J 

4.  Apophis. 

of   three-and-thirty 

I89T 

Osirtesen  breaks  the  power  of  the  shepherds. 

kings,  according  to 

1877 

8.  Amun  Muthah  r. 

Eusebius,    or    six- 

1861 

9.  Amun  JIuthah  11. 

and-thirty  according 

1845 

10.  Osirtesen  11. 

to  Sjoicellus,  ending 

1842 

5.  Janias. 

with    Sardanapalus 
(see  p.  5JJ,  5J6). 

T829 

II.  Osirtesen  in. 

]8ij 

12.  Amun  Muthah  m.,  left  several  monuments. 

i8j6 

Jacob  bom. 

1792 

6   Kurtos. 

1772 

13.  Hakor?  Acheres  (M.  M.),  Alisphragmu- 
thosisCM.J.) 

1768 

7.  Aseth. 

1755 

14.  Amos.    Siege  of  shepherds  in  Avaris. 

1748 

Expulsion  of  shepherds ;  death  of  Azeth. 

1748 

14.  Avws  alone.    18th  dyn.,  Amosis  (M.), 
Cheops  (.?  Her.) 

17  JO 

15.  Amenoph  r. 

1728 

Joseph  sold;    inter- 

1715 

Regency  till  Thothmos  irr.     Joseph  (S.  S.), 

pret' s        Pharaoh's 

Chebron     {Hebrew    ?    M.),     Ameuenthe 

dream;    his  eleva- 

(Champ), Amun-neit-gori  (Wilk.),  Amnuth 

tion. 

(Hierogl.) 

Appearance  of  the  Phoenix,  or  2nd  Hermes, 

supposed  to  be  Joseph  the  Hebrew. 

1710 

16.  Thothmos  i.,  and  Amesse.    Maoris  (H.), 
Mephres  (IH.  J.) 

Jacob  goes  to  Egypt 

1706 

Regulation  of  Calendar.    Phccnix. 

1688 

Thothmos  alone. 

1676 

17.  Thothmos  ir.    IVTephra  Muthosis  (M.  J.) 

1649 

18.  Thothmos  m.  M«ris(H.),  Thmosis(M..J.) 

i6i5 

Cessation  of  Regency;  great  architectural  works. 

Joseph  dies. 

1610 

19.  Amevoph  n.  (M.)    Anouphis  (E.) 

1579 

20.  Thothmos  IV.    Orus  (M.  J.),  Soris  (M.)  ; 

1577 

Israelites  multiply. 

Persecution  of  Israelites. 

1571- 

Birth,  and  early  life 

I54J 

Regent  Mhencheres.    Chnubus  Gneurus  (E.) 

32 

of  jMcses. 

1543 

21.  Amenoph  in.,  and  Ajnun  Toohn.    Rathek 
(Hierog.),  Danaus  (Gr.),  Rathoti's  (M.  J.) 

I5JO 

Danaus  expelled  by  Amenoph. 

153 1 

Moses  in  Midian. 

1504 

Danaus  and  his    son    drive  Amenoph  into 
Ethiopia. 

1504 

22.  AmunmeAvameJi.  Achenchcresii.(M.  J.), 
Choncheres  (Syn.),  Bocchoris  (Tac),  Bu- 
Biris  (Grks.) 

EARLY  PROFANE  HISTORY  :   EGYPT,   ASSYRIA,   ETC,         535 
Tabular  History  of  Egypt,  etc. — continued. 


B.C. 

1492 
1491 


1491 
1490 

1486 


1418 

i}66 
1J2J 


I26J 

1223 

1222 


1209 
1 194 
II79 

1 164 

1149 

II19 

IIOI 

971 


Egypt. 


Death  of  Ameuoph. 

Final  expulsion  of  shepherds  and  Danaus ;  the 
mLxod  multitude  (M.);  Exode  ;  Bocchoris 
dro-mied.  Syn.  says  this  occurred  700 
years  after  Menes,  and  after  twenty-five 
reigns. 

23.  Banicsses  i.    Sethos  (T.),  Suphis  (M.M.) 

24.  Amuii,  or  PhtJiah  me  Fhoeniduen,  or 
Armeen.    Armais  (M.),  Herma^us  (M.  J.) 

25.  Hamessesn.  Sethos (T.),Souphi3(;\I.iM.), 
Sesostris  (Grks.),  Scsoosis  (D.),  Great  war- 
rior. 

26.  Amenoph  iv.  Phthahmen  flVilk.),  JIc- 
nephtha  (Champ.),  Mencheres  (]M.  jM.) 

27.  I9tii  dynastv.  I'hthahmen  Se  riithah, 
Sethos  (M.),  Musthis  (E.) 

28.  OsM  men  Phthah.  Rapsaces  (^I.),  Phius 
(M.  M.) 

29.  Osiri  ta  Remerrer.    Ammenemes  (JM.) 
JO.  Bamrsses  in.    Aphrops  (M.),  Sesousis  ir. 

(IX),  Sesostris  ir.  (M.),IMaeris  (Her.)  adonis 
Thebes. 
The  Cycle  of  Jla^ris  begins. 

31.  Pamesses  IV.    Ammenephthes  (M.) 

32.  Jiamesses  v.    Menthe  Suphis  (M.  INI.) 

33.  Xitocris  and  Eamesses  \i.  Nitocris  and 
Thuoris  (M.  M.),  Nitocris  (E.),  Proteus 
(D.),  20th  Dyn. 

34.  Harnesses  vii.  (Syn.),  Ehemphis  (D.) 
3^.  Pamesses  vin.    Ousiomares  (Syn.) 

36.  Harnesses  ix.  Ilhamsinitus  (H.),  Nileus 
(D.),  Sethos  Nilus  (E.) 

37.  Harnesses  x.  (Sjni.),  Semphucrates  (E.) 

38.  Haviesses  xi.  (Syn.),  Chuthen  Taurus  (E.) 

39.  Amun  Mai  Fouee,  Rhamesse  Jubasse 
(Syn.) 

40.  Amunmeses.  Rhamesse  Vaphris  (Syn.) 
The  sceptre  now  jjasses  to  Lower  Eg^-pt. 

There  are  in  the  21st  djoi.,  nine  Theban  kings, 
and  seven  known  Tanite,  reigning  130  years. 
22nd  dj-nasty.    Shcshook  or  Shisbak. 


PALESTrSE,  ETC. 


1491- 
51 


1466 
I45I 
1444 

i4?3  ? 

1402 


1383 


I  1283? 


1261 

1225: 
1213 
1198 

1192 
1183 
1176 
1116 
1112 
1 106 
1056 
1045 
1044 
1016 


The  Exode. 
Israel  in  the  wilder- 
ness. 


Danaus  (Eratos.) 
Charge  to  Joshua. 
Conquest  of  Canaan 
completed. 
DeucaUon  (Eratos). 
Judges. 
Othnicl. 
Ehud. 

Erectheus  (Eratos.) 
Shamgar. 
Iieborah. 
Cadmus  (Eratos.) 
Pelops  (Eratos.) 


Hercules  (Eratos). 

Gideon. 

Argonauts  f  Eratos). 

ist  Theljan  war. 

2nd  Theban  war. 

Jephthah. 

Troy  besieged  (Erat.) 

Trojan  war  ends. 

Orestes  at  Argos. 

Death  of  Samson. 

Samuel. 

Heraclidfc. 

David  king. 

Death  of  Codrus. 

Ionic  migration. 

Solomon  king. 


976     Division  of  kingdom. 


ASSTEIA. 


From  841-773.  Thonus  Concholerus  and  Sardanapalus  reign.    In 
800,  Jonah  visits  Nineveh;    in  773,  the  governors  of  Media  and 
besieged,  and  in  771,   Sardanapalus 
Three  kingdoms  are  formed,  of  v,hich. 


Babylon  rebel.  Xineveh  is 
perishes  in  his  palace  by  fire, 
at  first,  Assyria  is  chief. 

Assyria.  1 


Babylon. 


Media. 


Pul  reigns  over  all ;  makes  Israelites  pay  tribute,  769. 
Gives  his  kingdom  to 

B.  c.  I  B.  c. 

747     Tiglath  Pilcser.     766     Belesis,  or 
^40     Victories        in     747     Nabonassar. 


B.  c.  I 

776     Arbaces,  who 
consj)ired 
I    against    Sar- 


Egtft,  etc 


B.  C. 

972 


812 


Shishak  (Sesos- 
tris ?)    invades 

Judaea,  2  Chron. 
12.9. 

Bocchoris. 


[Era  of  Olynip. 
So  (or  see  below  .J 


536 

EARLY 

PROFANE  HISTORY:  EGYPT,   ASSYRIA,   ETC. 

Chronology  of  Scripture,  etc. — continued. 

Assyria  .                                                 | 

Egypt,  etc. 

Assyria. 

Bahylon. 

Media.             | 

..0.1       " 

75J     [Decennial     At* 

B.C. 

B.C. 

B.C. 

1 

choas  at  Ath.] 

TJS 

2  Kings  16. 

7JJ 

Nadius. 

danapalus,       | 

•JjO 

Sbahnanezer, 

in 

Porus. 

forms  a  Me-  1 

2  Kings  17. 

726 

JUgffiUS. 

dian  republic, 

725 

So,    the    Ethio- 

721 

Samaria  subdued 

721 

Merodach  Bal., 

Phraortes 

pian,     invades 

TH 

Sennacherib. 

Isa.  39. 

chief.                1 

1    Judaea,  2  Kings 

71J 

Sennacherib  in- 

753 

[Rome  foimded.] 

1     17- 4- 

vades  Judaea. 

743 

[First    Messe- 

71J      Usurpation      of 

712 

Sennacherib  in- 

nian war.] 

Sevechus,     the 

vades  Judajaa 

720 

[First  recorded 

priest. 

second     time, 

eclipse  of  the 

2  Kings  19. 

moon,      19th 

711 

Sennacherib  as- 
saseinated    in 
the  temple  of 
Nisroch. 

March.] 

711 

Tiraca,  the  last 
Ethiopian, 
fights  with  Sen- 
nacherib. 2  Kgs. 

710 

Esarhaddon. 
Other        kuigs 

710 

Babylon  inde- 
pendent imder 

710 

Dejoces  king,  ' 
slain. 

19.9:  Isa.  J7.  9. 

mentioned,  but 

Merodach  who 

672 

[TuUus    Hos- 

685  1  Egypt     govern- 1 

doubtful. 

sends  to  He- 

tiUus.] 

ed    by    twelve 

699 

Esarhaddon 

zekiah;  again 

657 

[Byzantium 

kinp;s,    for    fif- 

takes Babylon. 

dependent 

built.] 

teen  or  twenty- 

677 

Esarhaddon  car- 
ries Manasseh 

till 

Phraortes. 

five  years. 

to  Babylon. 

670  1  Psammitichua  r. 

6C7 

Ninus    III.,    or 

overthrows 

Saosduchinus. 

641 

Cyaxares  i. 

them,  and  rules; 

050 

[  Cliiiialadanus, 

625 

Nabopola?sar, 

takes    Ashdod, 

1  Nabuchadono- 

father  of  Ne- 

see Isa.  20. 

or 

1  ser,  or  Sarda- 

buchadnezzar 

647 

Memphis    made 

6;o 

{  napalus  xi. 

the  Great. 

capital;  Psam- 
niitichus       in- 
troduces Greek. 

rharaoh  -Necbc 

Babylon  and  Persia. 

Media  and  Persia. 

6x6 

B.  C. 

B.  C. 

II.,  2  Chron.  J5, 

625 

Nabopolassar,     king      of 

641 

Dynasty  of  the  Kaianites, 

36. 

Babylon,  asserts  indepen- 

Kair-Kobad or  Cya.xares  i., 

610 

Navy;  canal  tc 

dence  of  Assyria. 

subject  to  Scythians,  ex- 

connect ]\Iedit 

623 

Nebuchadnezzar,  his   son, 

pels    them,    and    takes 

and  Red  Seas  at- 

marries the  daughter  of 

Nineveh. 

tempted,  fails. 

Cyaxares  of  Media. 

Previous    to    this     time. 

C08 

Nineveh  besieged  by  Ba- 

there is  no  credible  his- 

609    Necho     invaacsi 

bylon  and  ]\Iedia,  under 

tory  of  Persia,  Kai-Kans, 

1    Asia.             ^    1 

Nebuchadnezzar. 

or  Astyages. 

606     "            ■ "      " 

Defeated  by  ^c• 

606 

Taken  and  added  to  Media. 

621 

[Draco,  Athens.] 

i 

Ijuchadnezzar. 

606 

Takes  Jerusalem. 

619 

[Tarquin  i.,  Rome.] 

■  600 

Psanimis       suc- 

C06 

Nebuchadnezzar      defeatc 

i 

ceeds  Necho. 

Necho. 

1  594 

Apries,     or    P. 

604 

Nebuchadnezzar        reigns 

6oi 

Birth      of      Kai-IChosru 

1 

Hophra,      con- 
spires        Avith 
Zedekiah, 
against    Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 

537 

alone ;  founds  Babylonian 
empire,  etc. 

Nebuchadnezzar  conquers 
.Tuda'a. 

595 

(Cyi-us). 
[Sappho.  Solon,  Thnles.] 

532 

Neliuchadnezzar        takes 
!     Shusim.    Dan.,  Ezek. 

\y.^ 

Apries    deposed 
by    Nebuchad- 

575 

i  Nebuchafhiezz^r         takes 
1    Tvrf ,  after  thirteen  years 

572 

[yEsop  flou.] 

nezzar.  Jer.  44. 
30:   46-.   Ezok 

1    Bicge. 

29»  JO;  J2. 

i 

EARLY  PROFAXE  HISTORY  :   EGYPT,   ASSYRIA,   ETC. 


537 


Chronology  of  Scriptm*e,  etc. — continued. 


Assyria, 

Egti'T,  etc. 

Babylon  and  Persia. 

Media  and  Persia. 

B.C. 

\ 

1  569 

Amasis       made 

B.C. 

B.C. 

king  by  Nebu- 

'iio 

Golden  image  set  up. 

1 

1 

chadnezzar  ; 

561 

Evil-Merodach  succeeds. 

560 

[Peisistratus,  Athens.] 

! 

Egypt        very 

559 

Evil-Merodach    slain    by 

559 

Cyaxarcs  11.  (Darius). 

i 

prosperous. 

Cyras. 

Cyras  general,  and  rules. 

554 

Solon          visits 

558 

Neriglassar  (Belsh.),  sue. 

Persian  monarchy  founded 

1 

Egj-pt. 

556 

Babylon    besieged ;      the 
"  writing  on  the  wall." 

by  Cyrus. 

1 

J55 

Darius,  king  of   Babylon 
and  Media. 

551 
or 
553 

1  Nabonadius  niles ;  aspires 
J   to  be  independent. 

55^ 

Zoroaster. 
Cyaxares  dies. 
CjTus  reigns  alone. 

1536 
535 

Pythagoras  visits 
Egypt. 
Egyjit  made  tri- 

540 

Babylon  again  besieged. 

546 

Conquers  Croesus  and  Asia 

butary  by  Cy- 

538 

Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus, 

Muior. 

ras. 

and  annexed  to  Persian 

5J8 

Takes  Babylon. 

525 

Psammeuitus 

empire. 

5J5 

And  Egypt. 

revolts,  and  is 
defeated,     Isa. 

529 

Death  of  Cyrus  in  battle  (Her.),  in  peace  (Xen.) 

19;     Egypt    a 

525 

Cambyses,  his  son,  succeeds ;  conquers  Egypt. 

Persian       pro- 

522 

Smerdis  the  Magian. 

vince;    end   of 

521 

Slain,  and  succeeded  by  Darius  Hytaspes,  Dan.  11.  2. 

dynasty          of 

518 

Babylon  revolts,  and  is  destroyed. 

Pharaoh. 

508 

Eg}T)tiau  canal  completed  (see  610,  Egypt.) 

436 

Egypt      revolts 

499 

Macedon  and  Thrace  tributary.    lonians  revolt,  and  Athenians 

(and    is  again) 

assist.    "War  against  Greece. 

484 

Subdued. 

492 

Two  expeditions  against  Greece  defeated. 

460 

Again        rebels 

490 

Egypt  revolts. 

under    Inarius, 

484 

Xerxes  succeeds  Darius;  subdues  Egypt,  Dan.  11.  2. 

aided  by  Athens- 

480 

Expedition  against  Greece  fails. 

448 

Herodotus  visitB 

465 

Xerxes  murdered ;  Artaxerxcs  i. ;  Longim.  succeeds,  Xeh.  2. 6 ; 

ligypt. 

Themistocles  in  Persia, 

414 

Indep.      Amyr- 

457 

Esther  queen. 

tajus ;         nine 

454 

Ezra  visits  Jeiusalem. 

kings  succeed  j. 

445 

Xehemiah. 

Pausiris,  Psam- 

425 

Xerxes  11.  succeeds,  and  is  assassinated;  Sogdianus. 

mitichus  n.,  etc. 

424 

Darius  II. ;  Nothus. 

350 

Subdued  by  Oo 

414 

Egypt  regains  her  independence. 

hus     the    Per- 

405 

Artaxerxes  Mnemon.    See  p.  538. 

sian.  See  p.  5  J  8. 

CHAPTER  TV. 
Civil  axd  Moral  History  of  the  Jews  from  Malachi  to 

JoHX  THE  Baptist. 
Sec.  I.  Sketch  of  the  Civil  History  of  the  Jews  during  the  Period 
hetween  the  Old  and  Neiu  Testaments. 
108.  Although  we  have  no  account  of  this  period  in  Scrip- 
ture, its  events  are  frequently  referred  to  in  prophecy,  and 
many  of  them  throw  light  upon  the  New  Testament.  The? 
following  sketch  is  founded  chiefly  on  Josephus  and  the 
books  of  the  Maccabees. 

2  A  3 


538 


OLD   AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS   CONNECTED. 


1 

Euclid. 

llelrcat  of  Tou  Thousand. 

Zeuxis, 

Plato. 

]\Iantinea,    death     of    Epami- 

nondas. 
Birth  of  Alexander. 
Aristotle. 
Demosthenes. 
Apelles. 
Epicurus. 
Theocritus. 
Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  enters 

Italy. 
[Berosus. 

Manetho,  Egj-ptians.] 
Eirst  Punic  war. 
Eeg-uius  prisoner. 
Archimedes. 
Plautus. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes  overthrown. 
Hannibal. 
Second  Punic  war. 
Battle  of  Cannffi. 
Zeno. 
Hannibal  defeated  in  Africa  by 

Sclpio  Africanus.                   , 
Scipio  Asiaticus. 

.;  -t-w  r-O-^       O  >r-co  -M/Mi  O       oo  w  fco  O  O  ^  O  ooo  O  m        O 

Persia, 
unger. 
•sia. 

crsians.      ^ 
rsia. 

ia  on  the  Granicus, 
;  at  Arbela,   the 

t. 

from  Antioch    to 

built, 
'rmiues  solar  year. 

Syria. 

Antiochus  i. 
Ant.  II.  Theos. 
Sel.  11.  Callinic. 
Sel.  III.  Keraun. 
Ant.  III.  the  Great. 

Scl.  IV.  Philop. 

Ant.  IV.  Epiph. 
Ant.  V.  Eup. 
Demetr.  Soler  de- 
feated and  slain 

Artaxerxcs  Mncmon, 
Death  of  Cyrus  the  yo 
Artaxerxes  Ochus,  Pe 
Egypt  recovered  by  P 
Darius  Codomanus,  Pe 
Alexander  defeats  Pers 
iJ4;  at   Issus,   m 
Persian  empire  ends 
Ptolemy  Lagus,  Egyp 
Seleucus  i.;  Nicator,  i 
Empire    of   Seleucus 

India. 
Selencus  on  the  Tigris 
Dionysius  (Alex.)  det 

Egypt. 

B.C. 

P.  Philadelph.  280 
261 

P.  Eucrgotes  I.  246 
226 

P.  Philopatcr.      223 

P.  Epiphanes. 

Eirst  Roman  army  in 
187 

P.  Philometh.      164 

i 

^'iit^^'^S       S^^    g^^         ^    S^    SsS^            ^ 

Jehoiada  high  priest.] 

Jokman  high  priest. 

Ochus,  king  of  Per^-ia,  plants  Jews  near  the 
Caspian. 

Jaddua  high  priest. 

Alexander,  having  destroyed  Tyre,  visits  Jeru- 
salem ;  plants  Jews  in  Alexandria. 

Alexander  dies ;  his  kingdom  divided. 

Onias  high  priest. 

Ptolemy  Lagus  captures  Jerusalem ;  plants  Jews 
in  Alexandria  and  Cyrene. 

Seleucus  obtains  Syria ;  era  of  the  Selcucid;B. 

The  dominions  of  Alexander  formed  into  four 
kingiloms,  as  foretold  by  Daniel. 

Simon  the  Just  high  priest. 

Eleazar  high  priest. 

Version  of  the  LXX  commenced  at  Alexandria. 

Onias  11.  high  priest. 

Ptolemy  Eucrgotes  offers  sacrifices  at  Jerusalem. 

Ptolemy  Philopatcr,  prevented  from  entering  the 
holy  of  holies, attempts  to  destroy  the  Jews  in 
Alexandria,  but  is  miraculously  prevented. 

Antiochus  the  Great  obtains  Palestine. 

The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  founded. 

Scopas,  an  Egyptian  general,  recovers  Judaja  to 
the  king  of  Egypt. 

Antiochus  regains  Juda>a. 

Onias  in.  high  priest. 

Heliodorus,  attempting  to  plimdcr  the  temple,  is 
prevented  by  an  angel. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes  takes  Jerusalem,  slays 
40,000  personsi,  aud  profanes  the  temple. 

Wi-r-ir\       -T '^        MMM        «-0         0  OM  t^-^i-i              000       0(^r^       r~           1 
«^.^         ..         ...         ..         .M..MM                .M.          .-_-          «               1 

OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS  CONNECTED, 


539 


^   ^-s 

S 

ca 

•  2  3 

^     £§• 

•  S 

o 

•^    1^ 

S2 

^ 

^"^^ 

5    -^^ 

2 

bird   I 
years, 
arlhage 
orinth 

^ 

H      OO 

c2.- 

•-5 

»^oy 

IP 


«y 


•a 


<5 


b5, 

1^1 

• 

T-      O 

d  .. 

< 

l; 

^^ 

yphon. 

It.  VII. 

met.  Nl 
exander 
it.  viir. 

.;b1I 

£.3-: 

S  2 

"S  ^ 

it.  I 

it.  -v 

ilip 

met 

115 

C*=5 

H^s<^<; 

<,<z^p. 

H    <; 

^ 

vC   -1-        <^  OO   t-' 


►-  O  CT^CN      00 


^    :? 


«  irMi^         O 


540 


OLD   AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS  CONNECTED. 


S 

til 

8 -no 


S 

^.2  o 


cs  -t; ""'  "5  "oj 


o 

2  "S  *  S  fe  5 
-§  -==  ^  ■?  s  S 


01  li 

2  '=^: 


;6  a 


liss 

1 

ipio. 

s. 

>1^ 

BibuUts 
Q.  M.  S 
S.  Ca^sa 
Cassius 
Ventidi 

Partliia 
Syria 
arefi 
pcllc 

i-^  G, 


Eg 


gg 


tiMT,  T^  tT  ^-, 


OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS  CONNECTED.  5-il 

110.  After  Nehemiah  (B.C.  420),  Judsca  continued  subject  to  the 
The  Jews  kings  of  Persia  for  nearly  a  hundred  years.  It  ceased, 
ander  the        however,  to  form  a  distinct  government,  and  was  annexed 

to  the  satrapy  of  Syria  ;  the  administration  of  aflfairs 
being  intrusted  to  the  high  priest,  subject  only  to  the  control  of 
the  Syrian  governor.  This  union  of  the  civil  government  and  the 
pontificate  soon  made  the  ofB.ce  one  of  high  ambition  to  the  different 
members  of  the  family  of  Aaron,  and  gave  occasion  to  many  violent 
and  disgraceful  contests. 

111.  Upon  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  army  by  Alexander,  Syria 
Alexander,  fell  under  his  power;  and  Tyre  was  taken  after  an  ob- 
B.c.  J3I-  stinate  resistance.  Alexander  then  marched  into  Judaea, 
to  punish  the  Jews,  who,  out  of  respect  for  their  oath  to  the  king  of 
Persia,  had  granted  the  Tyrians  supplies  of  provisions  and  refused 
them  to  him.  But  (it  is  related)  as  he  approached  Jerusalem,  and 
saw  a  solemn  procession  of  the  people  coming  to  meet  him,  headed 
by  the  high  priest  Jaddua,  and  all  the  priestly  i-ace,  in  their  robes 
of  office,  God  turned  his  heart  to  spare  and  favour  them.  He  con- 
tinued to  them  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  laws  and  religion; 
granted  them  exemption  from  tribute  during  their  sabbatical  years ; 
and  when  he  built  the  city  of  Alexandria,  placed  a  great  number  of 
Jews  there,  and  gave  them  the  same  privileges  as  his  Greek  subjects. 
On  the  division  of  Alexander's  empire,  Judaea  ultimately  fell  to  the 
Tlie  share  of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  and  formed  part  of  the 
Egyptians.  monarchy  of  Egypt.  That  prince  removed  many  of  the 
people  to  Alexandria,  confirmed  their  privileges,  and  even  advanced 
some  of  them  to  offices  of  authority  and  trust.  By  successive  de- 
portations and  volvrntaiy  removals,  Egypt  became,  and  long  con- 
tinued, an  important  seat  of  the  Jewish  population.  The  moral 
influence  of  this  change  will  be  noticed  below. 

During  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  the  prosperity  of  the 
Jews  was  much  promoted  by  the  internal  administration  of  an 
excellent  high  priest,  Simon  the  Just.  He  repaired  and  fortified 
their  city  and  temple  with  strong  and  lofty  walls,  and  made  a 
spacious  reservoir  of  water,  "in  compass  as  a  sea."  He  is  said  to 
have  completed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  by  the  addition  of 
the  books  of  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  and 
Malachi.  The  Jews  also  affirm  that  Simon  was  "the  last  of  the 
great  synagogue,"  which  is  described  as  having  consisted  of  120 
individuals,  among  whom  were  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Nehemiah, 
and  Malachi.  They  appear  to  have  been  <a  succession  of  devoted 
and  patriotic  men,  who  distinguished  themselves  after  the  captivity 
by  their  labom-s  in  collecting  and  revising  the  sacred  books,  and  in 


542  OLD   AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS  CONNECTED. 

settling  and  improving  the  civil  and  religious  institutions  of  their 
country.     Simon  died  in  the  year  291  B.C. 

After  the  Jewish  nation  had  been  tributary  to  the  kings  of  Egyj^t 
for  about  a  hundred  years  (during  the  last  sixty  of  which  it  enjoyed 
almost  uninterrupted  tranquillity  under  the  shadow  of  their  power), 
it  became  subject,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  to  the  kings 
of  Syria  (B.C.  198).  They  divided  the  land  iato  five  provinces;  thi'ee 
of  which  were  on  the  west  side  of  Jordan,  namely,  Galilee,  Samaiia, 
and  Judaea  (though  the  whole  country  was  frequently  called  Judcca 
after  this  time) ;  and  two  on  the  eastern  side,  namely,  Trachonitis 
and  Persea:  but  the  Jews  were  still  allowed  to  be  governed  by  their 
own  laws,  under  the  high  priest  and  council  of  the  nation. 

Judasa,  being  situated  between  Syria  and  Egypt,  was  much  affected 
by  the  frequent  wars  in  which  those  countries  were  engaged.  The 
evils  to  which  it  was  thus  exposed  were  aggravated  by  the  cor- 
ruption and  misconduct  of  its  high  priests  and  chief  men,  and  the 
increasing  wickedness  of  the  people, 

112.  God  saw  fit  to  punish  the  Jews  for  this  defection  by  the  hand 
_.,    g    .         of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria,  who  came  and 

plundered  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  with  every 
circumstance  of  cruelty  and  profanation,  and  slew  or  enslaved  great 
numbers  of  the  inhabitants  (b.c.  170).  For  three  years  and  a  half 
they  were  altogether  deprived  of  their  civil  and  religious  liberties. 
The  daily  sacrifice  was  taken  away ;  the  temple  itself  was  dedicated 
by  Antiochus  to  Jupiter,  whose  statue  was  erected  on  the  altar  of 
burnt  oflFering;  the  observance  of  the  law  of  God  was  prohibited 
under  the  severest  penalties;  every  copy  of  the  sacred  writings 
which  could  be  seized  was  burned;  and  the  people  were  required, 
imder  pain  of  death,  to  sacrifice  to  idols.  Never  before  had  the 
Jews  been  exposed  to  so  furious  a  persecution.  Numerous  as  were 
the  apostates,  a  remnant  continued  faithful:  and  these  events  were 
doubtless  made  instrumental  in  calling  the  attention  of  the  heathen 
around  to  those  great  principles  for  which  many  of  the  Jews  at  that 
time  Avere  willing  to  peril  their  lives. 

113.  At  length  God  raised  up  a  deliverer  for  his  people  in  the 
The  noble  family  of  the  Asmonseans.  Mattathias,  a  priest 
Asmona3ans.  eminent  for  his  piety  and  resolution,  and  the  father  of 
five  sons,  encouraged  the  people,  by  his  example  and  exhortations, 
"to  stand  up  for  the  law:"  and  having  collected  around  him  a  large 
number  of  faithful  men,  he  undertook  to  free  the  nation  from  the  op- 
pi-ession  and  persecution  of  the  Syrians,  and  to  restore  the  worship 
of  the  God  of  Israel;  but  being  very  old  when  he  engaged  in  this 
ai-duous  work,  he  did  not  live  to  see  its  completion.    At  his  death,  his 


OLD   AND   NEW  TESTAMENTS  CONNECTED.  543 

eldest  son,  Judas,  succeeded  to  the  ccmmaxid  of  the  army  (b.c.  163), 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  foux"  brothers,  especially  by  Simon, 
the  elder  of  them,  who  was  a  man  of  remarkable  prudence.  The 
motto  on  his  standard  was,  Exod.  15.  11,  "^Yho  is  like  unto  thee 
among  the  gods,  0  Jehovah?"  The  Hebrew  words  being  Mi  Camoka 
Baelim  Jehotah  ;  and  from  the  initial  letters  of  these  words  M  C  B  I 
was  derived  the  word  Maccahi,  or  Maccabee,  which  became  the  sur- 
name of  the  family,  and  was  applied  also  to  all  who  joined  their 
cause. 

After  several  victories  over  the  troops  of  Antiochus,  he  gained 
possession  of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple.  His  first  care  was  to 
purify  both  from  all  traces  of  idolatry.  The  temple  was  con- 
secrated anew  to  the  service  of  God,  and  the  daily  sacrifices  were 
resumed.  This  reconsecration  of  the  temple  and  i-evival  of  worship 
was  ever  after  celebrated  by  an  annual  feast  of  eight  days.  It  oc- 
curred at  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice,  and  was  called  the  feast  of 
the  dedication,  John  10.  22. 

114.  Under  the  Maccabean  princes,  Judaea  became  a  fx'ee  state,  sup- 
ported by  regular  troops,  strong  gan-isons,  and  alliances  with  other 
powers,  including  even  Eome  itself.  The  coimtry  began  to  enjoy 
its  former  fertility  and  peacefulness ;  and  the  boundaries  of  the 
state  were  extended  in  the  direction  of  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Arabia, 
and  Idumsea.  This  prosperity,  however,  was  but  of  short  duration. 
The  decline  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  the  gradual  extension  of  the 
Eoman  power,  soon  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  common- 
wealth. Pompey  marched  his  army  into  Judaea,  besieged  and  took 
Jerusalem,  and  made  Judaea  tributary  to  the  Romans;  though  it 
was  still  governed  by  the  Maccabean  princes.  The  last  of  that 
family  was  conquered  and  deposed  by  Herod  the  Great,  an  Idumaean 
by  birth,  but  of  the  Jewish  religion ;  a  favourite  of  Rome,  and  con- 
nected, by  his  marriage  to  Mai'iamne,  with  the  Asmonaean  family. 
He  enlarged  the  kingdom,  but  reduced  the  power  of  the  high 
priesthood,  which,  instead  of  being  an  hereditary  ofl&ce  held  for 
life,  was  now  granted  and  held  at  the  pleasure  of  the  monarch.  He 
was  a  cruel  tyrant  to  his  people,  and  even  to  Lis  own  children, 
three  of  whom  he  put  to  death ;  a  slave  to  his  passions,  and  indif- 
ferent by  what  means  he  gratified  his  ambition.  But,  to  preserve 
the  Jews  in  subjection,  and  to  erect  a  lasting  monument  to  his  own 
name,  he  repaired  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  at  a  vast  expense,  and 
greatly  added  to  its  magnificence. 

115.  In  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Herod,  while  Augustus 
^  was  eraperor  of  Rome,  the  Saviour  of  the  world  was 

boru. 


644  MORAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  JEWS. 

Herod  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of  part  of  Palestine  by 
his  son  Archelaus,  who  acted  ^vith  great  cruelty;  and  in  the  tenth 
year  of  his  government,  upon  a  complaint  being  made  against  him 
by  the  Jews,  he  was  banished  by  Augustus  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul, 
where  he  died.  Publius  Sulpitius  Quirinius  (who,  according  to  the 
Greek  way  of  writing  the  name,  is  by  Luke  called  Cyrenius), 
the  president  of  Syria,  was  then  sent  to  reduce  the  coimitries  over 
which  Archelaus  had  reigned  to  a  Roman  province ;  and  a  governor 
of  Judaea  was  appointed  under  the  title  of  procurator,  subordinate 
to  the  president  of  Syria.  During  our  Saviour's  ministry,  Judaea 
and  Samaria  were  governed  by  a  Roman  procurator,  who  had  the 
power  of  life  and  death;  while  Galilee  was  governed  under  the 
authority  of  the  Romans  by  Herod  Antipas,  a  son  of  Herod  the 
Great,  with  the  title  of  tetrarch. 


Sec.  2.  Sketch  of  the  Moral  and  Religious  History  of  the  Jeivs, 
during  the  jperiod  between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 

1x6.  Between  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  canon,  and 
the  time  of  our  Lord,  the  Jews  appear  in  a  somewhat  new 
light.  Their  intercourse  with  Gentiles  in  Babylon,  and  else- 
where, and  the  severe  chastisements  they  had  undergone, 
checked  their  tendency  to  idolatry,  and  conj&rmed  them  in 
their  own  faith.  The  Scriptures  were  also  more  frequently 
consulted  than  under  the  earlier  monarchy,  and  synagogues 
were  estabUshed  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Palestine. 

The  intercourse  of  the  Jews  -with  other  nations,  had  become 
during  the  same  period  more  general.  As  early  as  the 
intercourse  time  of  the  captivity,  a  colony  was  formed  in  Egypt; 
with  I  ha  ^]^^g  violating  the  law  (Deut.  I2.),  and  Aveakeniug  the 

ties  which  bound  them  to  the  holy  city.  Their  earlier 
connection  with  Egypt  had  been  a  scourge,  and  now  it  became  a 
snare.  From  choice  or  necessity,  settlers  established  themselves 
in  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece,  in  Africa,  and  in  Italy,  so  that  when 
our  Lord  appeared,  there  was  scarcely  a  country  in  the  whole 
Roman  empire  in  which  a  Jewish  colony  might  not  be  found.  It 
was  well  nigh  literally  true  that  Moses  had  in  every  city  those  that 
preached  him,  Acts  15.  21, 

As  a  consequence  of  this  intercourse,  the  original  language  of 
Palestine,  which  had  been  subject,  as  we  have  seen,  to  various  in- 
fluences (Pt.  i.  §  34),  was  for;:otten  by  many  of  the  Jews,  and  Greek 
became  as  familiar  in  the  towns  of  Judcca  as  Aramaean.     Hence  the 


RELIGIOUS   CONDITION  OF  THE  JEWS.  545 

translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  the  admission  by  the 
Jews  into  their  purer  faith  of  some  of  the  absurdities  of  heathen 
philosophy.  Hence,  also,  an  extensive  acquaintance  among  the 
Gentiles  with  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  a  general  expectation 
throughout  all  the  east  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah. 

117.  Other  influences  were  also  at  work,  of  a  directly  reli- 
gious kind. 

Most  of  the  rites  of  the  law  derived  their  significance  from  their 
Other  in-  symbolical  character.  They  were  doctrines  in  action; 
fluences.  ^^j  though  some  were  intended  merely  to  preserve  the 

Jews  distinct  from  neighbouring  nations,  most  were  intended  to 
teach  lessons  of  piety  and  morality,  or  to  point  attention  to  the 
office  and  work  of  the  Messiah. 

Towards  the  close  of  this  jieriod,  however,  all  that  was  spiritual 
in  the  law  was  overlooked ;  the  ritual  alone  being  regarded.  Hence 
arose  a  variety  of  sects,  a  knowledge  of  whose  tenets  helps  us  to 
appreciate  the  allusions  of  our  Lord.  This  knowledge,  moreover, 
is  highly  instructive  in  illustratiag  the  deceitfulness  of  human 
nature,  and  its  tendencies  in  our  own  age.  We  may  notice,  in 
fact,  in  Judaea,  the  direction  which  the  mind  of  man  everywhere 
takes  as  true  religion  decays.  There  was  fii-st  the  traditional  ten- 
Pharisaism,  dency,  under  whose  influence  foreign  human  elements 
Sadduceeism,  were  mingled  •ndth  the  Divine.  Forms  which  com- 
pressed and  destroyed  the  substance  of  piety  were  sub- 
stituted for  such  as  gi'ew  of  it:  the  law  was  made  void  through 
traditions.  In  the  place  of  the  real  essence  thei-e  came  the  dead 
cei'emonial.  This  was  Pharisaism,  or  legal  Judaism.  But  extremes 
confirm  one  another.  The  foreign  additions  introduced  by  one  sect 
were  disowned  by  others;  and  with  the  rejection  of  the  additions 
came  the  rejection  of  much  that  was  true.  Hence  arose  Sadduceeism, 
or  rationalistic  Judaism,  ending  often  in  infidelity.  In  time,  it  was 
earlier  than  Pharisaism,  but  it  never  flom-ished  till  that  system  be- 
came prevalent.  Neither  error  met  the  wants  of  men  of  warmer 
devotional  feeling.  The  Pharisee  believed  too  much,  the  Sadducee 
too  little.  Both  failed,  in  the  opinion  of  this  third  sect,  to  see  the 
import  of  Scripture,  which  is  not  on  the  surface,  but  beneath,  and 
must  be  reached  by  profound  meditation  and  allegorical  interpreta- 
tions. Hence  arose  the  Essenes,  the  representatives  of  the  raonasti- 
cism  of  all  ages.  How  easy  to  avoid  the  errors  of  others,  and  yet 
have  errors  no  less  fatal  of  our  own ! 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  three  Grecian  sects — the  Stoics, 
the  Epicm-eans.  and  the  Pythagoreans — did  not  widely  differ  from 


546  JEWISH  SECTS  :   TRADITION. 

Correspond-  these  Jewish  sects.  Sir  John  Malcolm  has  also  shown 
ing  Greek  that  the  three  chief  Mohammedan  sects  fell  into  the 
'  '  same  errors.  The  Sunis  are  the  traditionists ;  the  Sheas 
adhere  to  the  Koran;  and  the  Sufis  sought  their  religion  in  what 
Mahommed  called  "  internal  divine  sensation/'  (History  of  Persia, 
chap.  22). 

Later  than  the  time  of  our  Lord,  these  sects  wore  known  by  dif- 
ferent names.  The  Pharisees  were  called  successively,  Rabbinists 
(disciples,  tho.t  is,  of  the  rabbis,  or  great  teachers) ;  Cabalists  (i.  e., 
traditionists) ;  and  Talmudists,  Those  who  held  the  doctrine  of 
the  Sadducees  on  the  supremacy  of  the  literal  text  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, though  not  holding  their  other  errors,  were  called  Karaites, 
or  Scripturists.  The  Essenes,  also,  ai^e  known  in  history  as  Thera- 
peutae  («.  c,  soul-physicians) ;  though  some  think  that  this  name 
was  given  to  a  distinct,  but  similar  sect.  (Burton's  Bampton  Lec- 
ture, Note  32;  and  Neander's  Church  History,  i.) 

118.  It  is  instructive  to  observe,  that  while  the  Pharisees 
used  tradition  for  the  discovery  of  truth,  the  Sadducees  used 
rationalistic  logic  for  the  same  purpose,  as  did  the  schoolmen 
in  later  times  ;  and  that  these  sects  owed  their  origin  to  the 
tendencies  of  human  nature,  and  the  decay  of  spiritual  reli- 
gion. The  great  question  between  them,  moreover,  was  on  the 
extent  and  authority  of  tradition.  The  Sadducee,  though 
willing  to  compare  it  with  so  much  of  Scripture,  as  he  be- 
lieved, denied  its  authority :  The  Pharisee  received  it  as 
Divine. 

119.  The  body  of  tradition  referred  to  in  these  disputes, 
Jewish  tradi-  ^'^^^  collected  in  the  second  century,  or  later,  by 
tion.  Jewish  doctors,  and  especially  by  K.  Judah,  the 
Holy,  a  descendant  of  Gamaliel  (Lightfoot),  and  a  favourite  of 
one  of  the  Antonines. 

The  collection  is  called  Mishna,  or  the  repetition.'*  Later  doctors 
added  to  it  various  comments,  under  the  name  of  Gemara  (a  com- 
pletion); and  the  two  works — l^Iishna  and  Gemara — are  together 
Jewish  Ira-  called  the  Talmud,  from  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  to 
ditiou.  teach.     The  Mishna,  with  the  comments  collected  by 

Jerusalem  rabbis  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  has  the  name  of 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud.  The  comments  of  the  Babylonish  Talmud 
were  collected  in  the  sixth  ceutuxy  by  rabbis  residing  at  Babylon. 
The  !Mishna,  or  text,  is  the  same  in  each.  The  traditions  which 
compose  it  arose  about  300  years  before  Christ,  and,  interpolations 
"^  devTepuais. 


MLSHXA  :    GEMARA  :   TALMUD.  547 

excepted,  were  no  doubt  such  as  met  our  Lord  in  the  days  of  his 
pcr?onal  luiuistiy. 

lu  the  Talmud  are  found  many  critical  and  grammatical  comments 
on  the  tests  of  Scripture.  These  comments,  with  others  which 
tradition  had  handed  down,  were  brought  together  into  one  book 
under  the  title  of  Masora  (or  tradition).  When  these  Masoretic 
comments  originated  is  not  agreed.  Some  Jewish  wi'iters  maiatain 
that  many  of  them  are  as  old  as  the  days  of  Moses.  Kimchi  and 
others  think  that  they  commenced  with  the  revision  of  the  Mss.  of 
Scripture  effected  by  Ezra;  and  others  still  (among  whom  is  Eben 
Ezra,  1 1 50),  that  they  had  their  origin  in  the  school  of  Tiberia.s, 
between  the  thii-d  and  the  sixth  centuries  after  Christ.  Eichhom 
thinks  it  demonstrable  that  they  are  not  the  production  of  any 
one  age,  but  were  written  at  long  intervals,  and  some  of  them  in 
compai'atively  modem  times.  The  whole  were  published  in  Bom- 
berg's  Rabbinical  Bible  ("^^enice,  1318-36).  They  are  printed  on  the 
Bide  of  the  text  and  at  the  end  of  each  book.  Extracts  from  this 
Masora  (tmder  the  title  of  the  lesser  Masora)  have  been  frequently 
printed,  and  portions  of  these  are  found  in  nearly  all  editions  of 
the  Hebrew  Scrip tm-es. 

To  the  Masorites,  probably,  we  owe  the  points,  accents,  and  most 
of  the  corrections  of  the  printed  text,  together  with  a  large  mass  of 
curious,  though  unimportant  information,  on  the  words  and  letters 
of  Scripture.  Some  of  their  connections  are  critical:  they  suggest 
the  right  division  of  words,  Psa.  55.  16:  123.  4;  the  transposition, 
alteration,  and  omission  of  consonants,  i  Kings  7.  45:  Ezek.  25.  7: 
Amos  8.  8 ;  grammatical  or  orthograjjhical,  as  in  various  passages  of 
the  Pentateuch  (see  Pent.)  .and  Ez.  27.  5;  and  euphemistic  or  ex- 
planatory, I  Sam.  5.  6:  6.  4:  Deut.  28.  17;  2  Kings  18.  27:  Isa. 
26.  12. 

The  Masorites  notice  seven  passages  in  which  words  are  read 
(keri)  in  the  Hebrew  which  are  not  wi-itten  (kethib),  2  Sam.  8.  3: 
16.23;  fiVe,  where  words  are  written,  but  not  read,  2  Kings  5.18,  etc. 

They  made  it  their  business,  also,  to  count  the  words  and  lettera 
of  each  book,  as  well  as  unusual  constructions  and  forms,  and  to 
mark  many  facts  of  no  importance,  except  that  the  care  thus  exer- 
cised in  accumulating  them,  tended  to  guard  the  purity  of  the 
sacred  text.  They  note,  for  example,  that  the  middle  letter  of  the  law 
is  in  Lev.  n.  42;  the  middle  icords  in  Lev.  10.  13;  the  middle 
verse,  Lev.  13.  13.  Of  the  Psalms,  the  middle  letter  is  in  80.  14, 
and  the  middle  verse,  78.  36.  They  also  state  how  often  each 
letter  occurs  in  each  book  and  in  all  the  Bible.^ 

The  middle  letters  were  written,  and  are  still  printed,  in  au 

^De  Wette's  Intr.  i.  256;  Walton's  Proleg.  vili.  8;  Buxtorfs 
Tibci-ias. 


548 


PHARISEES:   SADDUCEES. 


unusual  position,   or   of  an   unusual   size,    and   are   said    by  the 
Cabalists  to  have  a  deep  spiritual  meaning. 

1 20.  The  Cabala  (or  received)  was  the  mystical  intei^pretation  of 
Scripture,  said  to  have  been  received  from  God,  by  Adam,  Abraham, 
and  Moses,  and  to  have  been  handed  down  through  Joshua  to  the 
seventy  elders  and  their  successors,  the  rabbinical  doctors.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  whole  system  of  philosophy  in  vogue 
among  the  Rabbins,  who  supposed  that  each  letter  of  Scripture 
contained  some  mystery  (see  examples,  Pt.  i.  §  428). 


121.  The  Pharisees  formed  the  most 
Pharisees  and  ^^^i^rous  sect  among  the 
Sucees  J^;«-^  Their  name  sig- 
nifies  expounders,  or  sepa- 
rated, either  because  they  expounded 
the  law  by  tradition,  or  because  they 
deemed  themselves  more  holy  than 
others,i5  John  7.  49.  They  represented 
the  legal  spirit  of  Judaism  ;  and  reflect- 
ing most  truly  the  national  character, 
they  were  the  favourite  sect  among  the 
people.  They  were  among  the  bitterest 
enemies  of  our  Lord. 

Such  was  their  general  character;  in 
some  few,  however,  religion  was  the  ex- 
pressiou  of  honest,  but  misguided  zeal, 
Bom.  10.  J. 


The  Sadducees  take  their  name  either 
from  Tsedek,  righteousness,  or  from 
Sadok,  the  pupil  of  Antigonus  Sochreus, 
the  first  Mishnical  teacher,  and  president 
of  the  great  Sanhediim  (b.c.  250).  They 
denied  the  authority  of  tradition,  and  re- 
garded with  suspicion  all  revelations 
made  later  than  Moses.  They  objected 
to  all  development  of  Divine  truth,  evcu 
of  such  truth  as  was  plainly  implied  in 
the  Pentateuch ;  so  that  they  often  mis- 
understood the  very  books  they  pro- 
fessed to  receive.  On  this  groimd,  they 
denied  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Their 
denial  of  the  existence  of  angel  and 
spirit  is  hardly  explicable  on  any  prin- 
ciple, except  that  -v^  hen  once  men  have 
become  sceptical  their  unbelief  is  closely  allied  to  credulity.  The  precepts  of  tbe 
law  were  the  only  parts  they  regarded  as  clear;  all  else  they  thought  uncertain. 
Without  foniially  denjing  a  Providence,  they  made  God,  as  far  as  possible,  an  idle 
spectator  of  the  affairs  of  the  universe,  and  were  led  by  this  view  to  a  system  of 
deism  which  all  but  set  aside  the  authority  of  revelation.  Their  doctrines  were 
favourably  received  by  the  young  men  of  Judaea,  and  produced  (as  Josephus  has 
aflBrmed)  dispositions  cold  and  repulsive.  The  Sadducees  were  mostly  persons  ci 
wealtli,  who  lived  a  life  of  ease  and  earthly  enjoyment,  without  openmg  theit 
minds  to  any  higher  aspirations.  From  their  position,  they  gained  some  of  the 
most  important  posts  in  the  country.  Caiaphas,  who  condemned  our  Lord,  was  a 
Sadducee  ;c  and  Josephus  says  that  Herod,  who  felt  John's  preaching  so  keenly, 
belonged  to  this  sect.^l  He  thus  furnishes  an  illustration  of  the  power  of  conscience 
over  a  system  of  infidelity  which  his  heart,  rather  than  his  head,  had  embraced. 

The  nerodiavs  were  chiefly  Sadducees 

in  their  religious  tenets  (compare  Mark 

15  with  ]Matt.  16.  6),  but  were  rather 


122.  Closely  akin  to  the  Pharisees  ui 
f}ab-ljpnr.«:  ^^'^""  religious  views  were 
HerodS  the  GaliUmns,  though 
.neroQians.  differing  in  tlieir  political 
tenets.  They  sprang  from  Judas  of 
Galilee  (Gamala),  who,  in  "  the  days  of 
the  taxing,"  taught  that  all  foreign  domi- 
nation was  unscriptural,  and  that  God 
was  tli3  only  king  of  the  Jews.  Deem- 
ing it  unlawful  to  pray  for  foreign 
princes,  they  performed  tlieir  sacrifices 
apart.  As  our  Lord  and  his  disciples 
•were  from  Galilee,  the  Pharisees  at- 
tempted to  identify  him  with  this  sect. 

Of  this  party,  the  most  violent  pro- 
bably were  called  zealots.  They  occur 
just  before  the  destraction  of  Jerusalem,  and  are  perhaps  referred  to  in  Acts  21. 53 

A  better  class  of  zealots  are  mentioned  in  Acts  21.  20:  2j.  j. 

*  Josephus  reckons  them  at  6,000,  chiefly  of  the  priestly  order.    Founded  B.C.  ij5. 

*•  See  Lightfoofs  Hor.  Heb.  on  Matt.  15.  2,  $  4. 

c  Acte  4.  6 :  5. 17.  d  aiatt.  14.  2. 


a  political  than  a  religious  sect.  They 
took  their  name  and  their  views  from 
the  family  of  Herod,  who  derived  their 
authority  from  the  Roman  government. 
It  was  their  principle  to  promote  inti- 
macy with  Rome  by  flatteiy  and  un- 
limited submission,  but  especially  by  in- 
troducing into  Judoea  tbe  usages  of  the 
conquerors.  This  union  with  idolatry, 
on  the  ground  of  worldly  policy,  waa 
probably  the  leavrn  against  which  our 
Lord  cautioned  his  disciples. 


ESSENES:  scribes:  proselytes.  549 

123.  The  Essenes  are  reckoned  by  Philo  at  4,000,  and  probably 

owe  their  origin  to  Egypt.     They  renounced  the  plea- 

The Essenes.  ,  .  p  it  1  •      j.-u   •  t 

sures  and  conveniences  of  life,  and  were  in  then*  creed 

unqualified  fatalists.     Matt.  19.  12:  Col.  2. 16-19;  and  some  parts  of 

John  ai'e  supposed  to  refer  to  their  doctrines;  but   as  they   had 

seceded  from  the  body  of  the  Jewish  people,  they  are  not  formally 

noticed  in  the  narratives  of  our  Lord's  ministry. 

124.  The  scribes  were  a  learned   profession  and  not  a  religious 

sect.     It  was  their  business  to  make  copies  of  the  law 

and  to  expound  it.     Hence  they  were  called  lawyers* 

and  doctors  of  the  law.**     As  religionists,  they  generally  favoured 

the  Pharisees,  and  are  therefore  often  mentioned  with  them  (Matt. 

23),  thougli  all  sects  had  their  friends  in  this  profession.*^ 

The  scribes  of  the  people  were  probably  members  of  the  San- 
hedrim, not  of  the  priestly  order.  This  body,  the  Sanhedrim, 
consisted  of  seventy-two  members,  of  whom  twenty-four  were 
priests,  and  twenty-fom'  elders  (Rev.  4.  4);  and  probably  the  scribes 
of  the  jjeople  were  the  rest  (see  i  Chrou.  27.  32). 

125.  The  Proselytes  were,  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a  veiy  nume- 

I'ous  body.  The  name  was  given  to  those  Gentiles  who 
took  upon  themselves  the  obligations  of  the  Mosaic 
law.  They  joined  in  offering  sacrifices  to  the  God  of  Israel  in  the 
outer  court  of  the  temple.  The  Pharisees  took  great  pains  to  make 
these  proselytes,  and  were  aided  i)i  their  efforts  by  the  fading 
authqrity  of  the  old  religions,  and  the  reverence  in  which  the  God  of 
the  Jews  was  held  by  the  heathen.  As  these  teachers  had  no  true 
idea  of  their  religion,  they  could  impart  none  ;  their  converts, 
therefore,  only  changed  their  superstition,  hushed  the  accusations 
of  conscience,  and  became  twofold  more  than  before  "the  children 
of  hell."  These  were  called  Proselytes  of  Righteousness,  and  were 
often  among  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the  Christian  faith. 

126.  There  was  also  a  large  body  of  Gentiles  called  (in  later 
times)  Proselytes  of  the  Gate,^  who  simply  pledged  themselves  to 
renovmce  idolatry,  to  worship  the  true  God,  and  to  abstain  from  all 
heathenish  practices.  They  had  generally  heard  of  the  coming  of 
tlie  Messiah,  and  were  free  from  most  of  the  prejudices  of  the  Jews. 
Hence  the  new  religion  made  great  progress  among  them. 

*  Matt.  22.  35,  compared  with  Mark  12.  28. 

b  Luke  5.  17,  21.  *=  Matt.  2.4. 

^  This  name  was  unknown  to  Christians  before  the  14th  century 
(Lardner).  It  is  given,  however,  in  Mainionides  (a.  d.  1200),  and  it 
is  certain  that  the  class  existed  in  the  davs  of  our  Lord. 


550  SAMARITANS. 

They  ax-e  called  in  the  New  Testament  "  devout  persons,  fearing 
God,"  and  religious  proselytes,  Acts  13.  16,  43,  and  seem  to  have 
been  numerous  in  Damascus  and  Thessalonica  (13.  50:  17.  4:  see 
also  10.  2). 

127.  The  Samaritans  claimed  an  interest  in  the  Mosaic  covenant; 

but  our  Lord  distinguishes  them  from  the  lost  sheep  of 
the  house  of  Israel  and  from  the  Gentiles  (Matt.  10. 
5,  6).  Those  of  the  time  of  our  Lord  sprang  from  the  colonists 
with  whom  the  king  of  Assyria  peopled  Samaria  after  the  ten  tribes 
were  carried  away  (2  Kings  1 7).  A  captive  priest  was  sent  to  teach 
them,  and  though  at  first  they  regarded  God  as  a  kind  of  tutelary- 
Deity,  and  much  of  their  religious  system  was  corrupt,  yet  they 
afterwards  sought  to  be  united  with  the  Jews.  With  this  view, 
Sanballat,  the  Cushite  (not  the  Sanballat  of  Neh.  13.  28),  ob- 
tained the  aid  of  a  Jewish  priest,  Manasses,  whom  the  Jews  forced 
into  banishment.  With  him,  a  numerous  train  of  followers  settled 
in  Samaria,  They  then  erected  on  Mount  Gerizim  an  independent 
temple,  which  remained  till  the  days  of  John  Kyrcanus,  B.C.  109, 
and  established  what  they  deemed  a  more  oi'derly  observance  of  the 
Mosaic  law.  Their  faith  and  practice  they  founded  on  the  Penta- 
teuch alone,  and  rejected  the  whole  of  the  other  inspired  writings. 

This  division  was  overruled  for  the  genei'al  good.  The  Samaritan 
copy  of  the  law  has  been  carefully  preserved,  and  the  enmity  be- 
tween the  Jews  and  themselves  has  made  both  parties  the  more 
jealous  for  the  pvu-ity  of  their  respective  texts.  The  Samaritans 
were  free  also  from  the  pride  and  narrowness  too  prevalent  among 
their  neighbours.  Of  spurious  descent  themselves,  and  despised  by 
those  around  them,  they  had  probably  a  more  just  appreciation  of  the 
comprehensiveness  of  the  gospel.  They  regarded  all  nations  as 
entitled  to  an  interest  in  its  blessings.  They  accordingly  received 
from  our  Lord  one  of  the  earliest  express  intimations  that  he  was 
the  Messiah  (John  4),  and  were  otherwise  frequently  noticed  by 
him  in  the  course  of  his  ministry. 

As  they  received  only  the  Pentateuch,  it  is  peculiarly  interesting 
to  notice  the  passages  on  which,  to  this  day,  they  rest  their  belief 
on  the  coming  of  a  Saviour.  They  point  to  Deut.  ig.  15-19:  and 
conclude  that  he  is  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  from  Gen.  12.  3:  22. 
18:  26.  4:  28.  14,  etc. 

After  the  time  of  our  Lord,  three  sects  sprang  up  among  them; 
of  which  two,  founded  by  Simon  Magus  and  his  pupil  Menander, 
survived  for  centuries,  and  were  often  confoimded  by  heathen 
writers  with  Christians. 

128.  These  sects,  it  may  fm-ther  be  observed,  are  not  isolated 


THE   GOSPELS.  551 

These  sects  plienomena,  confined  to  the  countries  or  times  in  which 

exhibit  the  they  appeared.    They  exhibit  human  nature  throughout 

huinao^iia-^  all  time ;  and  the  precepts  and  truths  which  were  adapted 

ture.  to  then-  condition  are  not  less  adapted  to  om-selyes. 


CHAPTER  T. 
The  Gospels. 
Introductory. 

129.  "We  now  come  to  the  New  Testament,  the  fullest  and 
latest  revelation  of  God.     The  ancient  dispensa- 
raent  com-      tion,  made  nothing  perfect.     Apart  even  from  the 
life'of  01^*^^^  abuses,  by  which  it  had  been  corrupted,  it  was  in 
Lord.  itself  incomplete,  Gal.  3.  21 :  Heb.  7.  18  :  9.  9,  11. 

He  came  to     Whatever  was   wantincr,  however,  in  the  ancient 

b6  tb,6  sub- 

ject  of  the  institution,  is  supplied  by  the  incarnation,  the  life 
gospel.  ^^^  death  of  our  Lord  :  facts  which  form  the  theme 

of  the  Gospels,  as  the  explanation  of  them  forms  the  theme 
of  the  Epistles.  He  is  himself,  in  truth,  the  gospel.  His 
coming  and  work,  apart  even  from  all  he  directly  taught, 
constitute  the  glad  tidings  of  great  joy  unto  aU  people.  Did 
men  need  a  real  sacrifice  for  sin,  in  which  the  rites  of  the 
law  should  find  their  explanation  and  end  I  That  sacrifice  he 
ofiered.  Did  men  need  a  perfect  rule  of  life  ?  That  rule  he 
gave  when  he  dwelt  amongst  us  ;  and  immortahty  he  brings 
to  light,  not  so  much  by  teaching  it,  or  promising  it,  as  by 
the  actual  fact  of  himself  rising  from  the  dead  in  our  nature, 
and  on  our  behalf.  There  is,  indeed,  no  question  in  rehgion 
which  it  is  essential  for  us  to  know,  which  the  life  of  Christ 
has  not  solved.  In  Him  we  see  God  himself  revealed,  his 
mercy,  justice,  faithfulness,  and  power  ;  and  in  Him  we  see 
no  less  clearly  our  own  nature  ;  its  sinfulness  in  his  suflerings  ; 
its  duties  in  his  example  ;  its  dignity,  if  we  are  united  with 
him,  in  his  ascension  and  glory. 

This  double  purpose  of  our  Lord — to  fulfil  the  ancient 
institute,  and  to  be  himself  the  foundation  01  a 
liaritiesofhis  new  one — explains  peculiarities  in  the  Gospels, 
leachmg.        ^hich  would  otherwise  be  inexplicable. 

Hence,  for  example,  the  substance,  and  even  the  form  of  his 
teaching.  Types  and  predictions  which  had  served  iu  ancient  times 
as  a  depository  of  spiritual  truth  he  fulalled.     IIU  lessons  are  often 


052  TRUTH   HOW   REVEALED. 

given  in  parables,  testing  the  hearts  of  the  uncandid  and  indififerent, 
and  reminding  all  of  the  true  character  of  their  own  dispensation. 
His  acts  were  often  symbolical  on  the  same  ground,  He  washed 
his  disciples'  feet;  he  took  and  set  little  children  in  the  midst  of 
them;  and  in  all  his  miracles  he  carefully  looked  to  this  double 
end— to  suggest  the  true  rule  of  interpreting  the  ancient  law,  and 
to  teach  the  mysteries  of  his  own  kingdom. 

130.  To  this  cause,  too,  it  may  be  attributed,  that  our  Lord's 
revelations  were  gradually  disclosed,  and  never  fully  till 
gradual  after  he  had  risen.    Other  reasons  there  were  also.    The 

^^^truiLh^^^  prejudices  of  his  disciples  were  strong,  and  a  gradual 
disclosure  of  truth  was  on  that  account  desirable;  for 
they  were  not  at  first  able  to  bear  it.  It  was  his  rule,  moreover,  to 
rowai-d  faith  in  a  little,  by  imparting  more,  as  he  himself  taught 
them.  But  the  chief  reason  seems  to  be  that  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity  spring  out  of  the  facts,  and  could  not  therefore  be  re- 
vealed till  the  facts  had  been  accomplished.  Hence  peculiarities 
such  as  the  following.  He  first  hints  at  some  doctrine,  or  event, 
then  repeats  the  lesson  more  explicitly,  and  then  either  clearly 
reveals  it,  or  refers  his  disciples  to  the  teaching  of  the  coming 
Spirit.  He  avoids  everywhere  a  full  disclosure  of  his  character, 
even  forbidding  others  to  declai-e  it.  His  ministry  he  confines  to  a 
small  disti'ict  and  a  despised  people.  Doctrines  he  seldom  or  never 
propounds;  but  he  does  the  works  that  are  at  the  foundation  of 
them.  He  suffers,  and  hence  the  doctrine  of  atonement.  He 
pleads,  and  hence  the  doctrine  of  spiritual  influence.  He  rises 
fi'om  the  grave,  and  hence  our  resurrection  and  glory.  The  truth 
is,  as  Macknight  has  remarked,  our  Lord  came  from  heaven,  not  so 
much  to  teach  the  gospel  as  to  be  himself  the  subject  of  it,  leaving 
the  Spirit  to  be  its  chief  intei-preter.  We  study,  therefore,  the  law 
in  the  Gospels;  the  Gospels  in  the  Epistles;  and  all  in  Christ. 

'*  All  in  Christ,"  we  repeat.  For  a  personal  Saviour  is  the  glory 
All  truth  in  .of  the  gospel,  and  the  study  of  a  personal  Saviour  the 
Christ.  great    insti-ument  of    our    holiness.      Religion   is   not 

merely  the  contemplation  of  truth  and  the  practice  of  morality;  it 
is  fellowship  with  God  through  his  Son.  We  are  to  love  not  moral 
beauty  only,  but  Christ;  to  believe  not  so  much  in  it,  as  in  Him. 
Hence  the  peculiarity  of  all  apostolic  teaching.  In  place  of  incul- 
cating vu-tue,  they  bid  us  "  walk  in  his  steps,"  and  do  what  is 
"well  pleasing"  in  his  sight.  Death  they  represent  as  union  with 
liim;  and  to  "  follow  the  Lamb  whithersoever  he  goeth"  is  given 
as  the  sum  of  Chi-istian  duty  and  of  Christian  blessedness.  To 
■understand  even  the  morality  of  the  New  Testament,  much  more 
its  doctrines,  we  must  study  the  Gospels. 


MIRACLES  :   THEIR  liirORT.  553 

131.  The  recorded  discourses  and  parables  of  our  Lord,  are 
Import  of  his  '^o  US  with  the  Bible  in  ouv  hands,  sufficiently 
miracles.  clear.  The  rules  that  teach  their  meaning  and 
application  may  be  gathered  from  Part  i.,  Sec.  7,  etc.  The 
significancy  of  his  miracles  is  perhaps  less  obvious.  They 
have  clearly  an  outward  and  an  inward  meaning. 

Outwardly,  they  are  expressions  of  power  (Suvo/itejs).  They  excite 
surprise,  and  so,  as  "wonders"  (Tepara),  they  prompt  inquiry: 
they  give  evidence  of  a  Divine  mission,  and  are  therefore  signs 
((TTj^ueto).  In  each  of  these  characters  they  are  important.  The 
constancy  of  the  processes  of  nature  had  been  converted  into  an 
argument  against  an  active  Providence,  In  miracles,  the  pei'petuity 
and  extent  of  providential  government  are  vindicated  and  proved. 
They  show  that  a  natiiral  law  is  one  thing,  and  a  living  agent 
another.  Nor  are  they,  as  evidence,  less  significant.  Imcardhj,  in 
the  moral  lessons  they  teach,  they  are  even  moi-e  impoi-tant.  As  a 
whole,  they  may  be  called  redemptive,  as  those  of  the  older  dispen- 
sation  were  chiefly  jndicial:  the  earlier  illustrating  a  state  of  law; 
the  later,  a  state  of  grace.  Each  miracle,  moreover,  has  its  own 
essential  characteristic,  teaching  some  truth  or  duty,  and  often 
foreshadowing  a  glorious  future.  The  miracles,  in  fact,  of  our 
Lord  are  as  parabolic  as  his  parables,  and  should  be  studied  for  the 
same  ends.  His  own  work,  his  kingdom,  and  our  duty,  are  re- 
vealed in  both. 

132.  If  the  truth  of  miraculous  interference  create  a  difficulty  in 
M'rades  not  ^^^^  mind  of  an  inquirer,  it  may  be  well  to  remind  him 
contrary  to  that  a  miracle,  though  above  nature,  is  not  contrary  to 
nature  :  ^^^  ^^^^^  may  even  be  said  to  be  in  the  strictest  harmony 
\\'ith  it.  What  we  call  natural  laws  are  nothing  more  than  uni- 
formities of  existence  or  of  sequence,  and  really  imply  at  some 
stage  Divine  power.  They  account  for  nothing;  and  after  we  have 
reached  the  highest  law  we  say,  ''Here  God  himself  seems  to  inter- 
pose: second  causes  can  be  traced  no  further."  A  natural  law, 
therefore,  is  but  a  theory  (as  of  motion,  for  example) ;  it  is  not  a 
livinrj  force.  It  is  only  the  plan  on  which  some  agent  works,  and  that 
agent  works  miraculously — that  is,  supernatui-ally — though  with 
constancy.  The  miracles  of  the  gospel,  therefore,  suppose  no 
greater  interference  than  may  be  found  already  in  any  department 
of  physical  science. 

1.33.  The  supernatural  interference  of  malevolent  beings  referred 

.      to  in  the  Gospels  has  also  created  difficulty,  but  admits 

agency  in        of  a  satisfactory   interpretation.     Some  have  said  that 

disease.  ^wch  interference  was  peculiar  to  the  time  of  our  Lord^ 

2  B 


554  THE  GOSPELS. 

and  is  now  withdrawn.  And  it  was  natural,  it  is  added,  that  the 
manifestation  of  God  in  the  flesh  should  be  accompanied  with  un- 
usual activity  on  the  part  of  the  powers  of  evil :  their  design  was  the 
defence  of  their  own  cause  ;  God's  design,  in  permitting  it,  his 
glory.  Others  have  supposed  that  Scripture,  when  speaking  of 
disease  as  the  result  of  Satanic  agency,  lifts  up  the  veil  and  reveals 
a  secret  which  is  still  true.  Devils,  it  is  implied,  are  the  first 
causes  of  suffering;  though  second  causes  are  also  permitted  to 
work;  and  in  our  own  time,  it  is  added,  they  act  with  power  as 
real,  and  with  results  as  seemingly  natural,  as  in  the  days  of  our 
Lord.  Either  interpretation  is  consistent  with  physical  facts. 
What  men  call  causes  of  disease  are  either  second  causes  or  symp- 
toms. The  agent  that  originates  them  is  not  seen.  In  ascribing 
them,  therefore,  to  an  extraneous  cause.  Scripture  is  in  harmony 
with  philosophy;  and  in  ascribing  them  to  a  spirit  of  evil,  it  is  not 
otherwise  than  in  harmony  with  the  indications  of  even  natural 
reason. 

134.  One  remark  more,  on  the  nature  of  our  Lord.  The 
Christ  God  Gospels  give  the  life  of  One,  who  was  both  God  and 
and  Man.  '^io.n  ;  and  we  must  not  be  surprised  to  find  him 
spoken  of  now  in  the  one  character,  and  now  in  the  other. 

Sec.  I.  The  Gospels  in  their  mutual  relation. 

135.  The  word  gospel  means  good  news,  and  corresponds 

exactly  to  the  Greek  term''  by  which  this  portion 
of  sacred  Scripture  is  distinguished. 

The  Gospels  were  written  at  different  times,  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  the  men  whose  names  they  bear.  They  give, 
not  a  complete  history  of  the  Saviour's  life,  but  such  facts  and 
discourses  as  explain  the  nature,  and  prove  to  different  readers  the 
Divine  origin,  of  the  Chxistian  system.  The  four  books  make  really 
not  a  biography,  but  a  memoir,  and  only  one.  They  form  one 
Gospel — a  "  four-sided  Gospel,"  as  Origen  called  it — and  by  then* 
marvellous  unity  and  diversity  are  adapted  to  interest  and  instruct 
every  class  of  character  in  every  age. 

136.  UlciQ  first  Gospel  (by  Matthew),  was  intended  for  Jews.     He 
,  therefore  gives   no  explanation  of  Jewish  customs  or 

tcristics  of      topograpliy.      The   genealogy   of  our   Lord  he  traces 

each.  through  his  reputed  father  to  Abi'aham,  and  shows  how 

the   New  Testament  is  the   fulfilment   of  the   Old.     The  second 

'^  (vayyiXiov,  see  Luke  1.  10, 


THE  GOSPELS:   THEIR  TECDLIARITIES.  555 

Gospel  (by  'Mark),  was  written  for  the  instruction  of  Eoman  con- 
verts. Jewish  customs  and  places  have  consequently  explanations 
appended.  Narrative  is  preferred  to  discourse,  and  the  writer 
dwells  rather  on  the  actions  than  on  the  teaching  of  our  Lord.  His 
Gospel  is  thoroughly  practical,  and  though  he  has  added  but 
twenty-four  verses  which  are  not  found  in  the  Gospels  of  Matthew 
or  Luke,  the  whole  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  energetic  business 
habits  of  the  Roman  people.  The  third  Gospel  was  written  by 
Liike,  for  the  use  of  the  Gentiles  generally.  Here,  again,  Christ 
appears  under  a  new  aspect,  not  as  the  minister  of  the  circumcision 
— his  character  in  Matthew— nor  yet  as  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  ''Lord  of  all  power  and  might" — his  character  in  Mark — 
but  as  the  Saviour  of  the  ii-orld.  His  genealogy  is  traced  through 
his  mother  to  Adam,  the  head  of  the  whole  human  family.  While 
Matthew  tells  of  the  twelve  apostles  who  were  sent  to  Israel,  Luke 
speaks  also  of  the  seventy  disciples  who  were  sent  as  to  the  nations 
of  the  earth.  Several  parables  are  found  in  this  Gospel  alone,  and 
among  them,  the  good  Samaritan  and  the  prodigal  son — the  one 
humbling  to  Jewish  pride,  the  other  cheering  to  the  Gentile  peni- 
tent. Jewish  customs  and  clironological  statements  are  made  intel- 
ligible to  a  foreigner,  while  the  fulness  of  his  record  of  the  dis- 
courses of  our  Lord  meets  the  curiosity  of  the  Grecian  character. 
In  the  fourth  Gospel,  we  have  something  that  meets  the  higher 
speculative  tendencies  of  men;  correcting  what  was  false  in  the 
Jewish  and  heathen  systems  of  religious  philosophy,  and  com- 
pleting what  was  deficient  in  previous  revelations.  None  has 
spoken  so  fully  of  the  Divine  character  of  our  Lord,  or  of  the 
inward  spiritual  life  which  springs  from  union  with  him.  As 
Matthew's  Gospel  was  called  the  material  one,  so  John's  was  called 
the  spiritual,  or  Divine.^ 

Thus  it  is  that  the  gospel  stands  "four-square,"  with  a  side 
fronting  each  side  of  the  spiritual  world ;  Matthew,  addressing  the 
Jew,  reveals  the  Messianic  kiug;  Luke,  the  Greek,  reveals  the  man: 
Mark,  showing  the  power  and  vital  force  of  truth;  and  John,  its 
attractive  and  subduing  love.  Matthew  exhibits  chiefly  the  Jewish 
and  subordinate;  John,  the  spiritual  and  Divine,  in  our  Redeemer; 
Mark,  his  authority  over  nature  and  devils ;  Luke,  his  personal 
history  as  man.  In  all  combined,  Jesus  is  represented  as  the 
Messiah,  the  Teacher,  the  Pattern,  the  Brother,  and  the  God. 

Sec.  2.  The  Genuineness  of  the  Gospels. 
137.  The  general  evidence  of  the  genuineness  of  the  New 
*  By  Clement. 

2  B  2 


556 


THE  GOSPELS  :  THEIR   GENUINENESS. 


Genuineness    Testament  has  been  already  given.     Evidence  of 
of  each.  d^q  genuineness  of  particular  books  of  Scripture 

we  shall  briefly  sum  up  in  a  tabular  form.     The  authors  re- 
ferred to  belong  to  the  first  tiuo  centuries  and  a  half  of  our  era. 

The  passages  on  which  the  Table  is  formed  may  be  seen  referred 
to  in  Less'  Treatise  on  the  Authenticity,  etc.,  of  the  New  Testament. 
For  passages  marked  thus  f,  see  Davidson's  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament,  vols  i.-iii.  The  testimony  of  later  witnesses  may 
be  seen  in  Lardner's  Credibility.  Several  of  the  earlier  testimonies 
may  also  be  seen  there,  but  Less'  list  is  more  carefully  prepared 
than  his. 


.^ 

00 

r-» 

o 

(>;  r^id   CO  00 

. 

.A 

d 

o   c^ 

^»    d 

d 

^ 

"S 

■S  d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

(^ 

O 

"S 

-r   ir\ 

r^ 

^ 

r;- 

n 

5  C" 

2" 

1 '-' 

>i 

■S^ 

<-l 

w 

*1 

i-< 

«s 

?< 

r< 

.s 

w 

M 

« 

1 

-e 

-^ 

j 

1 

22 

S 

o 

1 

i 

^2 

t 

11 

1 

go 

.a 

1 

a 
a 

B 

c 
Si 

g 

.5 

.5 

a 

1 
"3 

1 

1 

■n  o 

1^ 

.2 
.2 
c 
[3 

1 

s 

1 

w 

C 

^ 

o 

1^ 

-^ 

1!_ 

W 

H 

< 

H 

dn 

<5 

i-s 

o 

<1 

3 

t> 

s 

w 

o 

Jilatth. 

t 

+ 

+ 

i 

I 

I 

I  1 1 1 

X 

it 

u 

X 

I 

i!i 

I 

I 

1 

I 

. 

it 

. 

it 

t 

JMark 

. 

+ 

+ 

+ 

. 

I 

I 

I   I 

. 

I 

. 

. 

I  I 

I 

I 

I 

.   it 

Luke 

i 

and    . 
Acts) 

+ 

i 

+ 

• 

I 

I   I 

I 

it 

* 

• 

I  I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

+ 

it 

it 

t 

John 

• 

• 

it 

1 

• 

I 

• 

I 

• 

• 

I 

.!r 

• 

I 

I 

I 

+ 

it 

it 

The  testimonies  marked  %  are  less  decisive  than  those  marked  i 
or  ],  though  most  of  them  would  be  deemed  quite  satisfactory  in  a 
case  of  ordinary  criticism.  A  few  other  passages  may  be  seen  in 
the  works  of  Davidson  and  Lardner.  They  are  not  included  above, 
because  not  decisive. 

Evidences  of  authenticit)j  may  be  seen  in  Part  i,.  Sec.  4.  These 
testimonies  on  the  genuineness  of  the  Gospels  apply  to  the  whole, 
with  slight  exceptions.  The  ist  and  2nd  chaps,  of  Matt.,  the  la.st 
eleven  verses  of  Mark,  the  ist  and  2ud  chaps,  of  Luke,  the  last  two 
verses  of  John,  John  7.  53:-8.  i,  and  John  5.  34,  have  been  ques- 
tioned; though  now  they  are  all  generally  admitted  to  be  genuine. 
The  least  certain  are  the  last  two  passages. 

Sec.  3.  Introductions  to  the  Gospels. 
The  Oospd  according  to  Mattheiv. 
138.  Matthew  was  a  native  of  Galilee,  and  held  the  office 


THE  GOSPEL  BY  MATTHEW.  557 

Mattiicw,  his  of  receiver  of  customs  under  the  Roman  govern- 
iii.story.  '  ii^ent  at  the  sea  of  Tiberias  (A{^tt.  9.  9).  By  Mark 
and  Luke  he  is  called  Levi  (Mark  2.  14 :  Luke  5.  27-32), 
which  was  probably  his  Hebrew  name,  as  Matthew  was  pro- 
bably the  name  he  assumed  on  obtaining  a  Roman  oiB&ce. 
At  the  call  of  Christ,  he  left  his  business,  and  became  one  of 
the  disciples  a  short  time  before  the  dehvery  of  the  sermon 
on  the  mount.  In  enumerating  the  apostles,  he  speaks  of 
himself  as  Matthew  the  publican  (10.  3),  anxious  to  magnify 
the  grace  of  God  in  his  call.  The  language  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  abandonment  of  his  worldly  prospects  for  Christ 
is  a  remarkable  instance  of  humiUty,  and  illustrates  one  prin- 
ciple on  which  the  Gospels  are  composed.  The  writers  never 
make  themselves  prominent,  nor  do  they  give  any  details 
respecting  their  personal  history.  Their  theme  is — not 
themselves,  but  Christ  Jesus  their  Lord. 

The  exact  date  of  this  Gospel  is  not  known.    By  some  it  is  placed 

P  as  early  as  A.  D.  37;*   by  others,  as  late  as  63.     The 

weight  of  evidence,  however,  is  in  favour  of  a  few  years 

later  than  the  earlier  date  (i.  e.,  ahont  A.  d.  42),  and  it  was  cei*- 

tainly  wi-itten  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

It  was  a  general  tradition  in  the  early  church  that  there  was  a 
Ji  wh  t  Gospel,   Avritten  by  Matthew,  in  Syro-Chaldaic.     That 

language  he  did  write  some  notices  of  our  Lord's  life  in  the  ver- 
written.  nacular  language  of  Palestine  is   probable.      But  the 

originality  and  genuineness  of  the  Gi-eek  Gospel  are  sustained  by 
the  strongest  evidence.  No  trace  of  any  Hebrew  Gospel  now  re- 
mains. In  Palestine,  moreover,  Greek  was  the  language  of  books, 
of  business,  and  of  common  life.  Looking,  therefore,  to  the  habits 
of  his  countrymen,  and  to  the  approaching  dissolution  of  the  Jewish 
state,  he  had  every  inducement  to  employ  that  tongixe. 

His  Gospel  may  be  thus  divided : 
p.  Chaps.   I,   2.  Contain  a  brief  notice  of  the  infancy 

and  childhood  of  our  Lord. 
Chaps.  3.-4.  12.  A  record  of  his  entrance  on  his  public  ministiy, 

and  of  events  preparatory  to  it. 
Chaps.  5.-7.  An  exhibition  of  Christ  as  a  public  teacher,  illus- 
trated in  the  sermon  on  the  mount. 
Chaps.  8,  9.  An  exhibition  of  Christ  as  a  worker  of  miracles, 
giving  in  one  view  several  miracles  of  different  kinds  per- 
formed in  various  places. 
^  Tillemont,  Owen,  and  Tomline,  38:  Irenseus,  later  than  60, 


558  THE   GOSPEL  BY  MARK. 

Chap.  13.  An  exhibition  of  Christ  as  a  teacher  by  parables,  ir. 
some  of  which  there  are  also  prophetic  intimations. 

Chaps.  10.-20.  We  have  instruction,  miracle,  and  narrative,  in 
more  regular  order,  and  in 

Chaps.  20.-28.  We  have  a  record  of  the  last  sufferings,  death, 
and  resurrection  of  oiir  Lord. 
The  intention  of  the  writer  is  clearly,  by  a  simple  record  of  what 
Aim  of  this     our   Lord   did   and   suffered,    to   redeem   his   Master's 
Gospel.  memory  from  reproach,  to  disarm  the  prejudices  of  his 

countrymen,  and  to  set  forth  for  future  ages  the  true  character  of 
the  Messiah.  Hence  his  frequent  appeals  to  the  prophets  (r.  23: 
2.  6,  15,  18:  3.  3:  4.  15 :  8.  17,  etc.),  his  accounts  of  the  refutation 
of  the  various  Jewish  sects,  his  care  in  narrating  such  parts  of  our 
Lord's  discourses  as  were  best  suited  to  awaken  his  own  nation  to  a 
sense  of  their  sins,  to  correct  their  hopes  of  an  earthly  kingdom, 
and  to  prepare  them  for  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  to  the 
church.  For  the  special  instruction  of  Jewish  Christians,  he  gives 
the  predictions  of  om*  Lord  in  relation  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  argu- 
ments by  which  he  sought  to  reconcile  his  disciples  to  opposition 
and  persecution  for  their  adherence  to  him. 

Tlie  Gospel  according  to  Marh. 

139.  Mark,  who,  besides  his  Latin  name  of  Marcus,  appears 
Mark's  his-  'to  have  had  the  Hebrew  name  of  John,  was  the 
'^^'i'-  son  of  Mary,  a  pious  woman  at  Jerusalem,  who  re- 

ceived in  her  house  the  assemblies  of  the  primitive  church, 
and  welcomed  the  apostle  Peter  after  his  deliverance  out  of 
prison  by  the  angel,  Acts  12.  12.  Mark  was  the  nephew  of 
Barnabas,  Paul's  companion  in  his  travels,  Col.  4.  10.  These 
two,  being  at  Jerusalem  about  the  time  of  Peter's  deliverance, 
took  Mark  w^ith  them  upon  their  mission,  Acts  12.  25,  He 
accompanied  them  to  Antioch  ;  and  thence,  on  their  first 
journey,  as  far  as  Perga  in  Pamphylia ;  where  he  left  them, 
and  returned  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  13.  5,  13.  We  afterwards 
find  him  at  Antioch,  with  Paul  and  Barnabas,  desiring  to  ac- 
comj)any  them  on  a  second  journey  ;  but  Paul,  regarding  him 
as  unfit  for  the  work,  since  he  had  left  them  on  the  former 
occasion,  was  unwilling  to  take  him.  This  decision  caused  a 
warm  dispute  and  a  temporary  separation  between  the  two 
apostles  ;  and  Barnabas,  influenced  probably  by  his  affec- 
tion for  his  kinsman,  "  took  Mark,  and  sailed  unto  Cyprus." 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Mark  afterwards  acknowledged 


THE  GOSPEL  BY   MARK.  559 

his  error,  whatever  it  was — whether  he  was  wanting  in  the 
courageous  self-denial  of  the  missionary,  or  had  misgivings 
on  the  extension  of  the  gospel  to  the  heathen — for  the  apofctle 
Paul  appears  to  have  given  him  his  confidence  and  ajBfection, 
and  commends  him  to  the  churches.  See  Col.  4.  lo  :  2  Tim, 
4.  II  :  Philem.  24. 

To  these  notices,  gathered  from  the  sacred  writers,  others 
add  that  Mark  afterwards  went  to  Egypt ;  and,  having  planted 
a  church  at  Alexandria,  died  there. 

Thus  it  appears  that  Mark,  though  not  himself  one  of  the 
twelve,  was  a  friend  and  companion  of  the  apostles  ;  and, 
living  at  Jerusalem,  was  upon  the  spot  where  the  most  im- 
portant events  in  our  Lord's  hfe  occurred,  and  where  many 
of  his  miracles  were  performed.  But,  in  addition  to  these 
means  of  knowledge,  it  is  the  concurrent  testimony  of  the 
early  Christian  writers  that  Mark  attended  Peter  (by  whom 
he  was  probably  brought  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth,  see 
I  Pet.  5.  13),  dm-ing  a  considerable  portion  of  his  ministry ; 
and  having  for  some  years  enjoyed  the  intimate  friendship  of 
that  apostle,  wrote  this  account  of  our  Lord's  life  under  his 
immediate  direction.  So  that  Justin  calls  his  Gospel  "  the 
Gospel  of  St,  Peter."  Some  commentators  sux^pose  this  fact 
to  be  referred  to  in  2  Pet.  i.  15,  16. 

The  internal  evidence  is  in  favour  of  Peter's  superinten- 
dence. Scarcely  an  action  or  a  work  of  Christ  is  related,  at 
which  Peter  was  not  present ;  and  those  events  in  our  Sa- 
viour's life  are  related  in  detail  which  must  have  made  the 
deepest  impression  upon  Peter.  Many  things  honourable  to 
Peter  are  omitted  by  Mark,  which  are  mentioned  by  the  other 
evangehsts  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  faihngs  of  Peter 
are  fully  recorded.  Comp.  Mark  8.  29,  with  Matt.  16.  17. 
See  also  Mark  8.  33  :  14.  31-71. 

The  time  when  this  Gospel  was  wi'itten  is  uncertain.     Various 

dates  have  been  assigned  to  it,  between  a.  d.  48  and  65. 
Date  ^  -» ' 

Some  suppose  it  written  at  Rome,  others  at  Csesarea; 
but  all  agree  that  it  was  intended  for  Roman  converts. 

The  chief  peculiarities   of  Mark  as   a  writer   are,   (i.)  That  he 

relates  rather  the  works   than   the  discourses   of  oui 

Lord.  His  descriptions  are  more  graphic  than  those  of 
Matthew  and  Luke.  He  frequently  employs  the  present  tense,  intro- 
duces persons  as  speakers,  and  is  often  minute  in  his  descriptions  of 


660  THE   GOSPEL  BY   LUKE. 

persons  and  localities.  In  many  instances  where  the  same  events 
are  related  by  Matthew  and  Mark,  the  latter  fills  up  the  outline  of 
the  former,  giving  gi'eater  distinctness  to  the  picture.  Compare 
Mark  5,  22-43,  and  Matt.  9.  18-26:  Mark  9.  14-29,  and  Matt.  17. 
14-21. 

Tlie  Gospel  according  to  Luke. 

140.  Luke,  the  writer  of  the  Gospel  which  bears  his  name, 
Luke's  his-  is  generally  allowed  to  have  been  the  "  beloved 
tory.  physician "  mentioned  by  Paul,  Col.  4.  14.     Ac- 

cording to  the  testimony  of  some  of  the  Fathers,  liu  was  a 
native  of  Antioch.  He  would  ajjpear,  from  his  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Greek  language,  as  well  as  from  his  Greek 
name,  Kovms,  to  have  been  of  Gentile  extraction.  But,  from 
the  Hebrew  terms  occurring  in  his  writings,  and  from  his  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  the  Jewish  religion,  ceremonies,  and 
customs,  it  is  highly  probable  that  he  was  in  early  life  a 
Jewish  proselyte  ;  and,  having  afterwards  embraced  the  gos- 
pel, he  became  a  faithful  and  zealous  companion  of  Paul  in 
many  of  his  labours  and  travels,  Acts  16.  10:  20.  5,  etc.  We 
learn  from  Acts  28.  15,  and  Philem.  24,  that  he  was  with  the 
apostle  at  the  time  of  his  first  captivity  at  Rome  ;  and  from 
2  Tim.  4.  II,  that,  during  his  second  imprisonment,  Luke 
alone  remained  by  his  side. 

Luke  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  scholar.  His 
style  is  more  classical  than  that  of  the  other  evangelists. 
Being  a  physician,  his  description  of  diseases,  and  his  accounts 
of  cures  wrought  by  the  Saviour  and  his  apostles,  have  more 
of  technical  definiteness  than  the  other  Gospels. 

"With  regard  to  the  questions  when  and  lohere  this   Gospel  was 
written,  there  is  no  certain  information.     Some  suppose 
that  it  was  written  during  the  time  that  Luke  was  in 
Paul's  company,  probably  during  his  confinement  at  Eome,  about 
the  year  62  or  63,  a.  d.     Others  give  it  an  earlier  date,  and  suppose 
it  to  have  been  written  at  Philippi,  about  5  7,  a.  d.,  see  2  Cor.  8. 
18-21.     But,  however  that  may  be,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  originally 
written  for  Gentile  readers,  as  that  of  Matthew  Avas  originally  de- 
signed for  Jews.     He  has  always  before  his  eyes  the 
ecu  an  les.    <,  salvation    prepared   for   all   people;" — "  a    light    to 
lighten  the  Gentiles"  (2.  31,  32),  and,  as  writing  for  heathen  who 
had  departed  so  widely  from  God,  he  has  been  careful  to  record 


THE  GOSPEL  BY  JOHX.  o6l 

the  Lord's  declarations  concerning  the  free  mercy  of  God  to  the 
greatest  sinners  (7.  36-50:  15,:  18.  10-14:  19.  5-10:  23.  40-43,  etc.) 

The  Gospel  of  Luke  is  generally  considered  to  be  more  of  a  re- 
gular biography  than  any  of  the  others.  He  appears  to  have  pre- 
served the  chronological  order  of  his  main  facts;  closing  the  vaalous 
periods  of  his  history  with  a  number  of  incidental  circumstances  and 
discourses,  which  belong  to  that  division  of  time,  but  the  exact 
sequence  of  which  he  is  not  careful  to  specify. 

The  numerous  and  important  additional  facts  which  Luke  has 
supplied,  give  to  his  Gospel  a  peculiar  value.  He  relates  with 
remarkable  cleai-ness  the  conversations  of  Jesus,  with  the  incidents 
which  gave  rise  to  them,  the  remarks  of  those  who  were  present,  and 
their  results.  Though  containing  information  supplementary  t. 
that  given  by  Matthew,  his  Gospel  has  not  the  character  of  a  sup- 
plemental document;  but  is  evidently  an  independent  and  original 
work.  Generalh',  the  parables  and  discom-ses  of  Luke's  Gospel, 
are  less  full  than  those  of  Matthew. 

Tlie  Gospel  according  to  John. 

141.  John,  the  younger  brother  of  James,  who  with  him 
Johns  his-  was  called  to  the  apostleship,  was  the  son  of  Zebe- 
toiy.  dee  and  of  Salome.     His  father  was  a  fisherman, 

living  at  Bethsaida  in  Galilee,  on  the  borders  of  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth.  The  family  appear  to  have  been  in  easy  cir- 
cumstances ;  at  least,  we  find  that  Zebedee  employed  hired 
servants,  Mark  i.  20  ;  and  that  Salome  was  among  the  wo- 
men who  contributed  to  the  maintenance  of  Jesus,  Matt. 
27.  56. 

Having  been  brought  up  in  the  knowledge  and  the  love  of 
the  true  God  by  a  pious  mother,  he  appears  to  have  early 
become  a  disciple  of  our  Lords  forerunner  ;  and  to  have  been 
directed  by  him  to  Jesus,  whom  he  followed  ;  it  being  generally 
considered  that  he  was  one  of  the  two  disciples  mentioned  in 
chap.  I.  37-41.  He  was  soon  admitted,  with  his  brother 
James,  and  Peter,  to  particular  intimacy  with  the  Saviour, 
who  selected  them  as  witnesses  of  the  most  important  and 
solemn  events  of  his  life,  Mark  5.  37  :  Matt.  18.  i  :  26.  37. 

It  appears  that,  of  all  the  apostles,  John  was  especially 
favoured  with  our  Lord's  regard  and  confidence,  so  as  to  be 
called  "  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved."  He  was  devotedly 
attached  to  his  Master  ;  and  though  he  fled,  like  the  other 
apostles,  when  Jesus  was  apprehended,  he  recovered  his  firm- 

■     2  B  3 


562  THE   GOSPEL   BY  JOHN. 

ness,  was  present  during  the  trial  and  crucifixion  of  our 
Saviour  ;  and  was  intrusted  by  Him  with  the  care  of  his 
mother  (19.  26,  27). 

John  is  said  to  have  remained  at  Jerusalem  till  the  death  of 
Mary,  about  the  year  a.  d.  48.  After  Paul  had  left  Asia 
Minor,  John  went  to  labour  there,  residing  chiefly  at  Ephesus, 
and  founding  several  churches  in  that  country.  Shortly 
afterwards,  during  the  persecution  under  Domitian  (or  accord- 
ing to  others,  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Nero),  he  was 
banished  to  Patmos,  an  island  in  the  iEgean  Sea ;  where  he 
received  the  visions  of  the  Apocalypse.  On  the  accession 
of  Nerva  he  was  liberated,  and  returned  to  Ephesus  ;  where 
he  continued  to  labour  during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died 
in  the  hundredth  year  of  his  age,  about  a.  d.  100. 

According  to  the  general  testimony  of  antiquity,  John  wrote  his 
Gospel  at  Ephesus,  about  the  year  97,  long  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.     He  therefore  makes  no  men- 
tion of  our  Lord's  predictions  of  that  event,  and  the  dispersion  of 
the  Jews ;  those  prophecies  having  at  that  time  received  their  ac- 
complishment. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  John  had  the  other  three  Gospels 
before  him  when  he  wrote;  inasmuch  as  he  omits  all 
J,  '  that  had  been  described  in  them  with  sufficient  minute- 
ness. He  supposes  the  great  events  of  our  Saviour's  life  and  his 
principal  instructions,  to  be  already  known  to  his  readers.  If  at 
any  time  he  relates  what  had  been  mentioned  by  the  other  evange- 
lists, it  is  generally  with  a  view  to  introduce  some  important  dis- 
coiirse  of  our  Lord;  or  because  it  was  particularly  connected  with 
the  main  object  of  his  Gospel. 

The  object  which  this  evangelist  had  in  view  is  very  clearly  stated 
in  chaps,  i.  1-18:  20.  31.  His  design  appears  to  have 
been  to  convey  to  the  world  just  and  adequate  notions 
of  the  real  nature,  office,  and  character  of  the  Divine  Eedeemer. 
For  this  purpose  aro  especially  recorded  those  passages  of  our 
Saviour's  life,  which  most  clearly  displayed  his  Divine  power  and 
authority;  and  those  of  his  discourses  in  which  he  spoke  most  plainly 
of  his  own  nature,  of  the  work  given  to  him  by  the  Father,  and  the 
efficacy  of  his  death  as  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  And 
it  is  from  this  Gospel  that  the  most  numerous  and  decisive  proofs 
of  our  Lord's  deity  are  derived.  Yet  no  evangelist  has  portrayed 
the  softer  lineaments  of  our  Lord's  humanity  with  more  delicacy 
and  beauty,  or  disclosed  more  of  the  inmost  affections  and  feelings 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE   GOSPELS.  563 

of  the  Saviour's  heart.  The  other  evangelists  give  the  history  of 
our  Lord  in  Galilee  chiefly;  in  John  he  is  seen  generally  in  Judaea. 
Here  we  find  him  attending  three  passovers  at  least,  the  others 
giving  the  history  of  but  one.  Two-thirds  of  this  Gospel  are  new; 
the  most  important  additions  being  in  chaps.  13-17,  and  in  chap.  11. 
He  records  but  six  miracles,  and  omits  most  of  the  parables,  and 
the  sermon  on  the  mount. 

This  Gospel  was  probably  the  last  written  of  all  the  books  of  the 
Bible;  and  while  proving  the  Divine  nature  of  Christ,  it  corrected 
several  of  the  heresies  which  sprang  up  in  the  first  age  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  supplies  an  answer  to  some  that  prevail  in  our  own. 

Sec.  4.  TTie  Chronology  of  the  Gospels. 

142.  The  chronology  of  the  Gospels  is  a  subject  of  much 
interest  and  considerable  difficulty.  It  will  be  sufficient  to 
indicate  the  evidence  and  results  which  have  been  ascertained 
by  recent  and  protracted  inquiry. 

I.  The  present  Christian  era  a.  d.  i,  is  A.  u.  c.  754,  and  was  fixed 
in  the  6th  centmy  by  Dionysius  Exiguvis.  It  came  into  use  in  the 
8th  century,  and  was  adopted  by  Bede.  Shortly  afterwards  we  find 
it  employed  in  public  transactions  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne. 
Now  Herod  the  Great  died  A.  u.  c.  750,  just  before  the  Passover  (/.  e. 
between  the  latter  part  of  March,  and  the  latter  part  of  April) :  a 
statement  made  by  Josephus,  and  confirmed  by  astronomy,  which 
shows  that  an  echpse  of  the  moon,  said  to  have  taken  place  just 
before  his  death,  did  take  place  in  that  year.  Allowing  then,  four 
or  six  months  for  the  visit  of  the  Magi,  and  the  flight  into  Egypt, 
the  birth  of  our  Lord  cannot  be  later  than  January,  750,  or  October, 
749,  see  Matt.  2.  1-6:  Jos.  Antiq.  xvii.,  xviii.  i:  xvii.,  9,  3.  The 
Christian  era,  therefore,  is  wrong  by  at  least  four  years,  and  in 
this  decision  nearly  all  chronologers  agree. 

The  conclusion  to  which  the  testimony  of  Josephus  leads  us,  is 
confirmed  by  other  evidence.  .  .  .  From  Luke  3.  i,  2,  23,  we 
learn  that  John  entered  vipon  his  ministry  in  the  15th  year  of 
Tiberius,  and  that  Christ  was  about  thirty  years  of  age  at  his  bap- 
tism. Both  probably  entered  upon  their  work  when  they  were 
thirty  (see  Num.  4.  3,  35,  39,  43,  47).  Tiberius  was  associated 
with  Augustus  (and  the  original  of  Luke  impHes  that  he  dates  from 
that  time),  A.  u.  c.  764;  so  that  the  15  th  year  of  Tiberias  begins 
A.  u.  c.  779.  Christ,  therefore,  was  born  in  A.  u.  c.  750,  or  749.  .  . 
Again,  from  John  2.  20,  we  learn  that  then  the  temple  had  been 
forty-six  years  in  building  (Greek).  Josephus  states  that  Herod 
began  this  work  in  the  i8th  year  of  his  reign  (which  is  reckoned 
from  the  death  of  Antigonus,  A.  u.  c.  714).     Hence,  when  our  Lord 


564  HARMONIES   OF  THE  GOSPEIA 

spoke  (the  time  being  the  date  of  his  first  Passover,  when  he  was 
probably  thirty  and  a-half  years  old),  the  65  th  year  from  the  com- 
mencement of  Herod's  reign  was  in  progress,  or  a.  u.  c.  779.  On 
this  reckoning,  therefore,  Christ  must  have  been  born  a.  u.  c.  749. 
The  Latin  fathers,  moreover,  had  a  tradition,  that  Christ  was  put 
to  death  in  the  consulate  of  the  Gemini,  Rubellius  and  Fufius,  i.  c, 
A.  u.  c.  782-3,  and  reckoning  his  ministry  at  three  and  a-half  yeai's, 
we  are  again  brought  to  a.  u.  c.  749,  as  the  date  of  his  birth. 

2.  This  view  represents  our  Lord  as  entering  upon  his  ministry 
when  he  was  thii"ty.  Usher,  overlooking  part  of  the  evidence,  and 
misunderstanding  Luke  3,  supposes  our  Lord  to  have  commenced 
his  ministry  in  his  34th  year,  i.  c,  A.  D.  10.  This  conclusion  is  now 
generally  admitted  to  be  an  error. 

3.  On  the  duration  of  his  ministrj^,  there  is  also  a  difference  of 
opinion.  The  first  three  evangelists  seem  to  give  events  connected 
with  only  one  Passover;  the  last  mentions  three,  and  probably  four 
(see  next  Sec).  Usher  supposes  that  three  only  are  mentioned, 
and  hence  he  makes  the  duration  of  our  Lord's  ministry  two  and 
a-half  yeai's.  Greswell  and  Robinson  suppose  that  four  are  men- 
tioned, and  make  his  ministry  three,  or  three  and  a-half  years. 

4.  The  date  of  our  Lord's  death  is  of  course  known;,  the  day  of 
his  birth  can  be  only  conjectured.  Lardner  reckons  that  Christ 
was  born  between  August  and  Xovember,  748,  or  749  ;  and  Gres- 
well maintains  that  he  was  born  April  5,  750.  As  early  as  the  3rd 
and  4th  centuries,  the  6th  of  January  and  the  25  th  of  December 
were  celebrated  as  the  festival  of  his  birth  and  baptism,  by  the  two 
chief  sections  of  the  church. 

Sec.  5.  The  Gospels  Harmonized. 

143.  While  the  Gospels  as  they  lie  before  us  are  a  i^recious 
Importance  record  of  our  Saviour's  life,  it  is  highly  interest- 
«f  a^synopti-  ^j^g  ^q  compare  them,  and  to  ascertain  the  chrono- 
the  Gospels,  logical  order  of  the  events  they  describe.  The 
ShroSofogicai  cvangelists  are  their  own  best  interpreters.  Each 
harmony.  narrative  is  supplementary  to  the  rest,  in  minute 
as  well  as  in  important  particulars.  The  characteristic  of 
their  testimony  is  unity  in  diversity.  And  these  advantages 
appear  only  on  comparison  of  the  narratives  themselves. 

144.  This  process  is  easy.  Kirrecise  chronological  arrangement 
,.    ,    ofthe  events  and  discourses  is  more  diflacult, though 

A  Bynoptical  ■      1     •  r  xt_     n  1c 

.iew  easy :  also  mstructivc.  A  synoptical  view  01  the  Uospeis 
arrangimenf  may  be  framed  by  all ;  a  chronological  harmony 
difli.uit.         requires  much  learned  research.   The  order  adopted 


CHRONOLOGY   OF  THE  GOSPELS.  565 

in  the  Harmony  of  the  ReHgious  Tract  Society,  which  is 
founded  on  Dr.  Robinson's,  carefully  compared  with  the 
Harmonies  of  Greswell  and  Wieseler,  is  perhaps  the  best. 

145.  In  fixing  the  order  of  the  events  of  the  Gospels,  the  ilrst  ques- 

tion to  be  decided  is,  the  number  of  passovers  that  00- 
tion  •  nuro-  curred  during  our  Lord's  ministry.  One  only  is  mentioned 
ber  of  pass-     by  the  first  three  evangelists;  three  at  least  by  the  last 

(John  2.  13:  6,  4:  13,  i),  and  probably  four  (5.  i).* 
Some,  as  Sir  I.  Newton,  and  Dr.  Macknight,  have  supposed  even  a 
fifth,  but  of  this  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence.  A  few,  main- 
tain but  one ;  many,  as  Lardner,  Bengel,  Benson,  three ;  but  most, 
iucludiug  Grotius,  Lightfoot,  Newcome,  Hengstenberg,  four. 

146.  An  extreme  view,  in  opposition  to  all  attempts  to  frame  a  har- 
mony of  the  Gospels,  was  once  common  on  the  continent,  and  vras 
maintained  by  Osiander  (1537),  ^^^  other  Lutherans.  In  this  view, 
each  Gospel  was  held  to  preserve  a  strictly  chronological  order, 
and  all  events,  however  appai'ently  identical,  which  occupied  in  any 
two  Gospels  difierent  places,  were  deemed  distixict.  Elsewhere,  and 
in  later  times,  sounder  views  prevailed,  especially  through  the  ex- 
positions of  Calvin  and  Bengel.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  tLr.t 
Which  Gos-  ^^^  evangelists  do  not  profess  to  adhere  to  a  chronolo- 
pel  is  on  the  gical  order,  and  that  no  harmony  can  be  made  without 
most  chrouo-  some  transposition.  In  this  principle,  all  modern  har- 
losrxal.  monists  concur,  and  they  differ  only  in  the  importance 
which  each  attaches  to  the  order  of  some  one  evangelist.  In  the 
chronological  Tables,  given  by  Dr.  Robinson,  the  order  of  John  is 
never  altered,  though  between  the  events  he  records,  large  portions 
of  the  other  evangelists  are  introduced.  Mark's  order  is  only  twice 
inverted,  Luke's  not  much  oftener,  Matthew's  most  of  all ;  though  in 
no  case  are  the  alterations  very  serious.  The  first  three  Gospels  are 
sometimes  called  synoptical,  from  the  fact,  that  theh  narratives  are 
parallel  to  a  much  larger  extent  than  those  of  John. 

147.  Two  things  are  very  obvious  on  comparing  the  Gospels. 
Verbal  They  contain  many  verbal  agreements  so  marked  as  not 
ments  be-  to  admit  the  supposition  that  they  are  accidental  ;^  and 
Gospels'-^  they  contain  some  apparent  discrepancies.  The  first 
oiigm  of  fact  has  been  variously  explained.  A  common  opinion 
them.             ^,g^^  ^Vig^^  ^j^Q  Gospel  first  written  was  freely  used  by 

**  See  on  the  Grammar  of  this  passage,  if  read  without  the  article, 
Winer,  §  19.  4,  Matt.  27.  15:  Mark  15,  16:  and  on  the  whole 
question,  The  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  Religious  Tract  Society. 

b  The  English  version  does  not  always  give  a  full  idea  of  the 
remarkable  sameness  of  expression  to  be  found  in  the  different 
Gospels:  see  Dr.  Stroud's  Harmony  of  the  Gospels. 


568  CHRONOLOGY   OF  THE  GOSPELS. 

subsequent  writers;  and  each  of  the  first  three  Gospels  has  been 
regarded  as  the  Gospel  which  was  used  in  this  way.  Now,  how- 
ever, this  theory  has  few  advocates.  The  inspired  writers  them- 
selves say  nothing  of  such  dependence  as  this  practice  would  imply. 
The  passages  and  expressions  in  common,  moreover,  are  few,  com- 
pared with  those  which  are  peculiar;  so  that  this  theory  creates 
more  difficulties  than  it  explains.  A  second  opinion  maintains  that 
all  the  evangelists  used  some  common  Gospel  now  lost;  but  the 
absence  of  all  traditional  support  for  such  a  theory,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  applying  it  so  as  to  explain  the  admitted  facts,  have  in- 
duced most  critics  to  reject  it.  The  latest  suggestion  is,  that  all 
the  Gospels  are  founded  on  narratives  already  familiar,  through 
frequent  repetition,  to  the  inspired  writers.  The  chief  facts  of  our 
Lord's  life  and  teaching  had  certainly  been  promulgated  for  many 
years  before  the  Gospels  were  written,  and  many  expressions  and 
descriptions  must  have  been,  from  this  circumstance,  familiar  to 
the  inspired  writers.  Olshausen  combines  the  first  and  the  last  of 
these  views;  Matthevi^  and  Luke  were  wi-itten,  as  he  thinks,  inde- 
pendently, and  Mark  had  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  before  him. 
These  theories  are  important  chiefly  as  they  serve  to  remove  ob- 
jections founded  on  the  marked  verbal  agreement  of  the  inspired 
writers.  The  last  theory,  it  will  be  noticed,  explains  the  facts, 
without  adding  materially  to  the  difficulties. 

148.  The  apparent  discrepancies  of  the  Gospels  are  not  numerous, 

but  they  are  obvious,  and  have  probably  created  more 
Apparent  •'  '  r  j 

discrepan-       difficulty  than  their  marked  agreement.     Examples  are 
cics:  hovv       thefolloAving: 
reconciled.  " 

The  genealogies,  Matt.  i.  1-17:  Luke  3.  23-32.     The 

solution  of  the  difficulty  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  Matthew  traces 
our  Lord's  descent  through  Joseph,  and  Luke,  through  Mary. 

The  call  of  Peter,  Matt.  4.  18-22:  Mark  i.  16-20:  Luke  5.  i-ii. 
Greswell  supposes  two  transactions;  Eobinson,  but  one,  main- 
taining, with  Spanheim,  that  one  evangelist  supplies  what  another 
omits,  and  that  there  is  no  discrepancy. 

The  sermon  on  the  mount,  Matt.  5.  i :  Luke  6.  20.  Greswell  thinks 
the  sermon  was  delivered  twice;  Robinson,  but  once,  the  narrative 
of  Luke  ending  6.  19.  A  third  solution  explains  "in  the  plain" 
(eVi,  6.  17)  as  meaning  on  a  level  spot  upon  the  mountain, 
Matt.  5.  I. 

The  two  demoniacs,  Matt.  8.  28:  Luke  8.  26:  Mark  5.2.  Matthew 
says  there  were  two;  Mark  and  Luke  mention  but  one.  Le  Clerc 
remarks  that  the  fuller  account  includes  the  briefer,  and  the  briefer 
does  not  contradict  the  fuller.  Matthew  reads  Gergesenes,  though 
there  is  a  difference  of  reading.  Gergesa,  however,  was  compre- 
hended in  the  district  of  G.ndara. 


CHKONOLOGY  OF  THE  GOSPELS.  567 

T}ie  centurion's  servant,  Matt.  8.  5-12:  Luke  7.  i-io.  Some  sup- 
pose these  to  have  been  two  transactions,  but  they  occurred  in  the 
same  city  and  about  the  same  time.  What  Matthew  says  the  cen- 
turion did,  Luke  says  was  done  by  the  elders  of  the  Jews  and  his 
friends;  not  an  vmcommon  mode  of  speech:  compare  Mark  10.  35 
and  Matt.  20.  20.  A  third  explanation  supposes  both  the  cen- 
turion and  the  elders  to  have  gone  to  Christ;  he  later  than  they. 

The  two  blind  men  near  Jericho,  Matt.  20.  29-34:  Mark  10.  46-52: 
Luke  18.  35-43.  Here  are  several  dijfficulties.  Matthew  speaks  of 
two,  Mark  and  Luke,  of  one.  Matthew  and  Mark  say  the  occurrence 
took  place  as  Christ  departed  from  Jericho;  Luke  says  it  took 
place  when  he  was  come  nigh..  Greswell,  after  Lightfoot,  regards 
these  mii-acles  as  distinct ;  the  one  occurring  as  Christ  entered 
Jericho,  the  other,  as  he  left  it.  The  word  used  by  Luke,  how- 
ever, may  mean  (hellenistically)  to  be  near,  answering  to  our 
phrase  ''in  the  neighbourhood,"  i  Kings  21,  2:  Deut.  21.  3:  Euth 
2.  20:  Phil.  2.  30.  De  TV'ette  and  several  others  translate,  when 
Christ  was  dra-wing  neaj-  to  Jerusalem,  at  Jericho,  etc.,  see  ver.  3 1 : 
19.  29,  41. 

These  instances  illustrate  the  difficulties  of  the  narrative,  and 
explain  the  various  modes  adopted  in  removing  them.  On  any  in- 
terpretation, the  moral  lessons  of  the  narrative  are  unimpaired. 

149.  The  study  of  the  Gospels  sjnoptically,  and  in  the 

order  of  time,  will  often  suggest  important  lessons. 
Importance  '  °°  ^ 

ofstiidj'ing         Look,   for  example,  at  the  record  of  Christ's  early 

in  this  way:    life-     The  first   act   of  worship  was   paid   to   him   by 

illustrated  in   Gentiles,   whose  gifts  proved  a  providential  supply  to 

his   family  when   escaping  from  the  jealous  hatred  of 

Herod.     The  history  of  the  subsequent  youth  of  oiu-  Lord,  till  he 

was  twelve  years  old,  is  given  in    one  sentence:  ^'he  grew,  and 

waxed  strong  in  spirit,  filled  with  wisdom,  and  the  grace  of  God 

was  upon  him." 

He  was  not  in  haste  to  enter  upon  the  more  public  duties  of  his 

office.     After  his   baptism  even,    there   is   an  interval   of  several 

months  before  he  reveals  himself  (at  the  Passover  at  Jerusalem)  as 

a  ''Teacher  sent  from  God."     That  interval  he  spent  (in  part)  in 

the  wilderness,   conquering  temptation,   and  enduring  mysterioiLS 

suffering.     He  thus  learned,  at  the  outset,  to  succour  the  temoted. 

These  temptations  preceded  his  public  ministry,  and  followed  the 

pubKc  recognition  of  him  by  the   Father,   at  his  baptism.     The 

same  voice  was  again  heard  on  the  eve  of  the  crucifixion.     Tokens 

of  peculiar  favour  often  precede  severe  suffermg,  and  both  prepare 

for  the  discharge  of  onerous  duties. 


568  CHRONOLOGY  :   LESSONS. 

The  threefold  recognition  of  sonship  is  instructive :  first,  at  his 
birth,  to  indicate  his  Divine  nature  (Luke  i.  35);  the  second,  at  his 
baptism,  to  indicate  the  divinity  of  his  mission;  the  third,  at  his 
transfigm-ation,  to  indicate  his  regal  dignity  and  authority,  "Hear 
ye  him."  At  his  resurrection  all  were  confirmed,  and  he  "was 
declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God  with  power." 

The  first  announcement  of  Christ  refers  to  his  kingdom.  Matt. 
3.  2;  the  second,  to  his  sacrifice,  John  i.  29. 

The  first  miracle  of  our  Lord  was  performed  in  Galilee,  and 
taught  that,  in  his  official  character,  no  earthly  relationship  could 
be  acknowledged  (John  2,  4);  that  he  came,  not  as  John,  austere 
and  unsocial,  but  sympathizing  with  man  in  every  condition  of  joy 
as  well  as  of  sorrow.  It  taught  also  that  the  water  of  purifying 
under  the  law  was  to  give  place  to  the  wine  of  his  kingdom;  the 
richest  revelation  being  I'eserved  to  the  close. 

The  first  of  his  public  acts  (John  2.  15),  and  one  of  the  last,  was  to 
purify  the  temple,  showing  that  he  was  its  Lord,  and  fulfilling  a 
prophecy  of  Malachi  (chap.  3.  i).  He  also  intimated  that  thence- 
foi'th  his  own  body  (as  afterwards  his  church)  was  to  be  the  true 
temple  (John  2.  21),  wherein  God  himself  would  dwell. 

His  first  recorded  discourse  was  with  Nicodemus,  on  regeneration, 
on  salvation  by  faith,  on  God's  love  to  the  world  in  the  gift  of  his 
Son.  He  announced  at  the  same  time  that  he  was  son  of  God  and 
son  of  man;  that  his  kingdom  was  to  be  established  in  human 
hearts;  that  he  himself  was  to  be  lifted  up,  not  on  an  earthly 
throne,  but  on  the  cross.  The  first  scenes  of  his  life,  therefore,  in 
Jerusalem,  shadowed  forth  the  truths  which  were  embodied  in 
terrible  reality  in  the  last.  His  second  discourse  was  with  the 
Samaritan  woman,  and  ended  in  the  convei'sion  of  many  of  the 
Samaritans.  The  earliest  extensive  success  of  our  Lord's  mission 
Avas  witnessed  in  a  district  that  was  the  most  despised,  and  where 
he  had  wrought  no  miracles.     He  was  first  i*ejected  at  Xazareth. 

How  instructive  to  observe,  that  though  "  the  whole  multitude 
of  the  disciples"  had  rejoiced  and  praised  God,  on  their  way  to 
Jerusalem,  "for  all  the  mighty  works  which  they  had  seen,"  within 
a  week,  one  had  denied  our  Lord,  others  had  slept  dui-ing  his 
agony,  and  all  had  forsaken  him.  "He  trod  the  wine-press  alone," 
though,  but  a  few  days  before,  that  prophecy  did  not  seem  likely 
to  be  fulfilled. 

The  day  after,  he  delivered  the  parable  of  the  wicked  husband- 
men, asserting  his  own  dignity  as  "the  son,"  and  foretelling  his 
death. 

The  contention  among  the  disciples  who  should  be  greatest  seem  a 
to  have  been  settled  by  our  Lord  taking  a  towel,  gii'ding  himself, 


chronology:  lessons.  5Gi) 

and  washing  theii'  feet;  thus  teaching  them  that  the  chief  among 
them  was  to  be  as  he  that  did  serve.  Compare  Luke  22.  24-30  and 
John  13.  1-20. 

Careful  attention  to  the  order  of  the  narrative  will  show  that, 
while  Pilate  declared  that  he  found  no  fault  in  Him,  and  Herod 
acknowledged  that  there  was  no  charge  against  him  worthy  of 
death,  he  was  crucified  on  the  charge  of  olasphemy,  making  him- 
self equal  with  God.  That  was  his  true  character,  or  he  was  justly 
condemned. 

It  will  be  seen  that  it  was  after  Judas  Iscariot  had  left  the  com- 
pany that  our  Lord  gave  his  disciples  the  new  commandment,  in- 
stituted the  last  supper,  and  delivered  the  tender  farewell  discourse 
recorded  in  John  14.-16. 

Nearly  one-third  of  the  Gospels  is  occupied  with  the  events  of  the 
last  seven  days  of  onv  Saviom-'s  life,  including  his  crucifixion.  The 
prominence  given  to  these  scenes  he  himself  explains.  "  The  hour 
is  come  when  the  Son  of  Man  shall  be  glorified.  Verily,  verily,  I 
say  unto  you,  except  a  corn  of  wheat  fall  into  the  ground  and  die,  it 
abideth  alone ;  but  if  it  die,  it  briugeth  forth  much  fruit." 

150.  The  connection  of  miracles  and  parables  is  no  less 

In  parables       instructive. 

and  miracles.  ^^^  parables,  see  Part  i.  §  41 8.  For  miracles,  we  may 
take  the  8th  and  9th  of  Matthew.  Christ  first  heals  with  a  touch 
the  man  whom  the  law  had  pronounced  unclean  (8.  2-4),  and  then 
proceeds  to  assert  practically  his  power  over  disease  (14-17),  over 
devils  themselves  (16),  over  physical  nature  (23-27),  and  over  even 
brute  creatures  (28-34).  What  can  be  more  complete  than  thi^ 
view  of  his  reign?  Li  chap.  9,  we  see  him  in  his  spiritual  kingdom, 
forgiving  sin  (1-8),  and  answering  prayer,  direct  (20-22),  inter- 
cessory (23-26),  united  (27-31),  unuttered  (32,  33).  Whether 
these  are  precisely  the  characteristic  features  of  this  group  may 
admit  of  a  question,  but  thei'e  are  characteristic  features,  and  our 
^visdom  is  to  ascertain  and  examine  them. 

So,  again,  of  the  cases  in  which  Christ  raised  the  dead.  Thi-ee 
only  are  given,  but  each  is  characteristic.  In  the  case  of  Jairus' 
daughter,  the  spirit  had  but  just  quitted  the  body;  the  son  of  the 
widow  of  Nain  was  being  carried  to  the  gi-ave;  and  the  summons  to 
Lazarus  was  addressed  to  one  who  had  been  dead  "four  days 
already."  Christ  therefore  raised  the  dead  from  the  couch,  the 
bier,  and  the  sepulchre;  an  ascending  series  of  difficulties,  but  all 
possible  with  him.  Each  miracle,  moreover,  had  in  other  respects 
its  appropriate  lessons. 


570 


TOPICS   IN   READING  THE   GOSPELS. 


Sec.  6.  Topics  to  he  Noticed  in  Reading  the  Gospels. 

151.  In  the  study  of  the  New  Testament,  and  of  the  Gos- 
pels especially,  we  need  to  inquire  and  compare.  The  in- 
spired writings  are  infinitely  rich  in  truth,  and  each  verse  is 
so  connected  with  the  rest  that  an  intelhgent  inquirer  may 
easily  extend  his  investigations  from  one  passage  over  the 
whole  of  Scripture.  Without  attempting  to  exhaust  topics 
of  inquiry,  we  mention  the  following.  The  letters  may  be 
prefixed  to  each  verse,  or  not,  according  to  the  taste  of  the 
reader. 


A.  ^Yha.t  analogies  between  sensible  and. 

spiritual  things  may  be  here  traced  ? 

a.  What  prophecy  is  here  accomplished  f 

where  found?  when  written?  what 

rule  of  interpretation  is  illustrated  ? 

B.  What  blessing  is.  here  sought  or  ac- 

knowledged, or  promised,  and  why  ? 

C.  What  custom  is  here  referred  to? 

c.  What  trait  of  character  is  here  given? 

good  or  had?  belonging  to  our  na- 
tural or  our  renewed  state?  what 
advantages  are  coimected  with  H? 

D.  What  doctrine  is  here  taught?  how 

illustrated?  what  its  practical  in- 
fluence ? 

d.  What    duty  is    here   enforced,   and 

how?  from  what  motives? 

D.  What    difficulty    is    here    found    in 

history  or  in  doctrine?  how  ex- 
plained? 

E.  What  evangelical  or  other  expei-ience 

is  here  recorded  ? 

e.  What  cxainj/lc  is  here  placed  before 

us?  of  sin  or  of  holhicss?  lessons? 
/'.  What  facts  are  here  related?  what 

doctiine  or  duty  do  they  illustrate? 

do  you  commend  or  blame  them, 

and  why? 
G.  What  is  the  geographical  position  of 

this  country,  or  place?   and  what 

its  history? 
n.  What  facts  of  natural  history  or  of 

general  history  are  here  referred  to 

or  illustrated? 
/.  What    institution    or   ordinance    is 

here  mentioned?  on  whom  bind- 
ing?   what    its    design?   what   its 

cotmection  with  other  institutions? 
i.  What  instructions  may  be  gathered 

froni    this     fact,    or    parable,    or 

miracle  ? 


K,  WTiat  Jinou-ledge  of  human  nature,  or 
want  of  knowledge,  is  here  dis- 
played ? 

L.  What  lofty  expressions  of  devotional 

fervour  ? 
I.  What  Levitieal  institute  is  here  men- 
tioned? why  appointed? 

M.  What  miracle  is  here  recorded?  by 
whom  wrought?  in  whose  name? 
what  were  its  results?  what 
taught? 

N.  What  is  worthy  of  notice  in  this 
name  ? 

P.  What  pi-ohxbition  is  here  given  ?  is  it 
word,  or  thought,  or  deed,  it  con- 
demns? 

p.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  parable 
here  given  ?  wliat  truth  as  to  God, 
Christ,  man,  "the  kingdom,"  is 
taught  ? 

P.  What  promise  is  here  given?  to 
whom  ? 

E.  "What  prophecy  is  here  recorded  ?  is 
it  fulfilled?  how?  when? 

S.  What  sin  is  here  exposed  ? 
s.  What  sect  is  here  introduced?  men- 
tion its  tenets. 

T.  What  type  is  here  traced  ? 
t.  \^\idX  Uireatening?  when  inflicted? 

U.  What  nnjnstiftable  action  of  a  good 
man  ?  what  unusual  excellence  in 
one  not  pious? 

Tr. What  vo  is  here  denounced?  what 
naming  given?  agaiust  whom, 
and  why  ? 

X.  What  is  here  taught  of  the  work, 
character,  person  of  Christ  ? 

X.  What  sublimity  of  thought  or  of  lan- 
guage is  here?  what  inference 
follows? 


Lessons  to  he  gathered  from  a  Comparison  of  Passages. 

152.  Sometimes,  instead  of  marking  the  lessons  taught  in 
single  verses,  it  is  useful  to  compare,  in  order  to  ascertain 


GOSPELS  :   METHOD   OF  STUDY.  571 

and  contrast  the  duties  or  truths  involved.  The  following 
(taken  from  Nichols'  Help)  are  specimens.  Many  more 
might  be  added. 

Give  instances  of  our  Lord's  attendance  on  public  worship,  at  th(^ 
temple,  and  in  the  synagogue;  his  submission  to  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Mosaic  law  (Luke  4.  i6:  John  7.  37);  his  retirement 
for  private  prayer,  and  under  what  circumstances  (Matt.  14.  23. 
26.  36:  Mark  i.  3?:  Luke  6.  12);  his  prayers  for  others  (Luke  22. 
32,  for  Peter:  John  17,  for  his  church:  Luke  23.  34,  for  his 
enemies);  his  prayer  with  others  (Luke  9.  28). 

Give  instances  of  his  submission  to  the  will  of  his  heavenly 
Father  (John  4.  34:  5-  30:  t8.  ii);  his  zeal  (John  2.  17:  4.  31- 
34:  Luke  9.  51,  etc.);  his  giving  an  improving  turn  to  events  and 
circumstances  (Matt.  9.  27:  Luke  12.  15:  John  4.  32:  6.  27:  7.  37); 
his  humility  (John  8.  50:  13.  i,  etc.);  and  his  self-denial. 

Give  illustrations  how  oxu-  Lord  acted  as  a  son  (Luke  2.51:  Johu 
19.  26);  as  a  friend  (^John  11);  as  a  subject  (Matt.  17.  24);  as  a 
teacher  (Matt.  11.  29). 

Give  instances  of  his  reproof,  and  show  the  grounds  of  it  in  the 
following  cases  (his  apostles,  as  Peter,  Matt.  16.  23:  Luke  22.  61: 
Jolm  21;  James  and  John,  Luke  9.  55;  Thomas,  John  20.  27; 
Judas,  John  12.  7,  8;  other  disciples,  Luke  24.  25).  What  sins 
seemed  to  call  forth  his  severest  reproof  (John  8.  44:  Matt.  23)? 

What  does  our  Lord  say  of  unbehef  (Matt.  11.  21:  John  3.  36); 
of  covetousness  and  other  vices;  and  of  particular  virtues  ? 

Who  were  particularly  the  objects  of  our  Lord's  commendation, 
and  for  what  (Matt.  8.  10:  15.  28:  26.  13:  Luke  10.  42:  21.  3)? 

When  did  our  Lord  give  offence,  and  what  occasioned  it  (Mark 
6.  3:  John  6.  66;  19.  7)? 

What  charges  were  brought  against  ovu:  Lord?  By  what  oppro- 
brious names  was  he  called?  Collect  the  different  reasons  which 
were  given  by  individuals  for  not  following,  or  for  rejecting  him 
(Mark  6.  3:  10.  22:  John  7.  41).     What  reason  does  he  give  ? 

Give  instances  of  our  Lord's  command  of  temper  under  circum- 
stances calculated  greatly  to  irritate  it  (Matt.  27.  14:  Luke  22: 
John  13);  and  of  his  condescension  to  the  infirmities  of  others 
(John  20.  27:  Matt.  26.  41). 

Under  what  circumstances  did  our  Lord  tm-n  away  from  those 
who  applied  to  him,  or  refuse  to  comply  with  their  request  (Mark 
8.  II,  12:  10.  35,  etc.:  Luke  23.  8),  or  seem  to  check  their  coming 
(Matt.  8.  19,  20:  Mark  5.  19:  Luke  14.  25,  etc.)? 

Isa.  52.  13,  speaks  of  his  dealing  prudently.  Observe  his  pru- 
dence in  declining  all  interference  with  civil  affairs  (Luke  12.  13: 


572  THE   GOSPEL  AND   THE   GENTILES. 

John  6.  15);  and  in  the  vise  of  means  for  the  presei'vation  of  his 
life  (Matt.  4.  12:  Mark  3.  6,  7:  John  7.  i-io:  10.  39:  11.  53,  54); 
as  also  his  wisdom  in  suiting  his  instructions  to  his  hearers. 

I'Vhat  does  our  Lord  say  as  to  the  great  principle  which  influenced 
him  in  all  he  did  (John  4.  34)?  also  as  to  his  object  in  coming  into 
the  world  (Matt.  20.  28:  Luke  19.  10:  John  9.  39:  10.  10:  18.  37)? 

How  does  our  Lord  describe  a  future  state  of  happiness  and  of 
misery?  How  does  he  describe  his  kingdom  and  his  second 
coming? 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

The  Book  of  Acts. 

Sec.  I.  The  Gospel  and  the  Gentiles. 

153.  And  now  the  gospel  is  about  to  be  diflfused  among  the  na- 
tions. The  Book  of  Acts  gives  us  the  history  of  its  progress  in 
Judsea  (1.-7)^  in  Samaria  (8),  and  then  "  to  the  uttermost  parts  of 
the  earth"  (10.-28).  How  far  did  the  Gentiles  need  the  gospel? 
and  what  new  truths  did  it  reveal  to  them  ?  are  therefore  instructive 
questions. 

Some  reply,  by  affirming,  that  to  the  Gentile  world,  the  gospel 
What  is  the  ^^'^^  welcome  chiefly  as  a  code  of  pei"fect  morality; 
gospel  to  others  affirm  with  Paley,  that  its  chief  excellence  was 
the  Gentiles.  -^^  revelation  of  eternal  life;  and  others  still,  that  it 
is  essentially  a  revelation  of  religion,  the  morality  of  the  heathen 
being  political  or  secular,  not  spiritual  or  religious.  It  tells  nothing, 
they  say,  of  man's  relation  to  God,  nor  did  it  base  moral  sentiment 
on  his  character  or  will.  This  peculiarity,  it  is  added,  Josephus 
pointedly  marks.  Other  nations,  says  he,  have  a  morality  without 
religion;  among  the  Jews  alone  is  religion  made  the  basis  of  virtue. 

Unsatisfactory  as  these  statements  are,  each  of  them  contains  a 
portion  of  the  truth.  The  whole  truth  we  reach  only  by  combining 
them,  and  adding  others  which  they  do  not  include.  It  may  in- 
deed be  summed  up  in  one  sentence — the  gospel  is  the  revelation 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  God  in  him, —but  this  summary  involves 
particulars,  which  must  be  stated  in  detail,  before  we  can  under- 
stand its  significancy  and  beauty. 

154.  (i.)  Apart  from  the  gospel,  men  had  a  very  imperfect 
Man  ignorant  knowledge  of  their  nature  and  guilt.  The  fact  that  they 
of  the  extent  iccre  sinners  was  obvious  to  all.     But  the  extent  of  their 

IS  gui  .  gj^^  needing  as  it  did  to  be  compared  with  a  perfect  lav/; 
the  aggravation  of  it,  springing  from  a  depraved  nature ;  the  guilt  of 


STATE   OF  THE  GENTILES.    .  573 

that  very  depravity,  itself  the  result,  not  of  chance  or  of  circum- 
stances, or  of  any  corrupt  tendency  in  the  matter  {vkr]),  of  which 
man  was  formed,  least  of  all  of  an  act  of  God,  but  of  man's  own 
voluntary  transgression,  they  did  not  know,  or  had  forgotten.  A 
la^v  to  test  the  measure  of  our  guilt,  a  history  to  trace  our  ruin  to 
ourselves,  and  evidence  to  prove  that  man's  nature  is  not  better 
than  his  practice,  are  therefore  strictly  revelations;  and  thev  seem 
as  essential  to  our  penitence  as  to  our  restoration.  Once,  ai  men 
possessed  the  knowledge  of  these  truths,  but  now  it  can  be  regained 
from  the  Bible  alone. 

^55-  (-•)  Of  God  himself,  the  heathen  were  no  less  lamentably 
Of  God's  ignorant.  Whether  he  were  one  or  many,  or  as  most 
character.  held,  both  many  and  one :  whether,  as  the  Stoics  main- 
tained, God  was  everything,  and  everything  God,  matter  itself  being 
but  the  remotest  emanation  of  Deity;  or,  as  the  Platonists  limited 
the  doctrine,  God  was  all  spirit,  and  all  spirits  were  God,  emanating 
from  him,  and  ultimately  absorbed  into  him;  or,  whether  he 
were  not  a  being  who  took  no  interest  in  earthly  concerns,  as 
Epicurus  taught,  none  knew.  All  did  know,  however,  that  the 
objects  of  popular  worship  embodied  the  vices  of  their  worshippers, 
and  that  easy  indifference,  virtuous  contempt,  or  guilty  fear,  were 
the  feelings  with  which  they  were  regai'ded.  A  God  of  holiness, 
of  providence,  and  of  love,  guided  by  integrity,  was  either  alto- 
gether unknown,  or  if  made  the  theme  of  discussion,  was  re- 
garded with  dismay.  "  This, "  says  Cicero,  "  is  the  common  principle 
of  all  philosophies,  that  the  Deity  is  never  displeased,  nor  does  he 
...  inflict  injury  upon  men,"  a  principle  involved  no  less  in 
the  moral  character  asci-ibed  to  the  divinities,  than  in 
the  apathetic  indifference  thought  essential  to  their  dignity. 

156.  (3.)  The  influence  of  the  evils  already  named  on  the  moral 

,%f  r  ^  sj'-stems  of  the  heathen,  is  obvious.  The  relations  and 
Of  a  perfect       -^  '  •  n      ■, 

system  of  truths  on  which  morality  is  based,  were  imperfectly 
morality.  perceived,  and  the  obligations  thence  arising,  still  more 
imperfectly  felt.  In  Greece,  religion  was  devotion  to  external  na- 
ture, and  at  last  to  art:  in  Rome,  devotion  to  country,  and  then 
to  power:  in  each  respectively,  it  was  energy  and  taste.  Political 
virtues  both  recognised;  and  at  first,  Rome  prized  as  the  highest 
political  virtue,  domestic  fidelity;  but  in  neither  nation  had  religion 
any  good  moral  tendency,  and  in  both,  religion  became  the  chief 
servant  of  licentiousness  and  vice. 

15  7-  (4-)  Nor  was  this  tendency  checked  by  any  belief  of  a  per- 

„.,,  sonal  conscious  immortality,  A  resurrection  of  the 
Or  the  cer-  .     -^  .    .      ,  .       • 

tainty  of  a  dead  was  universally  rejected  as  ridiculous.     An  im- 

♦"uturo  life.  mortality  of  the  soul,  properly  so  called,  none  admitted. 


574  STATE  OF  THE  GENTILES. 

That  the  souls  of  men  might  survive,  in  some  shadowy  semi, 
conscious  state,  or  even  enjoy  for  a  time  the  company  of  their 
deities,  a  few  were  disposed  to  maintain;  but  the  evidence  was  so 
faint,  and  the  difficulties  were  so  serious,  that  even  the  greatest  of 
heathen  philosophers,  Socrates,  was  constrained  to  confess,  that 
whether  it  were  better  to  live  or  die,  was  known  only  to  the 
gods, 

158.  (5.)  It  is  not  intended  by  these  statements,  to  deny  that 

there  may  not  be  found  in  the  writings  of  some  ancient 
a  system  that  philosophers,  both  classic  and  oriental,  glimpses  of 
shall  recon-  di\dner  truth,  moral  and  speculative.  Such  glimpses 
and  fears,^  there  are.  Plato  attempted,  as  the  founder  of  Buddhism 
himself  and     did,  to  bring  back  the  faith  of  man  from  innumerable 

visible  deities  {B^oi  yevTjroi),  to  the  Great  Invisible  (civ), 
Socrates  discourses  eloquently  on  ''  the  good,"  **  the  beautiful." 
But  on  the  other  hand,  both  Plato  and  Socrates,  when  speaking 
most  justly,  confess  that  they  are  but  guessing  at  truth,  and  that 
whether  their  conclusions  are  sound,  cannot  be  told  till  some  Divine 

teacher  appear The  real   difficulty  in   all  these  inqumes 

remained,  a  difficulty  that  drew  thousands  to  results  which  their 
better  principles  condemned.     If  man  is  thus  guilty;    if  this  be 

^  ..^  virtue  :  if  God  is  just;  if  another  life  be  a  ideality:  how 
Can  guilty       .  ''  "^ 

man  be  just  IS  man  to  attam  the  purity  and  blessedness  of  which  we 
with  God?  ti^ug  dream?  In  the  absence  of  light,  they  de7ued  the 
truths  they  dreaded ;  or  in  spite  of  light,  followed  the  evil  they 
loved,  till  they  reaped  the  fruit  of  their  practice,  in  diminished 
knowledge  and  grosser  sin. 

159.  (6.)  The  moral  condition  of  the  nations  to  whom  the  gospel 
Man's  moral  ca-^^^,  was  just  such  as  their  ignorance  and  the  cnr- 
condition.  rupt  tendencies  in  which  that  ignorance  originated 
might  lead  us  to  expect.  Paul  has  described  it  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans;  and  Wetstein,  Tholuck,  and  others,  have  shown 
from  ancient  authorities,  that  the  pictm-e  of  the  apostle  has  not  one 
touch  too  many,  or  too  dark. 

These  were  the  evils  with  which  the  gospel  had  to  contend;  and 
these  evils  it  subdued.  To  the  wants  which  these  e\'ils  indicated, 
the  gospel  was  adapted.  The^e  wants  it  relieved,  and  these  wants 
it  will  at  length  for  ever  i-emove. 

160.  Such  everyT\'here  is  nature  without  revelation,  man  without 
These  evils  God.  The  evils  thus  traced  in  Greece,  re -appear  in 
universal.  India,  and  in  the  midst  of  our  western  civilization. 
Man  without  the  Bible,  and  man  rejecting  the  Bible,  tend  (the 
latter  most  rapidly),  to  the  same  condition;  and  it  is  that  condition 
which  the  gospel  is  intended  to  relieve.     Its  essence  is  the  life  and 


GOSPEL  ADAPTED  TO   THE  GENTILES.  o7o 

How  re-  work  of  our  Lord.  He  was  Man;  sinless  and  holy, 
moved  by  as  man  once  was.  He  obeyed  the  law  which  we  had 
the  gospeL  broken,  and  in  obeying,  expounds  and  enforces  it.  He 
died  in  our  stead,  shewing  what  our  sins  deserved,  and  how  they 
all  may  be  cancelled.  In  our  nature,  and  as  our  representative,  he 
conquered  death  and  ascended  to  God,  a  pledge  and  proof  of  our 
ascension.  In  heaven,  he  forms  the  bond  cf  union  between  God  and 
man,  blending  with  his  DiA-ine  nature,  our  own,  and  ready  to  employ 
the  fruits  of  his  ministry,  both  his  power  with  God,  and  his  fellow- 
feeling  with  our  infirmities  for  our  profit He  was  God,  the 

brightness  of  the  Father's  glory,  the  express  image  of  Ids  person, 
the  Eternal  God  in  human  form,  thtis  realizing  the  yearnings  of 
many  for  some  object  of  reverence  and  of  love.  In  his  acts,  he 
showed  what  God  is,  how  tender,  how  holy;  revealed  those  rela- 
tions which  we  already  know  that  he  sustains  to  man,  and  disclosed 
others  even  more  adapted  to  impress  our  hearts.  That  he  was 
Creator  and  Preserver,  men  had  gathered  from  his  works ;  that  he 
might  become  Judge  they  feared.  But  here  he  is  seen  as  our 
Brother,  our  Redeemer,  our  Friend.  The  Law-giver  becomes 
obedient  to  his  own  law,  and  bears  its  penalty;  his  position  assuring 
to  us  the  sufficiency  of  his  sacrifice.  Xone  knew  so  well  man's 
gmlt,  and  none  knew  so  well  the  requirements  of  his  own  govern- 
ment: the  first  is  cancelled;  the  second  honoured  by  his  suffering. 
In  effecting  the  great  end  of  this  mission,  he  has  moreover  per- 
formed a  work,  that  has  in  it  the  elements  of  all  power;  over  man 
and  with  God.  "Lifted  up,"  he  ''draws  all"  unto  him;  and 
ascending  on  high  he  receives  gifts  for  men,  repentance  and  remis- 
sion of  sins,  holiness  and  eternal  life.  The  gospel  is,  in  one  word, 
a  revelation  of  man,  and  of  God;  of  new  relations,  and  of  a  perfect 
morality;  of  eternal  life,  demonstrated  not  by  argument,  but  by 
facts,  and  above  all,  of  a  system  of  reconciliation,  which  harmonizes, 
enforces,  and  explains  all  its  other  disclosures,  and  fits  it  to  become 
"  glad  tidings  of  great  joy,  unto  all  people."  It  is  the  utterance  at 
once  of  infinite  sufficiency,  holiness,  and  love. 

i6r.  It  may  be  convenient  to  mark  here  the  distinction  between 
Relation  of     "the  different  books  of  the    New   Testament.     In  the 

Gospels,  Evangelists  we  have  the  gospel  incarnate :    Christ  came 

Acts  and  ox 

Epistles,  to  to  be  the  gospel,  and  to  do  what  should  form  the. basis 
one  another.  Qf  jjjg  church.  In  the  Gospels,  therefore,  though  much 
is  revealed,  much  is  wrapped  up  in  dark  sayings.  His  death, 
his  resitrrection,  the  gift  of  his  Spirit,  the  nature  of  his  king- 
dom, the  call  of  the  Gentiles,  his  second  coming,  are  all  hinted  at, 
or  foretold,  or  done;  but  in  the  Gospels,  we  look  rather  for  the 
facts  which  are  to  give  significance  to  some  future  disclosures  on 


57(.  THE   BOOK   OF   ACTS. 

tliese  topics,  than  for  explicit  teaching.  There  is  no  spiritual  truth 
which  may  not  be  found  in  the  narrative,  but  for  the  full  meaning 

of  that  narrative  we  need  the  later  revelations  of  the  Spirit 

In  the  Book  of  Acts,  we  learn  the  meaning  of  much  of  our  Saviour's 
teaching  from  the  characters  and  lives  of  Christians,  and  the  deal- 
ings of  the  providence  of  God.  In  the  Epistles,  we  see  doctrine  and 
duty  in  their  connections  and  tendencies,  the  whole  explained  and 
enforced  as  completely  as  the  Spirit  of  God  has  deemed  it  necessary 
for  our  present  state.  In  Eevelation,  we  trace  the  history  of  these 
doctrines  embodied  in  the  church,  till  the  end  of  time.  The 
Epistles  explain  and  apphj  what  the  Gospels  describe;  Revelation 
completes  what  the  Book  of  Acts  begins;  and  each  part  is  the  com- 
plement of  the  rest,  the  facts  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  being  the  foun- 
dation of  the  whole. 

Sec.  2.  Introduction  to  the  Booh  of  Acts. 

162.  This  book  continues  the  early  history  of  the  Christian 
church,  in  two  pi'incipal  sections:  the  first  relating  the  spread  of 
Christianity  in  Palestine,  chiefly  by  the  instrumentality  of  Peter, 
chaps.  1-12;  and  the  second,  its  diffusion  through  other  counti'ies, 
mostly  by  the  labours  of  Paul  (13-28).  While  the  book  is  thus 
divisible  into  two  portions,  it  desci'ibes  a  threefold  condition  in  the 
church.  The  ^rs^  described  in  chaps,  i.-ii.  18,  in  which  the  church 
is  entirely  Jewish,  though  at  Csesarea,  a  Roman  convert  had  been 
baptized  by  Peter,  a.  d.  30-41.  The  second  period  is  found  in 
chap.  II.  19,  to  chap.  15.  The  Jewish  element  still  prevails,  but 
Gentile  converts  are  numerous,  a.  D.  42-50.  The  third  is  given  in 
chaps.  16-28,  and  here  we  find  the  position  of  the  Gentiles  defined, 
and  many  churches  formed  from  among  the  heathen,  A.  D.  51-63. 

It  is  not,  however,  to  be  considered  as  a  regvdar  or  complete  his- 
tory of  the  church.  Many  important  transactions,  refeiTed  to  else- 
where, are  omitted.  It  gives  no  account  of  the  church  at  Jeinisalem 
after  the  imprisonment  and  deliverance  of  Peter,  or  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  gospel  at  Rome,  or  of  many  of  Paul's  voyages  and 
shipwrecks  mentioned  in  2  Cor.  11.  25;  while,  respecting  the 
extensive  labours  of  the  other  apostles,  besides  Peter  and  Paul, 
there  is  hardly  any  information. 

As  the  Gospels  are  far  from  being  a  full  account  of  all  that  our 
blessed  Lord  said  and  did,  but  are  rather  histories  describing  his 
character,  works,  and  the  chief  events  of  his  life,  and  the  first 
introduction  of  the  Christian  dispensation;  so  the  Acts  are  not  a 
complete  recoi'd  of  the  labours  of  his  apostles,  but  I'ather  a  naiTative 
of  facts,  confirming  the  truth  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  illus- 


ACTS  :  LESSONS.  o77 

tmtiug  its  power  and  operation:  and  proving  the  claim  of  the 
Gentiles  to  admission  into  the  church,  objections  to  which  were 
interposed  by  the  Jewish  converts. 

Some  account  of  Luke,  the  author  of  this  book,  has  been  given  in 
the  preface  to  his  Gospel,  of  which  this  book  is  evidently  a  continua- 
tion, as  both  are  inscribed  to  the  same  person,  and  the  history  is  taken 
up  at  the  very  point  to  which  it  had  been  conducted  in  the  Gospel. 
From  his  frequent  use  of  the  word  tee,  it  is  clear  that  he  was  present 
at  many  of  the  transactions  which  he  relates.  He  accompanied 
Paul  from  Troas  to  Philippi  (i6.  ii);  and  probably  remained  there 
till  the  apostle's  second  visit,  two  years  afterwards,  when  he  left 
that  city  in  his  company  (20.  6);  and  from  that  time  to  the  close 
of  the  narrative  he  appears  as  the  companion  of  the  apostle.  He 
went  with  him  to  Jei'usalem,  and  afterwards  to  Eome;  where  he 
remained  with  him  during  at  least  the  first  pai't  of  his  confinement, 
cU5  appears  from  two  Epistles  written  by  Paul  from  that  city.  Col. 
4.  14;  Philem.  24.  As  his  name  does  not  appear  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Philippians,  written  not  very  long  afterwards,  it  has  been  sup- 
posed that  he  had  then  quitted  Rome.  But  on  Paul's  second 
imprisonment  at  Rome,  Luke  is  again  by  his  side,  2  Tim.  4.  1 1 . 

Where,  or  at  what  time  precisely,  this  book  was  written,  is  not 
cei'tainly  known.  As,  however,  the  history  is  continued  to  the 
second  year  of  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  and  there  breaks 
off,  without  mentioning  the  issue  of  his  trial,  or  his  release,  it  may 
be  supposed  that  it  was  written  about  a.  d.  63;  and  the  concluding 
words  of  the  narrative  would  rather  indicate  that  the  wiiter  wa.s 
then  at  a  distance  from  the  apostle,  and  not  in  du-ect  commimica- 
tion  with  him.  Antioch  has  therefore  been  assigned  as  the  place 
where  it  was  written,  and  Theophilus  has  been  supposed,  with 
much  reason,  to  be  a  resident  in  that  place  (see  Birks'  Horse  Evan.) 

The  narrative  of  this  book  is  highly  instructive. 

163.  ( I .)  Mark  how  the  Divine  nature  of  our  Lord  is  acknowledged. 
Prayer  is  offered  to  him  by  Stephen  (7.  59,  60),  and  such  prayer  is 
afi&rmed  by  Peter  and  Ananias,  to  be  descriptive  of  a  Christian 
(2.  21:  9.  14;  see  I  Cor.  i.  2).  Peter  speaks  of  Christ  as  Lord  of 
all  (10.  36,  so  again  14.  23:  20.  35),  and  this  title  is  applied  indis- 
criminately throughout  the  book,  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son 
(10.  36:  9.  34,  35,  42:  II.  16.  20-23:  13.  2,  7,  10-12,  48).  Such  is 
the  teaching  of  a  system  which  denounces  idolatry,  and  claims  for 
God  alone,  supreme  regard. 

His  office  and  work  are  no  less  clearly  revealed.  He  formed  the 
theme  of  apostohc  teaching.  Immediately  after  the  ascension, 
Peter  pointed  to  him  as  fulfilling  the  promise  made  to  the  fathei-s, 
aa  the  seed  in  whom  the  nations  were  to  be  blessed  (3.  20-26).     And 

2c 


o<8  acts:  lessoxs. 

this  truth  they  proclaimed  daihj  from  house  to  house  (5.  42). 
When  Paul  was  converted  "  straightway  he  preached  Christ."  Five- 
and-twenty  years  later,  the  last  recoro  which  the  book  contains,  is, 
that  he  taught  "those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus" 
(9.  20:  28.  31).  See  also  2.  22-40:  10.  34-43:  13.  16-41:  17. 18,  22-31. 
....  Examining  the  inspired  narrative  on  this  topic  more  closely, 
we  find  that  everywhere,  at  Jerusalem  to  the  Jews,  in  the  desert  to 
the  Ethiopian,  to  the  benevolent  and  devout  Cornelius  at  Csesarea, 
to  the  proud  Greeks  at  Athens,  there  is  but  one  message,  and 
everywhere  it  is  delivered  fully,  and  without  reserve  (compare 
2:  8.  35:  10.  42,  43:  17.  31),  faith  in  it  being  essential  to  salvatioa 
(4.  II,  12).  Salvation  involves  the  remission  of  sin,  full  justifica- 
tion before  God,  and  holiness  (2.  38:  13.  39:  26.  18),  the  whole 
purchased  by  the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ  (17.  3:  20.  28), 
and  given  through  the  Spirit  (5.31:  i.  4:  2.  33);  and  as  Christ  is 
their  Saviour  and  Lord,  so  is  he  Judge  (10.  42:  17.  31).  .  .  .  If 
these  be  called  Pauline  doctrines,  and  not  Peter's  or  Christ's,  we 
answer  the  misrepresentation  by  appealing  to  the  facts  recorded 
especially  in  this  book  (10.  43:  John  3.  16,  etc.). 

(2.)  Nor  less  clearly  is  the  nature  and  ofiice  of  the  Holy  Spii'ifc 
revealed.  Peter  calls  him  God  (5.  3,  4),  and  regards  the  sin  of 
Ananias  as  a  denial  of  his  omniscience.  He  who  is  called  by  Isaiah, 
Jehovah,  is  called  by  Paul  the  Holy  Ghost  (28.  25:  Isa.  6.  8,  9)^ 
while  his  personality  (that  is,  his  existence  as  an  individual  intelli- 
gent agent),  is  distinctly  and  repeatedly  implied  (8.  29:  10.  19: 
13.  2:  16.  7:  20.  28). 

His  office  was  either  miraculous,  communicating  gifts  of  healing, 
of  tongues,  etc.  (2. 17 :  i  Cor.  12.  10),  or  ordinary.  On  the  apostles, 
his  power  was  seen  in  opening  their  minds,  removing  their  preju- 
dices, emboldening  them  for  their  work,  and  enabling  them  to  con- 
firm their  testimony,  with  miracles  such  as  none  could  question  or 
explain  (3.  i-ii:  4.  31:  5.  12-16).  On  the  Jews  who  heard  the 
gospel,  he  displayed  his  power,  by  convincing  them  of  sin  (2.  36, 
37;  see  John  16.  8),  and  changing  the  very  murderers  of  our  Lord 
into  patterns  of  excellence.  To  the  same  power  we  ai'e  taught  to 
ascribe  the  union  of  the  first  Christians  (4.  31,  32);  their  consecra- 
tion and  liberality  (2.  45);  their  joy  in  the  conversion  of  the 
Gentiles,  though  it  seemed  a  mysterious  arrangement  (11.  23,  24); 
their  stedfastness  and  faith.  Stephen's  wisdom  and  love,  his  zeal 
and  peace,  had  the  same  origin;  "  he  was  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost" 
(7.  55),  and  even  whole  churches  shared  the  blessing  (13.  52)- 
How  instructive  and  consolatory,  that  the  dispensation  of  the 
Spirit  should  be  introduced,  not  only  with  peculiar  promises  (Luke 
r  I.  13.  John  16),  but  with  a  history  of  rich  manifestations  of  grace. 


THE   EARLY   CHURCH.  079 

If  in  the  Gospels  we  see  the  wox'k  of  our  Lord ;  in  the  Acts  v,e  see 
the  work  of  that  blessed  Agent,  to  whom,  so  far  as  man  is  concerned, 
the  first  owes  all  its  success.  We  need  but  more  of  His  influence, 
to  complete  the  triumphs  which  this  history  begins. 

(3,)  As  we  have  the  characters  of  individual  believers  described 
in  this  book,  so  we  gather  from  it  the  character  and  order  of  the 
first  churches  of  Christ.  As  the  apostles  gained  converts,  they 
taught  them  to  meet  statedly  in  Christ's  name,  on  the  first  day  of 
the  week,  instructed  them  in  Christian  ordinances,  and  appointed 
suitable  ministers  to  feed  and  guard  the  flock.  Acts  2.  42:  6.  1-6: 
14.  23:  20.  7,  18,  28-32.  Compare  on  the  character  of  those  who 
were  to  compose  the  churches,  the  descriptions  given  of  them  in 
each  Epistle,  and  on  the  character  of  the  officers,  the  pastoral 
Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus.  The  church,  it  must  never  be 
forgotten,  is  a  Divine  institution,  and  combines  the  advantages  of 
every  form  of  society  into  which  men  have  been  gathered.  It  is 
not  a  caste,  for  it  despises  none,  and  rejects  none;  yet  like  caste, 
it  preserves  amidst  human  change  a  sacred  order;  all,  kings  and 
priests  tmto  God.  It  is  not  a  secret  society,  for  it  makes  no  reserve, 
and  yet  its  members  have  a  hidden  life,  and  a  joy  with  which 
the  stranger  intermeddleth  not.  It  is  not  a  nation,  for  it  selects 
individual  persons  from  among  each  of  the  nations,  and  will  ulti- 
mately include  all;  yet  is  it  as  clearly  defined,  though  more  extensive. 
It  is  not  a  family,  and  yet  its  bonds  are  equally  tender,  only  they 
are  incomparably  more  expansive.  One  design  of  the  gospel  was 
to  reveal  Christ;  another  design,  no  less  marked,  was  to  form  a 
people  for  his  praise.  Both  designs  illustrate  the  wisdom  and  love 
of  God. 

(4.)  Mark,  as  the  gospel  extends,  the  influences  that  oppose  it, 
and  the  excuses  framed  to  justify  opposition.  The  Jews  resisted 
it  as  ''  contrary  to  their  law."  Among  the  Gentiles,  as  at  Thessa- 
lonica,  they  affirmed  it  to  be  unfriendly  to  Csesar.  Elsewhere  they 
charged  it  with  tiu-ning  the  world  upside  down.  And  though  all 
of  these  charges  were  excuses  only,  they  had  in  some  measure  the 
colouring  of  truth.  The  real  reason  of  the  opposition — of  the  Jew, 
was  that  the  gospel  taught  a  righteousness,  not  of  works,  but  of 
faith,  Rom.  10.  3:  i  Cor.  i.  21-25; — of  ^^^  Greek,  that  it  pro- 
nounced the  folly  of  much,  and  the  insufficiency  of  all,  his  boasted 
wisdom; — of  the  Roman  that  it  claimed  exclusive  homage,  revealing 
not  many  gods,  but  one ;  and  of  all,  that  it  requu-ed  humility  and 
holiness. 

These  influences,  alas,  differ  but  in  form  from  those  with  wiiich 
the  gospel  h9,s  still  to  contend. 

2  c  2 


580  CHRONOLOGY   OF  THE   ACTS, 

In  the  Epistles,  as  in  our  own  day,  we  trace  them  at  work,  not 
only  in  opposing  the  gospel,  but  in  corrupting  and  perverting  it 
(Pt.  ii.  chap.  7). 


Sec.  3.  The  Chronology  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles.     Arrangement 
of  the  whole. 

164.  The  chronology  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles  is  second  in  interest 
only  to  that  of  the  Gospels.    The  whole  period  included 
of  the  Acts      in  the  Acts  is  about  thirty-three  yeai's;  a  reckoning  in 
of  the  which   Winer,    De   Wette,    Eichhorn,    Davidson,    and 

I'eriodin-  Birks,  concur.  Usher  and  Michaelis  make  it  thirty" 
bli^'^  ^^^^  *^°'  Greswell  and  Schott,  thirty-one;  and  a  few,  two, 
or  even  four  years  less.  The  evidence,  however,  is 
strongly  in  favour  of  the  highest  number;  though,  as  the  dates 
depend  chiefly  on  facts  of  profane  history  and  minute  coincidences, 
to  which  different  weight  Avill  be  given  by  different  inquirers,  cer- 
tainty can  scarcely  be  attained. 

From  Gal.  i.  18  :  2.  i :  Acts  9.  26,  we  gather  that  there  elapsed 
between  Paul's  conversion  and  his  first  visit  to  Jerusalem  a  period 
of  three  fall  years  (see  Greek),  and  that  in  the  fourteenth  year  (see 
Greek),  after  the  same  event  probably,  he  visited  it  a  thinl  time  (Acts 
15.  2);  a  second  visit  being  paid  just  before  the  death  of  Herod 
Agrippa,  (11.  30:  12.  23).  After  the  third  visit,  we  read  of  other 
two  visits  (18.  18,  22:  20.  6).  In  the  interval,  he  had  spent  nearly 
thi'ee  years  in  Ephesus  (20.  31),  a  year  and  a  half  at  Corinth  (18. 
II,)  three  months  in  Greece  (20.  3),  and  twice  he  had  gone  through 
a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia,  and  Greece.  After  the  fifth 
visit  to  Jerusalem,  he  was  imprisoned  tico  years.  Felix  was  then 
recalled,  and  Paul  was  sent  to  Rome,  where  he  lived  and  preached 
two  whole  years  in  his  own  hired  house,  "no  man  forbidding  him" 
(28.  30,  31). 

These  facts,  with  others  of  a  minute  and  apparently  trivial  kind. 
Dates  how  fix  the  dates  of  the  whole  narrative.  Herod  Agi'ippa 
fixed.  dxQdi,  as  Josephus  states,  A.  D.  44-     Felix  lost  his  pro- 

curatorship,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  narrative  of  Josephus,  in 
A.  D.  60.  Paul,  moreover,  must  have  reached  Rome  about  the  year 
61;  for  in  A.  D.  64  the  persecution  of  the  Christiaais,  under  Nero, 
began  (Tac.  An.  xiv.  65);  and  after  that  time  no  such  security  as 
Luke  speaks  of  could  have  been  possible. 

p  ^  165.  Reckoning  backward,   therefore,  from  A.  P.  Gf 

we  obtain  the  following  results : — 


CHRONOLOGY   OF  THE   ACTS. 


>81 


n 

t-^ 

-M- 

n 

h 

^ 

v. 

Si 

Time 

M 

1 

S 

■^ 

M 

of 

'r. 

ra 

C3 

■^ 

•0 

% 

i- 

Year. 

t:i 

.^ 

? 

»^ 

-=? 

5 

a.dJ  a.d. 

A.D. 

A.D. 

A.D 

A.D. 

A.D. 

6j 

61 

6l 

61 

61 

6l 

61 

Spring    . 

Paul  reaches  PiOme,  leaving  Syria  in 

60. 
Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  Acts  24.  27, 

60 

58 

53 

58 

58 

58 

58 

Pent.      . 

being  at  Philippi  at  the  Passover, 

20.6. 

59 

57 

57 

57 

5(> 

57 

57 

• 

Paul  spends  the  close  of  the  year  in 
Greece,  20.  j,  after  leaving  Ephesue, 
20.  I. 

Paul  spends  nearly  three  years  in 

56 

. 

* 

54 

54 

55 

Januarj-. 

Ephesus  (two  years  three  months. 

or  more),  19.  8,  10:  20.  ji. 

5-5 

53 

53 

54 

53 
50 

53 

52 

54 
52 

51 

M&j    .   . 

Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  18.  22. 

Paul  spends  a  year  and  a  half  at 

Corinth,  18.  11. 
Paul  makes  a  second  jouraey  through 

Asia  and  Greece. 

52 

51 

50 

50 

50 
45 

51 

50 
45 

Summer. 

Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  15.  2. 
Paul's  first  journey  to  the  Gentiles, 

13.  14. 
Paul  at  Antioch  and  at  Jerusalem, 

44 

44 

44 

4? 

43 

-'A 

44 

Passover 

II.  JO:   12. 

• 

• 

• 

42 
41 

• 

43   : 
41 

Paul  at  Antioch  a  year,  11.  26. 
Paul  at  Tarsus. 

/s 

37 

39 

43 

40 

41 

40 

• 

Paul  visits  Jerusalem  for  the  first 
time,  9.  26:  Gal.  i.  18. 

33 

i4 

36 

40 

37 

33 

37 

Paul  converted,  Gal.  2.  i.    Sec  above. 

A.D.  50 

?? 

. 

. 

?9 

37 

. 

36 

Death  of  Stephen. 

33 

33 

• 

JO 

30 

30  1  Passover 

The  Crucifixion. 

The  last  of  these  columns,  which  we  deem  on  the  whole  the  most 
satisfactoiy,  is  taken  from  the  Horco  Evangelicce,  and  does  not  ma- 
terially differ  from  Davidson  and  the  author  of  the  Literary  History 
of  the  Xew  Testament.  The  two  principal  dates,  44  a.d.  and  61, 
are  agreed  in  very  generally;  the  other  dates  are  dependent  on  the 
governorship  of  Aretas  (9.  24,  25),  the  presence  of  Gallio  at  Corinth 
(18.  12),  the  decree  of  Claudius  (18.  2),  and  other  similar  ques- 
tions; the  whole  too  minute  for  specific  inquiry  in  this  place.  The 
e\-idence  may  be  seen  briefly  stated  in  Davidson's  Introd.,  vol.  ii. ; 
and  more  fully  in  the  Literary  History  of  the  Xew  Test.,  chap.  vi. ; 
or  in  Birks'  Horce  Evan.,  p.  146.  The  general  results  are  given  in 
the  dates  of  the  appended  Tables. 

166.  Chronology  of  the  New  Testament  from  the  crucifixion  of 
our  Lord  (30  a.  d.)  to  the  close  of  the  canon  (97  A.  D.),  sixty-seven 
ve;irG. 


582 


CHRONOLOGY   OF  ACTS   AND   EPISTLES. 


Year  of  Eome, 

of  Emperor, 

and  A.  D. 


783-8. 

Caligula 

4-7- 

Claudius 

10-14. 

Nero, 
1-6. 

814-6. 
Nero, 
6-9. 


30. 
30-35  ? 

35-40. 

40-4J. 
43-46. 
46-54. 


55-60. 


60-63. 
61, 

Jerusalem. 

62, 

Rome. 


63, 

Rome. 

63, 

Italy,  while 

waiting  for 

Timothy. 

63, 

Babylon. 

64. 


Syria. 
Rome. 


65. 

66, 
Rome. 


Syria. 

Patmos. 

97. 
Ephesus. 


Events. 


Introduction  to  the  Acts,  i.  1-14. 

Events  till  the  appointment  of  deacons,  i.  15-6.  6. 

Events  till  the  conversion  of  Cornelius,  6.  7  10. 

Events  till  the  spread  of  the  gospel  in  Antioch,  11.  1-26. 

Events  till  the  end  of  first  missionary  journey,  11.  27-14.  28. 

Events  till  the  end  of  second  missionarj'-  journey,  15.  i  :-i8. 22 

I  Thess.  (a.d.  52),  2  Thess.  (53),  (ial.  (53,  so  Tate,  etc.), 

written  during  this  journey. 
Events  till  end  of  thu-d  missionary  journey  and  Paul's  appeal 

to  Casar,  18.  23  :-26.    i  Cor.  (57),  2  Cor.,  Gal.  (57,  so  Hug, 

etc.),  Rom.  (58),  written  during  this  journey. 
Paul's  voyage  to  Rome,  and  residence  there,  27,  28. 
James  writes  to  Jewish  Christians  generally,  1.-5. 

Paul  writes  his  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  1.-6.  Shortly  after 
this  Epistle  was  written,  Timothy  and  Epaphroditus  arrive 
at  Rome ;  the  latter  bringing  tidings  from  Colosse.  See 
CoL  1. 1-7. 

Paul  writes  to  the  Colossians,  1.-4. 

Paul  writes  to  Philemon  on  behalf  of  Oneshnus,  w-ho,  fleeing 
from  his  master  to  Rome,  had  been  converted,  Philem. 

Paul  writes  to  the  Philippians,  1.-4. 

Paul  writes  his  key  to  the  Old  Testament,  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  1.-13.  Timothy  liberated,  Heb.  13.  Paul  visits 
Crete,  63,  and  leaving  Titus  there,  goes  to  Macedonia,  64. 

Peter  writes  his  first  Epistle  to  Jew^s  and  Gentiles,  scattered, 

and  persecuted,  i  Pet.  1.-5. 
Paul   writes  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus,  i  Tim.  1.-6. 
Paul^  writes  to  Titus,  1.-3. 

Paul  winters  at  Nicopolis,  in  Dalmatia,  and  Troas, 
Jude  writes  his  Epistle  (see  below). 

Peter,  in  expectation  of  martyrdom,  writes  to  Jewish  ar.d 
Gentile  converts  scattered  throughout  Pontus,  etc.  Mar- 
tyrdom of  Peter. 

Paul  arrives  at  Eome,  a  prisoner,  and  is  brought  before 
Nero,  65. 

Paul  writes  second  Epistle  to  Timothy,  2  Tim.  1.-3.  Mar- 
tyred at  Rome  (Usher,  67). 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem  (a.d.  70). 

John  writes  his  first  Epistle,  1.-5.  (or  68  a.d.) 

John  writes  his  second  Epistle  (or  63  a.d.) 

John  writes  his  third  Epistle  (or  68  a.d.) 

Jude  writer,  his  Epistle  (see  64  a.d.,  and  Intro,  to  Jude). 

John  writes  the  Apocalypse  to  supply  the  place  of  a  succes- 
sion of  prophots,  1.-22. 

John  closes  the  canon  by  writing  his  Gospel  (some  think,  be- 
fore his  Epistles). 


a  Those 
in  64  A.D.,  plai 


who  question  Paul's  second  imprisonment,  and  suppose  him  put  to  death 
place  I  Tim.  after  Acts  19.  41  or  20.  i,  and  Tit.  after  2  Cor.    See  a.d.  57. 


STUDY   OF  THE   EPISTLES.  583 

CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Epistles  axd  the  Book  of  Revelatiox. 
Sec.  I.   On  the  Study  of  the  Epistles. 

167.  In  the  first  fifteen  chapters  of  Acts  we  have  seen  the  gospel 
extend  throughout  the  known  world.  In  fire  and  twenty  yeara 
after  the  death  of  our  Lord,  churches  seem  to  have  been  formed  in 
Asia  and  Palestine,  in  Babylon  and  Egypt,  in  Greece  and  Italy; 
"  so  mightily  grew  the  word  of  God  and  prevailed."  Wherever  the 
Aim  of  the  truth  had  gone,  it  had  found  the  same  opposition, 
Epistles.  though  under  different  forms,  and  had  produced  the 
same  peaceful  and  sanctifying  results.  A  more  permanent  record 
of  truth,  however,  than  the  '' winged  words"  of  speech  could  sup- 
ply was  wanting.  The  spirit  which  had  hitherto  opposed  the 
gospel  had  begun  to  pervert  it;  and  evil  seducers  have  a  strong 
tendency  to  wax  worse  and  worse.  To  explain  in  writing,  there- 
fore, what  had  been  in  a  great  measure  taught  orally,  to  preserve 
these  lessons  in  "everlasting  remembrance,"  and  to  give  such  in- 
direct corrections  of  incipient  error  as  might,  if  prayerfully  studied, 
keep  the  church  from  subsequent  heresy,  is  th6  aim  of  the  Epistles. 

To  ascertain  their  meaning — 

168.  (i).  Observe  by  whom,  and  for  whom,  they  were  written. 

J.      ,  This  rule  is  not  so  essential  in  the  case  of  history  or 

and  for    '       epistles  as  in  the  case  of  prophecy;  for  the  former  are 

whom,  they    generally  self-interpretative ;  bub  it  is  nevertheless  im- 
were  written.  °  J  ^  ' 

portant. 

Of  the  one  and  twenty  Epistles,  thirteen  at  least  were  written  by 
Paul,  and  bear  his  name.  As  he  was  emphatically  the  apostle  of 
the  Gentiles,  he  treats  largely  of  the  mystery  of  their  call  to  equal 
privileges  with  the  believing  Jews.  He  maintains  their  freedom 
from  the  Mosaic  yoke,  \arges  them  to  stand  fast  in  it,  and  proves 
their  subjection  to  the  great  law  of  faith  and  love.  In  defence  of 
this  doctrine,  he  resisted  Peter  to  the  face,  endvired  the  offence  of 
the  cross  (Gal.  5,  11),  falling  at  last  a  martjr  to  his  attachment  to 
this  and  kindred  truths  (see  Introd.  to  2nd  Ep.  to  Tim.)  His 
sentences  are  often  long  and  intricate.  His  style  is  full  of  thought, 
prone  to  digression,  but  highly  accurate,  well  guarded,  and  rich  in 
allusion  to  the  Old  Testament,  His  Epistles  should  be  illustrated 
from  each  other  and  from  his  history.  In  the  Hebrews,  he  hos 
filiOAvn  most  impressively  how  of  the  laic,  as  elsewhere  of  law,  Christ 
is  the  completion  and  end. 

Peter,  the  author  of  two  Epistles,  writes  chiefly  as  the  apostle  of 
the  circumcision.  His  writings  also  should  be  read  in  connection 
with  those  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  to  which,  in  almost  every 


•:84  STUDY   OF  THE  EPISTLES. 

Eentence,  ue  referred.  James,  pastor  of  the  church  at  Jerusalein, 
Avrote  after  the  fervour  of  its  first  love  had  begun  to  subside.  A 
cold  negative  faith  seemed  to  threaten  the  destruction  of  all  spi- 
iitual  obedience.  Hence  the  strain  of  his  Epistle.  Not  dissimilar 
was  the  condition  of  the  churches  John  addressed.  His  style  is 
rich  in  aphorisms,  and  his  strong  affirmations  need  r.o  be  guarded 
by  other  parts  either  of  his  writings  or  by  Paul's.  Jude  wrote  but 
one  Epistle,  and  that  resembles  the  second  of  Peter,  by  which  it 
may  be  illustrated.  The  Revelation,  again,  speaks  in  language 
taken  very  largely  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  needs  to  be  com 
pared  with  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  the  discourses  of  our  Lord. 

For  whom  was  each  book  written  ?  is  also  an  important  questioa. 
The  Gospels  were  intended  for  the  instruction  of  all  classes,  and 
much  of  what  they  contain  was  addressed  to  all.  The  Epistles,  it 
must  be  noted,  were  addressed  primarily  to  pi"ofessing  Christians 
exclusively,  called  out  of  the  world  and  vmited  in  spiritual  com- 
munion. Three  are  addressed  to  private  disciples;  three  to  evan- 
gelists; two,  Hebrews  and  James,  to  Jewish  converts  exclusively  j 
two  more,  ist  and  2nd  Peter,  to  Jewish  converts  chiefly;  two  more, 
ist  John  and  Jude,  to  the  disciples  of  Christ  in  general;  the  last 
five  being  called  catholic  or  general  Epistles ;  the  remaining  nine  are 
addressed  to  various  churches,  consisting  chiefly  of  converted  Gen- 
tiles. In  each  case,  the  author  and  the  occasion  often  exj^lain  or 
illustrate  the  statements  of  an  Epistle ;  though,  as  we  have  but  one 
gospel  for  Jew  and  Gentile,  the  help  thus  afforded  is  in  this  respect 
less  important  than  elsewhere. 

(2.)  Mark  the  special  design  of  each  Epistle. 

It  has  pleased  the  Divine  Spirit  to  instruct  mankind  not  iu 
'Hie  design  formal  treatises,  but  in  letters  written  under  his 
of  each  guidance,    and   so   as    to    meet  peculiar  emei'gencies; 

Lpistle.  ^^^  ^^  ^j^g  emergency  of  each  case  each  Epistle  is  ad- 

dressed. Asceiiiain,  therefore,  what  the  obvious  design  of  each 
Epistle  is — the  obviom  design,  for  it  is  an  abuse  of  learning  to  seek 
for  some  hidden  design,  and  then  to  interpret  each  part  in  sub- 
ordination to  it  in  violation  of  the  natural  meaning.  For  this  pur- 
pose, the  plan  of  Mr.  Locke  is  deserving  of  all  praise.  Read 
through  an  Epistle  at  a  sitting,  and  observe  its  drift  and  aim.  "  If 
the  first  reading  (says  he)  gave  some  light,  the  second  gave  me 
more;  and  so  I  persisted  on,  reading  constantly  the  Avhole  Epistle 
over  at  once,  till  I  came  to  have  a  good  general  view  of  the- 
'writer's  purpose,'  the  chief  branches  of  his  discourse,  the  argu- 
ments he  used,  and  the  disposition  of  the  whole.  This,  I  confess,. 
is  not  to  be  obtained  by  one  or  two  hasty  readings;  it  must  bo- 
repeated  again  and  again,  with  a  close  attention  to  the  tenor  of  tlie 


STUDY   OF  THE  EPISTLES.  585- 

fliscourse,  and  a  perfect  neglect  of  the  divisions  into  chapters  and 
verses.  The  safest  way  is  to  suppose  the  Epistle  but  one  business 
and  one  aim,  until,  by  a  frequent  perusal  of  it,  you  are  forced  to 
see  in  it  distinct  independent  mattei-s  which  will  forwardly  enough 
show  themselves."  Let  this  plan  be  adopted  by  any  humble  pray- 
erful Christian,  by  one,  that  is,  whose  heart  is  on  the  whole  in 
unison  with  the  writer's,  and  the  meaning  of  the  whole  will  gene- 
rally appear.  In  the  mean  time,  and  as  a  present  blessing,  he  will 
feel  and  appreciate  individual  promises  and  truths  to  an  extent 
unknown  before.  Scripture  is  in  fact  a  tree  of  life;  its  matured 
fruits  infinitely  precious,  and  its  very  leaves  for  the  healing  of  tlio 
nations. 

To  aid  the  reader  in  ascertaining  the  design  of  the  Epistles,  we 
have  indicated  the  paragraphs  and  principal  sections  of  each.  In 
paragraph  Bibles,  the  reader  will  find  these  sections  indicated  in  the 
mode  of  printing.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  help,  an  ordinary  copy 
of  the  Bible  may  be  marked,  so  as  to  indicate  them  with  great 
advantage. 

(3.)  Mark  the  prevailing  errors  against  which  the  truths  of  the 
Th-.  errors      S^^pel  are  specially  directed. 

against  which  The  first  of  these  errors  sprang  out  of  the  formalist 
Vvf  t^7f  ^^^  superstitious  notions  of  the  Jews.     They  still  clung 

to  their  ritual  law,  and  concluded  that,  if  Gentiles  were 
to  be  aduiitted  to  equal  privileges,  it  must  be  through  circumcision. 
"Except  ye  be  circumcised,"  was  their  statement,  "ye  cannot  be 
.saved,"  Acts  15.  i.  Out  of  this  question,  a  serious  conti'oversy 
arose  at  Antioch,  and  though  it  was  decided  under  the  special  di- 
rection of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  negative,  it  sprang  up  again  and 
again,  impeded  the  progress  of  the  gospel,  alienated  and  often 
divided  the  church.  From  the  first,  Paul  took  a  bold  decisive 
stand.  He  maintained  that,  while  a  Jew  might,  and  probably 
ought  to  submit  to  that  rite  so  long  as  the  ancient  law  remained, 
for  a  Gentile  to  submit  to  it  Avas  to  relinquish  his  liberty  and  deny 
both  the  universality  of  the  gospel  and  the  sufficiency  of  the  Cross. 
Throughout  his  preaching,  and  in  nearly  all  his  Epistles,  this  viev/ 
is  maintained,  Acts  15.  1-31:  2r.  17-25:  2  Cor.  11.  3:  Gal.  2.  4: 
3.-5:  6.  12:  Col.  2.  4,  8,  16:  Phil.  3.  2:  Tit.  i.  10-14,  etc. 

While  the  Judaizing  tendency  of  early  believers  did  mischief  in 
one  direction,  the  spirit  of  xmhallowed  philosophy  did  mischief  in 
another ;  proving  moi-e  fatal  to  Christianity,  as  Burton  ha  i  re- 
marked, than  persecution  itself.  This  spirit  appeared  under  dif- 
ferent forms,  but  the  essence  v.as  for  the  most  part  a  proud  ration- 
alism, tliat  refused  to  receive  as  true  any  doctrine  which  could  not  be 
made  to  agree  with  a  previous  system,  or  that  moulded  into  its  cvin 

9  r  3 


f)36  HERESIES    OP   THE   EARLY   CHURCH. 

system  wliatever  it  received.  The  Greeks  sought  after  wisdom. 
This  tendency  showed  itself  early  in  the  various  Gnostic  (yvSxns, 
knowledge)  sects  which  sprang  iip  in  the  church ;  a  name  very  loosely 
applied,  and  including  the  advocates  of  very  different  vicAvs. 

One  sect  included  under  this  general  name  were  called,  also, 
Docetse,  or  the  Seemers;  as  they  could  not  comprehend  how  a 
Divine  person  (which  they  maintained  our  Lord  to  be)  could  unite 
himself  Avith  that  which  was  human.  They  contended  that  his  body 
was  an  appearance  only,  and  that  he  only  seemed  to  live  upon  earth. 
This  heresy  denied  both  his  brotherhood  with  our  race  and  the 
reality  of  his  atonement:  see  i  John,  Introd.,  and  4.  23. 

Another  sect,  called  (from  Cerinthus,  their  founder)  Gerinthians, 
drew  from  the  same  principle  an  opposite  conclusion.  They  denied 
the  Divinity  of  Jesus,  and  supposed  that  the  Christ  was  an  emana- 
tion of  the  Godhead,  who  descended  on  the  man  Jesus  at  his  bap- 
tism, and  so  continued  with  him  till  his  death,  when  the  Christ 
left  him  and  ascended  to  heaven,  i  John  2.  22:  4,  15:  Gospel  of 
John. 

In  later  times,  and  after  the  canon  of  Scripture  was  closed,  these 
tendencies  took  even  a  more  decided  form.  The  school  of  Alex- 
findria,  applying  the  doctrines  of  Plato  to  the  gospel,  broached  the 
crudest  notions  on  the  Divine  nature,  on  Christ,  and  on  man. 
Later  still,  the  schoolmen  applied  to  the  teachings  of  Scripture  the 
logic  of  Aristotle,  and  claimed  for  their  deductions  (see  Pt.  i.  §  463-5)^ 
the  same  authority  as  was  claimed  for  the  express  statements  of  the 
Bible.  All  these  attempts  sprang  from  the  same  principle — that 
our  reason  is  the  measure  of  religious  truth,  and  led  to  the  same 
results,  the  corruption  of  truth  and  the  division  of  the  chiirch. 
To  us,  they  teach  the  wisdom  of  bringing  up  our  faith  to  the 
level  of  God's  revelation  and  the  folly  of  bringing  down  his  revela- 
tion to  the  level  of  our  understanding.  The  world,  by  wisdom, 
knows  not  God. 

A  third  error  prevailed  among  all  sects,  Jewish  and  Gentile  —the 
formalist  and  the  philosophic ,  It  assumed  various  phases,  though 
representing  but  one  principle.  Ritualism  without  spirituality, 
knowledge  (gnosis)  without  practice,  justification  by  faith  without 
holiness.  This  was  the  creed  which  the  apostles  rebuke,  and  was 
received  in  their  day  with  favour  by  the  Jews.  Many  of  the  Gnostics 
held  it,  and  in  the  persons  of  the  Nicolaitanes  it  called  forth  the 
severe  condemnation  of  the  latest  of  the  apostles.  It  is,  in  fact, 
the  principle  of  li.-.entious  religionism  in  every  age,  and  several 
portions  of  the  Epistles  are  directed  against  it.  The  followers  of 
Balaam  (equivalent  to  Nicolaitanes),  mentioned  by  Peter  and  Judo, 
were  of  the  same  cla-ss. 


STUDY   OF  THE  EPISTLES.  587 

The  names  of  these  sects  (except  the  last)  are  not  mentioned  in 
Scriptui-e,  but  their  principles  are.  And  herein  is  a  double  advan- 
tage. We  are  taught  not  to  restrict  the  teaching  of  inspired  men 
to  their  own  times,  and  we  are  supplied  with  letters  in  which  not 
sects,  but  principles — self-righteous  formalism,  rationalistic  pride, 
and  practical  immorality — are  for  ever  condemned,  A  knowledge 
of  these  sects,  however,  illustrates  human  nature,  proves  our  need 
of  a  revelation,  and  of  humility  in  studying  it,  and  gives  clearnesfj 
and  force  to  the  teaching  of  the  Bible. 

What  a  proof  of  human  depravity  is  the  history  of  Divine  truth 
in  the  world.  God's  first  revelation  ended  in  the  wicked  imagina- 
tions that  preceded  the  deluge ;  his  second,  in  the  idolatry  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  and  again  in  the  formalism  and  overthrow  of  the  nation; 
his  thu'd  met  with  the  bitterest  opposition  at  the  outset,  and  ever 
since,  the  world  has  sought,  under  various  influences,  to  con-upt 
what  it  cannot  otherwise  subdue. 

4.  The  most   important   rule  remains.      Carefully  compare  the 
Comparison     various  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  and  especially  the 
ofNewTes-    Epistles,  and  gather  from  the  whole  a  consistent  and 
greatest  im-    comprehensive  view  both  of  truth  and  duty, 
portance.  tj^q  necessity  of  such  comparison  in  the  case  of  the 

New  Testament  will  appear  on  comparing  it  as  a  composition  witli 
the  law.  The  whole  of  the  first  dispensation  was  revealed  through 
one  person — Moses,  and  to  one  congregation  assembled  to  receive 
it.  The  New  Testament  was  composed  by  eight  different  authors, 
and  was  addressed  to  many  congregations  and  individuals  scattered 
over  the  earth.  The  law  was  written  in  the  plainest  style,  with 
systematic  fulness,  was  adapted  to  the  weakest  capacity,  and  re- 
quired submission  only  to  such  commands  as  were  expressly  en- 
joined. The  New  Testament,  on  the  other  hand,  is  composed  of 
detached  instructions,  many  of  them  given  incidentally  and  indi- 
rectly, nearly  all  addressed  to  those  who  were  already  called  out  of 
the  world,  and  had  witnessed  the  ordinances  or  believed  the  truths 
they  were  directed  to  maintain.  Obedience,  moreover,  is  required 
to  whatever  was  taught  by  word  and  example,  as  well  as  by  Epistles;'* 
and  the  whole,  though  sufficiently  plain  that  all  may  understand 
and  be  saved,  is  so  rich  and  profound  as  to  afford  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  the  holiest  spkitual  discernment. 

We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  to  make  the  New  Testament 
our  standard  of  faith  and  practice,  it  must  be  compared  and  studied 
with  the  utmost  attention.  The  facts  of  our  Lord's  life,  the  prac- 
tical influence  of  them  on  the  early  chm-ch,  and  the  inspired  com 
ments  of  apostles,  must  all  be  examined;  the  principles  and  duties 

"  I  Cor.  4.  16,  17:  II.  2:  Gal.  t.  6-9:  Phil,  4.  9. 


588  TRUTHS   DISCUSSED   IN   THE   EPISTLES. 

tiiey  involve,  explained ;  and  the  whole  cordially  believed  and  prac- 
tised, in  preference  to  all  the  suggestions  and  inventions  of  man. 

169.  The  following  are  among  the  more  important  of  the  truths 
discussed  in  the  Epistles.  The  passages  in  which  they  ax^e  most 
fully  discussed  may  be  found  at  the  close  of  the  introductions  to 
the  Epistles  named.  These  passages  must  be  carefully  compared, 
and  particular  phrases  in  them,  with  similar  phrases  elsewhere, 
such  as  may  be  found  in  any  Bible  with  marginal  i-eferences. 

Man's  need  of  salvation,  Rom.    Justification  by  faith,  Rom. 

The  fruits  of  faith  in  Christian  experience,  Rom. 

The  fruits  of  faith  in  Christian  character,  Heh. 

The  fruits  of  faith  through  the  Gosxxl,  i  Pet. 

The  fruits  of  justification  and  its  consequent  blessings,  Rom. 

Man's  connection  with  Christ,  and  man's  connection  with  Adam,  Rom. 

The  source  of  redemption,  i?07?i.;  and  the  peculiar  grace  bestowed  therein  on 

the  Gentiles,  Eph. 
The  relation  of  the  gospel  to  the  Jews,  Rom.  (see  Eeh.) 

Morality,  its  true  nature  and  vast  importance,  Rom. 

Morality,  evangelic  motives  to,  Rom. ;  peculiar  motives  justly  binding  on  the 

Jew,  Heb.;  and  on  heathen  converts,  Eph. 
Principal  duties  of  Christians  to  God,  Rom.,  Eph.;  to  themselves,  Rom.;  to 

relatives,  Cor.;  to  fellow-men,  Rom.;  to  civil  government,  Titus;  and  to 

fellow-believers.  Cor. 
Holiness  essential  to  true  religion,  i  John.    Eminent  holiness  its  appropriate 

fruit  and  best  security,  2  Pet. 

T'ae  spiritual  warfare,  Eph. 

Perscicution,  its  comforts  and  lessons,  Phil.    Apostasj',  its  danger  and  signs 
Heb.,  2  Pet. 

Apostolic  character  and  authority.  Cor.    False  teachers,  their  character  aivi 

end.  Cor. 
Christian  ministers,  their  character,  qualifications,  and  duties,  Tim. 
Christian  ministers,  duties  of  the  church  to  them,  Tim. 
Deacons,  etc.,  their  character  and  duties,  Tim. 

The  church,  its  members,  discipline,  divisions,  ordinances,  Cor. 

The  chmxh,  its  members,  their  duties,  their  gifts,  the  excellence  of  love,  Cor. 

Christ's  dignity,  essential  and  mediatorial,  Heb.    Christ's  uicarnation  and  its 

end,  Heb. 
The  superiority  of  his  ofiBce,  as  prophet,  leader,  and  priest,  Heb. 
The  superiority  of  his  sacrifice,  Heb. 

The  significancy  and  inferiority  of  the  ancient  economy,  Heb. 
Our  spiritual  liberty  in  relation  to  it,  Heb. 

The  corruption  of   Christianity  and  prevalence  of  infidelity   in   "  Ihc  last, 
time,"  Tim.    How  met,  Tim. 

The  resurrection  of  the  body,  Cor.    The  second  coming  of  the  Lord,  2  Tluss. 
The  judgment  and  its  issues— eternal  life,  eternal  death,  2  Pet 


GEXUIXENESS    OF    THE    EPISTLES. 


58& 


Sec.  2.  Tlie  Genuineness  of  the  Ejpistles. 
170.  The  general  evidence  of  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistles  has 
Ijeen  already  given.    So  far  as  particular  Epistles  are  concerned,  the 
evidence  maybe  given  in  a  brief  tabular  form.    For  an  explanation, 
pee  chap,  v.,  §  137. 


El'ISTLES.           ■* 

i 

A 

>> 
p 

J 

1 

•r 

1 

c 
1     ■- 

6 

+ 

1 
• 

n 

1 1 
I't 

If 

1 1 
1 1 

1 

I 
*  + 

• 
• 

to 

•■5 
g 

I 
• 

• 

I 

It 

I 

.2 

It 

; 

1 

3. 

I 

I 
I 

i 

I 
I 

I 

I 

I 

i't 

I 
I 

1 

•3 

s 
£b 
0 

I 
t't 

+ 

1 
Is 

llomans  ....  J 
i>x  Corimbians. 
2nd  Corinihians 
Galatians  .   .    . 
Ephesians  .   .   . 
I'bilippians    .   . 
Cclossians  .   .   . 
ist  Thes<.  .  .    . 
2ndThe^s.     .   . 
1st  Timothy  .   . 
•.mcl  Timothy    . 

Ti[us 

Philemon  .    .   . 
Hebrews    .   .   .     ; 
.Jam?s     .    .   .   .  j 
1st  Peter    .   .   . 
2nd  Peter  .   .    .  j 
istJuhn     .   .   . 
2n«I  and  3rd  John 

Judo 

Revelation    4^. 

u 

t  '. 
t  '- 

+ 
+ 

I 

I 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 

i 

* 

1 1 

; 

• 
:. 

I 

I 
[     I 

1 
I 

r> 

I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
t    I 

I 
I 

AIL 

Most. 

All. 
Most. 

All. 
Most. 

Sec.  3.  Helps  to  1st  ThessdloniaYis^  etc.,  to  Jude. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Thessalonians. 
Corinth,  A.D.  52. 

171.  Thessalonica  was  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  districts  of 
]\[acedonia,  and  the  seat  of  a  Roman  governor.  Its  position  on  the 
great  Egnatian  road,  and  at  the  head  of  an  excellent  harboux%  aug- 
mented its  trade  and  wealth ;  and  brought  to  it  a  mixed  population 
of  Greek^j,  Komans,  and  Jews.  It  is  still,  as  it  has  ever  been,  a 
flourishing  commercial  town,  bearing  the  slightly  varied  name  of 
Saloniki.  Its  geographical  position  and  maritime  importance  fitted 
it  to  become  one  of  the  starting  points  of  the  gospel  in  Europe, 
and  explain  the  fact  that  from  this  city  the  word  of  the  Lord  had 
sounded  forth  *'in  every  place,"  (i.  8). 

The  go.-pel  was  first  preached  here  by  Paul  and  Silas,  shortly 


590  FIPuST   EPISTLE  TO   THESSALONIANS. 

after  their  release  from  imprisonment  at  Philippi,  Acts  17.  i-io. 
Paul  addressed  himself  fii'st,  agreeably  to  his  constant  practice,  to 
the  Jews,  and  afterwards,  with  still  more  success,  to  the  Gentiles. 
What  time  he  spent  here  does  not  distinctly  appear;  but  it  was 
evidently  more  than  the  three  weeks  during  which  he  reasoned 
with  the  Jews  in  the  synagogue  on  the  sabbaths.  Compare  Acts 
17.  4,  5  :  I  Thes.  2.  9:  2  Thes,  3.  8:  and  Phil.  4.  16. 

The  church  which  he  formed  during  this  period  was  composed 
partly  of  Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes,  many  of  whom  were  women 
of  rank  and  influence  (Acts  17.  4),  but  chiefly  of  converts  from 
idolatry  (i.  9). 

Being  driven  away  by  the  violence  of  the  Jews,  Paul  left  the 
newly-planted  church  in  such  difficulties  as  excited  his  anxiety 
respecting  them,  and  led  him  to  send  Timothy  from  Athens,  to 
encourage  and  comfort  them  under  the  persecutions  to  which  they 
were  exposed  (3.  i,  2).  Timothy  returned  to  Paul  at  Corinth 
(whither  the  latter  had  gone  in  the  mean  time),  and  brought  him  so 
good  an  account  of  the  stedfastness  of  the  Thessalonian  Christians 
as  filled  him  with  joy  and  gratitude  (3.  6-9),  and  reawakened  his 
desire  to  visit  them.  But,  having  been  repeatedly  disappointed  in 
his  plans  for  that  purpose  (2.  17,  18),  he  wrote  this  letter  from 
Corinth,  a.d.  52. 

This,  being  the  earliest  of  Paul's  Epistles,  was  accompanied  by  a 
solemn  charge  that  it  should  be  read  publicly  in  the  church  (5.  27). 

i.  In  the  first  portion  of  this  Epistle  (i  :-3.),  the  apostle  expresses 
his  gi-atitude  and  joy  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Thes- 
salonians  had  received  the  gospel,  and  for  their  fidelity  and  con- 
stancy in  the  midst  of  persecutions  and  afflictions;  vindicates  the 
condvict  of  himself  and  his  fellow-labourers  in  preaching  the  gospel; 
and  declares  his  afiectionate  concern  for  their  welfare. 

ii.  The  remainder  of  the  Epistle  is  taken  up  with  practical  admo- 
nitions ;  warning  them  against  the  sin  for  which  their  city  was 
notorious;  and  exhorting  them  to  the  cultivation  of  all  Christian 
■virtues,  and  particularly  to  a  watchful,  sober,  and  holy  life,  be- 
coming their  happy  condition  and  exalted  hopes  (4.  1-12 :  5).  Special 
words  of  consolation  are  addressed  to  those  who  had  been  bereaved, 
who  seem  to  have  imagined  that  their  departed  friends  would  lose 
some  important  advantages,  which  those  would  enjoy  who  should 
sui-vive  to  the  Lord's  coming  (which  they  expected  speedily),  and 
who  had  therefore  indulged  in  excessive  grief  on  their  account. 
Speaking  by  express  Divine  authoiity,  he  assm-es  them  of  the 
resun-ection  of  the  pious  dead  on  Christ's  coming,  to  be  followed  by 
a  glorious  transformation  of  the  living;  and  exhoi-ts  them  to  take 
the  comfort  of  this  glorious  hope,  4.  13-18. 


SECOND  EPISTLE  TO   THESSALONIANS.  5S1 

Connect  and  read  1.  1,  2:  2.  i,  13,  17:  3.  i,  6,  11:  4.  i,  9,  13:  5. 
I.  4,  12,  14,  15,  16,  19,  23,  25,  27,  28. 

yote.— The  modern  figm-es  here  and  subsequently  indicate  prin- 
cipal divisions;  the  others,  smaller  ones.  The  former  may  be  re- 
garded as  marking  the  beginning  of  new  subjects. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Thessalonians. 
Corinth,  a.d.  53. 

172.  This  Epistle  was  probably  written,  like  the  former,  from 
Corinth,  and  not  long  afterwards  Cearly  in  a.d.  53);  Silas  and 
Timothy  being  still  in  Paul's  company  (i.  i).  Its  chief  object  ap- 
pears to  have  been  to  correct  an  erroneous  notion  which  had  begun 
to  prevail  among  the  Christians  at  Thessalouica,  that  the  appearance 
of  the  Saviour  and  the  end  of  the  world  were  at  hand.  This  had 
been  gi'otmded  in  part  upon  a  misconstruction  of  expressions  in  the 
former  Epistle,  and  appears  to  have  been  supported  by  some  who 
laid  claim  to  inspiration.  There  were  also  persons  who,  on  religious 
pretences,  neglected  theu'  secular  employments,  and  were  guilty  of 
disorderly  conduct. 

The  commencement  and  conclusion  of  the  Epistle  are  occupied 
with  affectionate  commendations,  mingled  with  encouragements  to 
perseverance,  exhortations  to  holiness,  and  du-ections  for  the  main- 
tenance of  discipline  with  regard  to  idle  and  disorderly  members, 
i:  2.  13-17:  3.  In  chap.  2.  1-12,  Paul  exposes  the  error  of  antici- 
pating the  near  approach  of  the  day  of  the  Lord.  Reminding  the 
Thessalonian  Christians  of  what  he  had  said  when  he  was  with 
them,  he  tells  them  that  he  had  spoken  rather  of  the  unexpected- 
ness of  the  event  than  of  its  nearness,  and  that  it  must  be  preceded 
by  a  great  apostasy,  and  by  the  temporary  ascendency  of  the  ''man 
of  sin,"  the  spiritual  usurper  (which,  however,  could  not  take  place 
until  certain  obstacles  were  removed),  establishing  a  system  of 
error  and  delusion  by  which  many  would  be  carried  away. 

The  agreement  between  the  little  horn  of  Daniel's  prophecy  and 
the  man  of  sin  in  this  Epistle  is  very  striking.  In  Daniel,  he  does 
not  rise  till  the  Roman  emph-e  is  broken;  in  Paul,  he  is  not  re- 
vealed till  that  empire — that  which  hindereth  (2  . 7) — is  taken  out  of 
the  way.  In  Daniel,  he  weareth  out  the  saints;  in  Paul,  he 
opposeth,  or  persecuteth.  In  Daniel,  he  magnifieth  himself  above 
every  god;  in  Paul,  he  exalteth  himself  above  all  that  is  called 
God.  In  Daniel,  he  changes  times  and  laws ;  in  Paul,  he  is  the  lawless 
(ver.  8,  Greek)  one.  In  Daniel,  he  causeth  craft,  through  his  policy, 
to  prosper;  and  in  Paul,  he  comes  with  lying  wonders  and  all  de- 
ceivableness,  which  many  will  believe,  Dan.  8.   25:  11.  36.     Ho\7 


692  MAN   OF  SIN  :   EPISTLE  TO   GALATIANS. 

remai'kable  the  connection  of  prophecy  !  six  hundred  years  before. 
Daniel  foretold  the  rise  of  this  power;  Paul  adds  a  few  touches  ;  auil 
by  John,  its  history  is  to  be  more  fully  revealed. 

This  prediction  deserves  grateful  attention  on  another  ground. 
It  tells  us  tliat,  while  the  coming  of  our  Lord  was  then  near,  it  was 
also  remote :  many  events  were  to  intervene ;  and  with  all  the  light 
of  prophecy  it  must  ever  be,  as  to  the  precise  time,  unknowi;. 
Comparing  this  passage  Vvdth  others,  the  servants  of  Christ  are 
taught  to  contemplate  the  revolution  of  many  succeeding  centuries, 
without  being  stumbled  by  the  delay  of  his  appearance  or  dis- 
couraged by  the  prevalence  of  wickedness  and  delusion  under  the 
pi-ofession  of  his  name,  i  Tim.  4.  1-3;  2  Tim.  3.  1-8:  2  Pet.  2: 
Eev.  II. -13.:  17:  22. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows:  1.  1,  3,  11:  2.  i,  5,  13,  15,  16:  3. 
I,  6,  16,  17,  18. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Galatians.    . 
Ephesus  or  Corinth,  A.  D.  53  or  5  7. 

.173.  Galatia  was  a  large  province  in  the  centre  of  Asia  Minor.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  Gauls,  who  conquered  the  country  and 
settled  in  it,  about  280  B.C.:  it  was  also  called  Gallo-Grrccia,  on 
account  of  the  Greek  colonists  who  afterwards  became  intermingled 
with  them.  About  189  B.  c.  it  fell  under  the  power  of  Rome:  and 
became  a  Roman  province,  26  b.  c.  The  inhabitants  were  but  par- 
tially civilized,  and  their  system  of  idolatry  was  extremely  gross 
and  debasing. 

Paul  and  Silas  travelled  through  this  region  about  A.  D.  5 1,  and 
formed  churches  in  it,  which  Paul  visited  again  in  his  second  journey 
three  years  afterwards.  This  Epistle  was  probably  written  soon 
after  his  first  visit:  see  Acts  16.  5:  18.  23:  Gal.  i.  6,  8:  4.  13,  19. 

It  appears  that,  after  having  received  the  gospel  with  great  joy 
and  readiness  from  the  apostle's  lips,  many  of  these  converts, 
amongst  whom  were  not  a  few  Jews  and  proselytes,  had  been  per- 
verted by  some  Judaizing  teachers,  who  had  taught  them  that  the 
observance  of  the  ceremonial  req\iirements  of  the  law  of  Moses  waa 
essential  to  salvation.  This  party  seem,  also,  to  have  questioned 
Paul's  authority;  insinuating  that  he  was  infex'ior  to  Peter  and  the 
other  apostles  at  Jerusalem,  from  whom  they  professed  to  have 
derived  their  views  and  authority.  To  settle  these  important 
matters,  in  v»^hich  the  apostle  evidently  considered  that  the  very 
life  and  soul  of  Christianity  were  at  stake,  he  wrote  this  Epistle  with 
his  own  hand  (6.  11),  contrary  to  his  usual  practice  of  dictating  his 
letters.     It  may  be  divided  into  three  parts. 

i.  After  his  usual  salutation,  Paul  asserts  his  full  and  inde- 
pendent authority  as  an  apostle  of  Christ:  he  relates  the  histoiy  of 


EPISTLE  TO   GALATIAXS.  693 

his  conversion  and  introduction  into  the  ministry;  showing  that  he 
had  received  his  knowledge  of  Christian  truth,  not  by  any  human 
teaching,  but  by  immediate  revelation ;  and  that  the  other  apostles 
had  recognised  his  Divine  commission,  and  treated  him  as  their 
equal  (i:  2.) 

ii.  In  support  of  his  doctrine,  that  men  are  accepted  of  Grod  by 
faith  alone,  and  not  by  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  law,  he 
ajDpeals  to  the  experience  of  the  Galatians  since  their  conversion  to 
Christianity,  and  to  the  case  of  Abraham,  who  had  been  justified 
and  saved  by  faith,  and  shows  that  the  design  of  the  law  was  not 
to  supersede  the  Divine  covenant  of  promise  previously  made  with 
Abraham,  but  to  prepare  the  way,  and  to  exhibit  the  necessity  for 
the  gospel  (3.)  He  draws  a  contrast  between  the  state  of  pupilage 
and  the  subjection  of  the  people  of  God  under  the  law,  and  their 
happier  condition  vmder  the  gospel,  when,  by  the  redemption  of  the 
Son  of  God,  they  were  put  into  possession  of  the  privileges  and 
blessings  of  sonship :  and  addressing  that  portion  of  the  Galatians  who 
had  been  heathen,  he  reminds  them  that,  having  been  rescued  from  the 
far  more  degrading  bondage  of  idolatiy,  it  was  especially  deplorable 
that  they  should  fall  back  into  the  slav'erj'-  of  superstition  (4.  i-ii). 
He  tenderly  appeals  to  them  as  his  spiritual  children,  reminding 
them  of  then-  former  attachment  to  him:  and  then,  addressing 
those  who  relied  upon  the  law  and  the  letter  of  the  Old  Testament, 
shows  them  that  the  history  of  Abraham's  two  sons  afforded  an 
emphatic  illustration  of  the  relative  position  and  spirit  of  the  two 
contending  parties  ;  and  of  the  rejection  of  the  one,  and  the  bles- 
sedness of  the  other  (4.  11-31). 

iii.  He  exhorts  the  believers  to  stand  firm  in  their  Christian 
liberty,  but  not  to  abuse  it;  shows  them  that  holiness  of  heart  and 
life  is  secured  under  the  gospel  by  the  authority  of  Christ  and  th€ 
grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (5.);  and  enjoins  upon  them  mutual  for- 
bearance, tenderness,  love,  and  liberality  ;  and,  after  again  con 
demning  the  doctrine  of  the  false  teachers,  closes  his  Epistle  with  z 
declaration  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  stun  of  the  whole  (6). 

This  Epistle  resembles  both  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  and 
tho.t  addi-essed  to  the  Romans,  Like  the  first  it  defends  Paul's 
apostolic  authority,  and  shows  that  he  was  taught  immediately  by 
Christ.  Like  the  last  it  treats  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  from 
which  the  Galatians  very  soon  after  Paul  left  them,  and  greatly  to 
his  surprise,  had  been  seduced  by  false  teachers,  who  insisted  on 
submission  to  the  Mosaic  law  as  essential  to  salvation,  and  probably 
insinuated  that  elsewhere  Paul  himself  had  urged  the  same  doctiine. 
3Iark  the  sharpness  and  tenderness  of  his  rebuke  (3.  i:  4.  19;  :  the 
p!f..^e  assigned  to  holiness,   not  as  the  gi-ound  but  as  the  fruit  of 


594  FIRyT   EnSTLE   TO   CORINTHIAXa. 

salvation,  and  inseparable  from  it  (5.  6,  22).  Mark  also  how  little 
we  can  depend  on  ardour  of  religious  feeling  as  proof  of  the  strength 
of  religious  principle  (4.  15,  20). 

It  is  interesting  to  remai-k  that  the  persons  to  whom  this  Epistle 
was  addi-essed  were  Gauls  (whose  name  in  Greek  is  Oalatians),  both 
in  name  and  in  character."^  They  manifest  all  the  susceptibility  of 
impression  and  fondness  for  change  which  authors  from  Csosar  to 
ThieiTy  have  ascribed  to  that  race.  They  received  the  apostle  as  an 
angel,  and  would  have  plucked  out  their  eyes  and  given  them  to 
liini;  but  were  ''soon  removed"  by  false  teachers  "to  another 
gospel,"  and  then  under  the  influence  of  the  same  ardour  began  to 
"  bite  and  devom-  one  another"  (4,  14,  15  :  5.  15). 

Connect  and  read  as  follows,  1.  1,  6,  11:  2.  15:  3.  1,  6,  10,  15, 
19,  24:  4.  I,  8,  12,  17,  21:  bJ°  I,  7_,  13,  16,  19,  22:  6.  1,  2,  6, 
11,  17,  18. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Corinthians. 
Ephesus,  A.  D.  5  7. 

1 74.  Corinth  was  a  large  city,  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Achaia,  in  the  southern  part  of  Greece.  Its  situation  on  the  narrow 
isthmus  between  Peloponnesus  (now  called  the  Morea)  and  northern 
Greece,  gave  it  the  command  of  the  land  traf&c  from  north  to  south : 
whilst,  by  its  two  ports  on  the  Ionian  and  ^gean  Seas,  it  received, 
on  the  one  hand,  the  rich  merchandise  of  Asia,  and,  on  the  other, 
that  of  Italy  and  the  West.  Possessing  these  advantages,  Corintb 
became  a  place  of  very  extensive  commerce.  It  was  also  distin- 
guished for  its  sumptuous  public  edifices,  and  for  the  cultivation  of 
the  elegant  arts  and  of  polite  learning.  The  Isthmian  games  also, 
(probably  alluded  to  in  chap.  9.  24-27),  which  were  held  near  the 
city,  had  attained  great  celebrity,  and  attracted  a  vast  concourse  of 
strangers  from  all  parts.  From  these  causes,  Corinth  became  re- 
markable for  wealth  and  luxviry;  and  equally  so  for  profligacy  and 
licentiousness,  which  were  greatly  fostered  by  the  worship  of  Venus 
established  there ;  so  that  it  became  ultimately  the  most  corrupt 
and  effeminate  city  in  Greece. 

The  first  entrance  of  the  Christian  religion  into  this  stronghold  of 
vice,  is  related  in  Acts,  chap.  18.  Paul  was  then  on  his  way  from 
Macedonia  to  Jerusalem.  After  passing  some  time  at  Athens,  he 
came  to  Corinth  ;  and  was  there  joined  by  Silas  and  Timothy.     He 

*  See  Conybeare  and  Howson's  Life  and  Epistles  of  Paul,  i.  261. 

*>  On  the  maintenance  of  spiritual  liberty,  against  those  who 
taught  that  ritual  observance  was  essential  to  salvation,  and  those 
who  taught  that,  "will  worship"  was  acceptable  obedience,  see 
3.  5,  6:  Eom.  7.  1-6:  Col.  2.  16-23. 


FIRST  EPISTLE  TO   CORINTHIANS.  595 

preached  the  gospel  in  that  citj,  first  to  the  Jews;  but,  when  they 
"  opposed  themselves  and  blasphemed/'  he  renounced  all  fellow- 
ship with  them,  and  tvirned  to  the  Greeks.  Some,  however,  of  the 
principal  Jews  believed.  His  fears  and  discouragements,  while  en- 
gaged in  this  work  (see  chap.  2.  3:  Acts  18.  9,  10),  were  met  by  a 
special  revelation,  assuring  him  of  the  Lord's  presence  with  him, 
and  of  his  purpose  to  collect  a  chiirch  there.  Paul  continued  hLs 
labours  at  Corinth  more  than  a  year  and  a  half :  and  they  were 
afterwards  followed  up  by  the  teaching  of  ApoUos,  Acts  18.  27,  28. 
Thus  a  numerous  and  flourishing  chm-ch  was  formed;  teachers  were 
set  over  them;  and  the  ordinances  of  Christ  were  regularly  ob- 
served. 

It  appears,  however,  that,  ere  long,  their  peace  was  disturbed  by 
certain  individuals,  who  sought  to  ingraft  on  the  doctrines  of  Christ 
the  refinements  of  human  philosophy.  The  factious  teachers  attempted 
to  depreciate  the  apostle,  representing  him  as  deficient  in  the  graces 
of  style  and  the  arts  of  oratory,  and  even  calling  in  question  his 
apostolic  authority:  they  also  pleaded  for  a  licentious  manner  of 
life,  under  pretence  of  Christian  liberty.  Hence  arose  divisions  and 
irregularities;  and  the  church  was  fast  declining  from  its  original 
faith,  purity,  and  love. 

This  Epistle  seems  to  have  been  written  from  Ephesus,  after  Paul 
had  made  one  visit  to  Corinth,  and  when  he  was  about  to  make 
another  :  see  chaps.  2.  i:  4.  19:  16.  5.  We  learn  from  Acts  18.  i, 
and  20.  1-3,  that  Paul  visited  Achaia,  and  doubtless  Corinth,  twice; 
and  that,  on  the  second  occasion,  he  went  thither  from  Ephesus,  after 
having  spent  two  years  in  that  city.  That  this  Epistle  was  writtec 
during  that  period  is  further  confirmed  by  various  incidental  re- 
ferences. See  chaps.  15.  32:  16,  8;  and  chap.  16.  9  compared  with 
Acts  19.  20-41:  also  the  salutation  from  the  churches  of  Asia  in 
chap.  16.  19  (see  Pt.  i.  sec.  398);  and,  further,  the  salutation 
from  Priscilla  and  Aquila,  who  were  at  Ephesus  at  that  time, 
Acts  t8.  26. 

The  object  of  this  Epistle  seems  to  have  been,  partly,  to  reply 
to  one  which  Paul  had  received  from  the  church,  requesting  his 
advice  and  insti'uction  on  some  points  (see  chap.  7.  i);  and,  partly, 
to  correct  some  disorders  prevailing  among  them,  of  which  he  had 
heard  from  some  of  their  members  (i.  11:  5.  i:  11.  18),  which  had 
occasioned  him  deep  concern,  and  led  him  to  send  Timothy  to 
Corinth  (4.  1 7). 

The  evils  which  Paul  sought  to  correct  among  the  Corinthians 
related  to  the  following  subjects: — 

Fariy-divisions  (^i.  10-16:  3,4-6).  A  fondness  for  philosophy  and 
eloquence  (i.  17,  etc.)     Notorious  immorality  was  tolerated  amongst 


596  FIRST   EPISTLE  TO   CORINTHIANS:    CONTENTS. 

them  (5.)  Lawsuits  were  carried  on  by  one  against  another  before 
heathen  judges,  contrary  to  the  rules  of  Christian  v/isdom  and  love, 
and  sometimes  even  to  the  principles  of  justice  (6.  1-8).  Licentious 
indulgence  (6.  9-20).  In  their  religious  assemblies,  the  female  mem- 
bers of  the  church,  in  the  exercise  of  their  spiritual  gifts,  had  mani- 
fested an  unfeminine  deportment,  laying  aside  the  veil,  the  distin- 
guishing mai-k  of  their  sex  (11.  3-10).  The  Lord's  supper  had  been 
perverted  by  the  manner  in  which  it  was  celebrated  (i  r .  20-34) ;  some 
having  made  it  an  occasion  of  jovialty,  and  a  source  of  humiliation 
to  their  poorer  brethi-en,  ver.  20,  21.  Miraculous  gifts,  especially 
the  gift  of  tongues,  had  been  misused  (14).  And  the  momentous 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  had  been  denied  or  questioned  (15.  12). 

The  matters  upon  which  the  Corinthians  had  requested  Paul's 
instructions  are,  i.  Marriage,  and  the  duties  in  regax'd  to  it  in 
their  circumstances  (7.);  2.  the  efiect  which  their  conversion  to 
Christianity  produced  upon  a  prior  state  of  circumcision  or  of  slavery 
(7.  17-24);  and  3 .  their  duty  with  reference  to  eating  things  offered 
in  sacrifice  to  idols  (8.).  They  had,  probably,  also  addressed  some 
questions  to  him  respecting  the  employment  of  spiritual  gifts,  and 
the  order  to  be  observed  in  their  religious  assemblies. 

In  no  Epistle  does  Paul's  own  character  appear  more  illustrious 
than  in  this.  The  assertion  of  his  apostolic  authority  is  beautifully 
blended  with  humility  and  godly  jealousy  of  himself  (2.3:9.16.2  7). 
Means  he  diligently  employs,  yet  is  profoundly  dependent  (3.  6,  9: 
15.  10).  Fidelity  he  combines  wdth  the  utmost  tendei'ness 
(3.  2:  6.  12:  4.  14);  and  with  the  noblest  gifts,  he  prefers  love  to 
them  all  (13.  i).  Herein  he  is  a  pattern  not  only  to  ministers, 
but  to  private  Christians  of  every  age. 

For  those  who  profess  to  have  no  sympathy  with  superstition  and 
little  respect  for  authority,  these  Epistles  are  peculiarly  instructive. 
They  combine,  in  the  most  striking  way,  the  utterances  of  a  liberal 
manly  spirit  with  doctrines  the  most  humbling.  They  cherish  the 
loftiest  hopes  for  man,  and  for  truth,  and  they  tell  us  how  alone 
these  hopes  may  be  fuliilled. 

In  other  respects,  moreover,  these  Epistles  are  of  great  interest. 
In  their  contents  they  are  the  most  diversified  of  all  the  apostle's 
writings;  and  more  than  any  other  they  throw  light  on  the  state  of 
the  early  church,  and  on  the  evil  tendencies  with  which  the  gospel 
had  to  struggle  even  among  good  men. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows,  1.  1,  4,  10,  13,  17,  26:  2.  i: 
3.  I,  10,  16,  18:  4.  I,  6,  8,  14:  5.  1,  9:  G.  I,  9,  i2:-7.  i,  17,  25,  29: 
8.1:  9,  I,  24:  11.  14,  23:-ll.  2,  17,  23,  27:  V2.  i,  31:  13.  i.  13:  14.  1, 
34,  56:-15.  I,  i2-:c,  35,  5i:-16.  i,  5,  10,  12,  13,  15,  17,  19,  21,  23. 


SECOND   EPISTLE   TO   CORINTHIAIsS.  597 

TJie  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Ajooslle  to  the  Corinthians. 
Macedonia,  A.  D.  57. 
1 75 .  Xot  very  long  after  -writing  the  former  Epistle,  Paul  left  Ephe- 
6U3,  and  went  to  Troas.  Here  he  expected  to  meet  Titus  (wliom  he 
had  sent  to  Corinth) ;  and  to  receive  from  him  intelligence  of  the  state 
of  the  church,  and  of  the  elFects  of  his  former  Epistle  (2.  12),  But, 
not  finding  him  there,  he  crossed  over  to  Macedonia,  where  his 
anxiety  was  relieved  by  the  arrival  and  report  of  Titus.  From  him 
Paul  learned  that  his  faithful  reproofs  had  awahened  in  the  minds  of 
the  Corinthian  Christians  a  godly  sorrow,  and  a  practical  regard 
for  the  proper  discipline  of  the  church.  But,  with  these  pleasing 
symptoms,  there  vrere  others  of  a  painful  kind.  The  faction  con- 
nected A\ith  the  false  teachers  was  still  depreciating  his  apostolic 
authority,  and  misrepresenting  his  motives  and  conduct ;  even  using 
liis  former  letter  to  bring  new  charges  against  him,  as  ha\dng  failed 
to  keep  his  promise  of  coming  to  see  them,  and  having  adopted  an 
authoritative  style  of  Aviiting,  little  in  unison,  as  they  alleged,  with 
the  contemptibleness  of  his  person  and  speech. 

Under  the  strong  and  mingled  emotions  caused  by  this  intelli- 
gence, the  apostle  %vrote  this  second  Epistle ;  in  which  the  language 
of  commendation  and  love  is  blended  with  that  of  censure,  and 
even  of  threatening;  and  sent  it  by  Titus  and  others,  intending 
speedily  to  follow  them,  as  it  appears  that  he  did.  It  was  designed 
to  carry  forv/ard  the  work  of  reformation,  to  establish  still  further 
liis  authority  against  the  objections  and  pretensions  of  false  teachers, 
and  to  prepare  the  Corinthians  for  his  intended  visit,  when  he 
desu-ed  to  find  their  disorders  rectified,  and  their  promised  contri- 
butions for  their  afflicted  brethren  ready  (8.  18:  9.  3,  5  :  10.  2,  11: 
13.  I,  2,  10). 

Although  this  and  the  preceding  Epistle  are  full  of  references  to 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  Corinthian  church,  they  are  not 
the  less  important  or  instructive  on  that  account.  For  they  contain 
directions  and  admonitions  suited  to  many  of  the  ordinary  circum- 
stances of  life  which  could  not  have  been  so  advantageously  intro- 
duced in  a  more  general  discourse  on  the  great  doctrines  and  duties 
of  Christianity.  Principles  and  rules  are  laid  doTVTi  which  are  of 
general  application,  especially  in  opposing  dissensions  and  other 
evils  arising  in  the  church,  and  in  promoting  the  important  duty  of 
Christian  liberality. 

The  principal  contents  of  this  Epistle  are  as  follows : — 

i.  The  apostle,  after  expressing  his  gratitude  for  the  Divine  con- 
solation gi'anted  to  him  under  his  sufierings  for  Christ,  states  the 
reasons  of  his  delay  in  visiting  Corinth :  and  refers  to  the  ease  of 
the  guilty  person  upon  whom  discipline  had  been  exercised  ;  whom. 


598  SECOND   EPISTLE  TO    CORIXTHIANS  :    CONTENTS. 

being  penitent,  lie  exhorts  them  to  restore  to  their  communion 
(I.  i2:-2.  13). 

ii.  He  alludes  to  his  labours  in  the  service  of  the  gospel  and 
their  success,  and  to  his  own  personal  relation  to  the  Corintliians ; 
and  is  thereby  led  to  speak  of  the  diflFerences  between  the  ministry 
under  the  Old  Covenant  and  under  the  N'ew;  showing  the  superior 
glory  of  the  latter  (3).  He  describes  the  principles  and  motives  by 
which  he  and  his  brethren  were  actuated  in  fulfilling  their  ministiy 
in  the  midst  of  great  trials  and  afflictions;  and  exhorts  the  Corinth- 
ians not  to  frustrate  the  great  objects  of  the  gospel  by  the  neglect 
of  Christian  discipline  and  purity  (4  :-7). 

iii.  Then,  resuming  a  subject  referred  to  in  his  former  Epistle, 
with  persuasive  earnestness  he  recommends  to  them  the  collection 
for  the  poor  among  the  saints  at  Jerusalem;  and  shows  the  manifold 
advantages  of  such  services  (8 :  9). 

iv.  He  vindicates  his  apostolic  authority  against  the  insiauations 
of  false  teachers;  and  (though  with  evident  reluctance)  contrasts 
his  own  gifts,  labours,  and  sufferings,  with  the  character  and  con- 
duct of  those  pretenders  who  opposed  him  (10  :  11):  he  refers,  in 
proof  of  the  Divine  approval,  to  some  extraordinary  visions  and 
revelations  with  which  he  had  been  favoured  (12.  i-ii):  shows  the 
openness,  sincerity,  and  disinterestedness  of  his  whole  conduct: 
and,  after  a  few  afiectionate  admonitions  to  self-examination,  and 
to  love  and  holiness,  closes  the  Epistle  with  prayer  and  benediction 
12.  11-21:  13). 

Connect  and  read  as  follows,  1.  i,  3,  8,  12,  15,  23:  2.  5,  12,  14: 
3.  I,  4,  12:  4-  I,  3,  7,  12:  5.  5,  II,  16,  20:  6.  I,  II,  14:  7-  i>  2, 
5,11,  13:  8.1,  16:  9.  I,  6:  10, 1,  7,  12:  11.  1,5,  13,  16:  12. 1,  14, 19: 
13.  I,  5,  11,  14- 

176.  (i.)  Not  the  least  instructive  part  of  these  Epistles  is  the 
light  they  throw  on  the  motives  and  spirit  of  the 
ai.ithorityand  apostles.  In  I  Cor.,  Paul  shows  that  not  man  but 
character.  CJi^igt  alone  is  the  centre  of  union  to  the  church,  that 
ministers  are  but  fellow-labourers  employed  and  endowed  by  God, 
to  whom  all  their  success  is  owing.  They  are  therefore  neither  to  be 
overrated  nor  despised.  The  true  minister  of  Christ  may  be  known 
by  his  patience,  his  self-denial,  his  holiness,  and  the  spirit  in  which 
he  exalts  his  Lord,  i  Cor.  i.  io:-4.  21:  2  Cor.  4:-7:  i  Thess.  2.1-12:  3. 
2  Tim.  Elsewhere,  however,  he  insists  largely  on  the  dignity  and 
authority  of  his  office,  2  Cor.  10-12:  Gal.  1:2:1  Cor.  15.  9,  10: 
Eph.  3.8.  In  the  whole  of  these  passages  the  object  seems  three- 
fold; to  confirm  and  prove  his  doctrine,  and  to  refute  false  teachers, 
2  Cor.  II.  3:  to  exhibit  to  Chi-istians  and  to  Christian  ministers  an 
eminent  example,  Phil.  3.  i  ■.■4.  9:  Heb,  13.  7-14;  and  above  all  to 


CORINTHIANS  :   THE   CHURCH.  599 

illustrate  the  power  of  Divine  grace,   2  Cor.   12.   9;  Gal.   i.  24: 

1  Tim.  I.  16.  The  whole  supplies  also  important  evidence  of  the 
tnxth  of  the  gospel.* 

(ii.)  The  character  of  false  teachers,  against  whom  the  chm'ch  of 
Character  of  ^^^^^t  is  often  warned,  may  be  gathered  from  many- 
false  passages.  Some  were  Judaizers,  denying  the  sufficiency 
teac  ers.  of  the  cross  and  the  liberty  of  the  church;  some  philo- 
sophizing teachers,  corrupting  the  simplicity  of  the  truth;  and 
others,  ''  dogs",  ttuming  the  grace  of  God  into  licentiousness,  i  Cor. 

1.  io:-4:  2  Cor.  11:  Gal.  i.  1-12:  4.  9-20:  5.  7-15:  Col.  2.  16-23: 
Acts  15.  i3-3i:-2  Thess.  2.  1-12:  2  Pet.  3:  Jude4-i9:  i  Tim.  6.  20. 

2  Tim.  2.  16:  I  John  2.  18-24:  4.  1-6:  2  and  3  John. 

(iii.)  The  church  is  many  and  one,  i  Cor.  11. 16 :  14.  33 :  Gal.  i.  22 : 

I  Thess.  2.  14:  Acts  16.  5:  i  Cor.  12.  12-27:  Eph.  4. 
The  church.  ^  ,  „  ^  ,  o    -n/r  x/     ^      n 

3-5:  5-25-32:  Coll.  18-24:  Gal.  3.  28:  Matt.  16.  28: — 

chosen  (Eph.  i.  4:  i  Pet.  5.  13)  :  loved  (Eph.  5.  25:  Eev.  i.  5): — 
redeemed  by  Christ  (Heb.  9.  12  :  i  Pet.  i.  18,  19),  and  subject  to 
him  (Rom.   7.  4:  Eph.  5.  24).     Christ  is  its  Foundation  and  Head 
(Eph.  2.  20:  I  Pet.  2.  4,  6 :  Eph.  i.  22  :  5.  23  :  Col.  1. 18).  The  church 
is  his  body  and  bride  (Eph.  1.23:  Col.  i.  24:  Eev.  21.  9  :  22.  7). 
(iv.)  For  the  general  character  of  its  members,  see  the  descrip- 
tions given  at  the  beginning  of  each  Epistle,  and  espe- 
smem  ers.  ^jg^jj^.  ^  q^^^  ^^  9-17:  2  Cor.  6.  14-17:  I  Thess.  i.  2-10: 

2.  13,  14:  3.  6:  4.  9,  10:  Eph.  2.  13-22:  Phil.  i.  7:  Col.  i.  3-8: 
I  John.  The  whole  and  each  member  ought  to  be  the  image  of 
Christ,  2  Cor.  3.  18:  Eom.  8.  14,  29:  Eph.  i.  4,  5:  4.  23,  24: 
I  Pet.  4.  I;  and  the  temple  of  the  Spirit,  i  Cor.  3.  16,  17:  2  Cor. 
6.16:  I  Tim.  3. 15  :  i  John  3,  24:  4.  12,  15:  John  14.  23:  17.  21-23. 

(v.)  On  the  duties  which  Christians  owe  one  to  another  Scripture  is 
Their  duties  beautifully  explicit.  The  justice  and  benevolence  which 
raotives,  and  as  men  they  owe  to  their  fellows  (see  Romans,  Pt.  ii. 
^^^^  '  §179)?  tbey  owe  also  to  their  brethren,  but  to  them  they 

owe  other  duties  besides,  and  all  are  enforced  by  motives  peculiar  to 
Christians,  being  taken,  in  fact,  from  their  mutual  relation  to  one 
another  through  the  love  and  grace  of  their  Lord,  i  Cor.  16. 
13-16:  2  Cor.  13.  11:  Rom.  12.  3-10:  Gal.  6.  2:  Eph.  4.  i-j6: 
Col.  3.  12-15:  Phil.  2.  1-16:  I  Thess.  4.  9:  5.  ir-21:  i  Pet.  i.  22: 
4.  8-11 :  5.  1-7:  2  Tim.  2.  22:  James  2.  1-18:  Heb.  10.  25 :  13.  7,17: 
I  John  3.  13-23:  4.  7,  II,  21:  5.  16,  17. 
(vi.)  Relative  duties  of  Christians.  In  relation  to  mai-riage, 
**  It  illustrates  both  the  humility  of  the  apostles  and  the  priest- 
hood of  the  whole  church  to  notice  how  they  ask  the  prayers  of 
their  converts,  2  Cor.  i.  11:  Rom.  15.  30:  Eph.  6,  19:  Col,  4.  3,  4: 
I  Thess.  5.  25:  2  Thess.  3    i. 


600  CORINTHIANS  :   CHRISTIAN   DUTIES. 

Rflative  I   Cor.    7:    Gal.   3-   28:    Epli.  5.   22-33:  Col.  3.   16-19: 

ilmk's.  J  i^et.  3.  1-7:  Heb.  13.  4:  Tit.  2.  4,  5.     On  the  true 

di"-nity  and  becoming  behaviour  of  Christian  women,  previous  pas- 
Kiges,  and  i  Cor.  11.  1-16  14.  34,  35  :  i  Tim.  2.  9-15.  As  parents, 
Eph.  6.  4:  Col.  3.  21:  I  Tim.  5.8:  3.  4,  5:  Tit.  2.  4:  2  John.  As 
children,  Eph.  6.  J,  2:  Col.  3.  20:  Heb.  12.  9:  i  Tim.  5.  i:  r  Pet. 
5.  5  (see  Job  32.  6,  7).  As  masters,  Eph.  6.  9:  Col.  4.  i:  Philem,  16: 
James 5.  4.  As  servants,  i  Cor.  4.  2:  7.  22:  Gal.  3.  28:  Eph.  6,  5,  6: 
Col.  3.  22,  23:  I  Tim.  6.1,  2:  Tit.  2.9,  10:  Philem.  11 :  Luke  12.  41-43: 
16.  10-12.  As  men,  seeEom.  Examples:  Parents,  Gen.  18.  19:  42.  4. 
2  Tim.  I.  5.  Children,  Kuth  i.  14:  Esth.  2.  20:  2  Tim.  3.  15, 
Masters,  Gen.  17.  23:  Josh,  24.  15:  2  Sam.  6.  20:  Acts  10.  2.  Ser- 
vrtnts,  2  Kings  5.  2:  Acts  10.  7. 

(vii.)  Liberality;  its  motives,  and  measure,  i  Cor.  16.  i,  2  : 
2  Cor.  8:  9  :  Rom.  12.  13  :  15.  26,  27:  i  Tim.  6.  17-19:  i  John  3. 
17-19  :  James  i.  27  :  2.8:  Heb.  6.  6  :  in  receiving  fellow  Christians, 
Rom.  12.  13  :  Heb.  13.  i,  2  :   i  Tim.  5.  10  :  Tit.  i.  7,  8  :  3  John. 

Hence  it  appears  that  though  at  first,  the  members  of  the  church 
at  Jerusalem  "sold  their  possessions  and  had  all  things  common," 
this  was  not  intended  as  the  rule;  though  all  are  enjoined  to  give 
as  the  Lord  has  prospered  them. 

(viii.)  That  the  love  and  comfort  which  this  relation  involves 

mav  be  secure  the  church  of  Christ  must  be  kept  free 
Its  discipline.  .•'.  .,  ■,-,.-,  -i-,ii  . 

from  impurity  and  disorder.     Rebuke,  encouragement, 

censure,  exclusion,  restoration — all  are  to  be  exercised  for  the  good 

ofthebody.      i  Cor.  5:    2  Cor.  6.  14-18:    3-17:     lO-  8:  13.  10: 

Gal.   6.  1 :    2  Thess.  3.  6-15  :  i  Tim.  5:6:2  Tim.  3.   1-5  :  4.  2  : 

Tit.  I.  io:-3,  10:  Jude  22:  Rev.  2.  14-16,  20-  23. 

(ix.)  The  sin  and  cure  of  divisions,  i  Cor.  i.  10:  4.  21 :  2  Cor.  ci : 
Sin  and  cure  P^om.  16.  17,18:  I  Tim.  I.  3-7  :  6.  SS,  20  :  Tit.  3.  9-15  : 
of  divisions.     Heb.  13.  8,  9.     See  on  Christian  forbearance, 

(x,)  The  duty  of  Christian  forbearance  in  relation  to  matters  on 
which  there  may  be  difi'erence  of  opinion  among  good  men,  i  Cor. 
8:-ro:  Rom.  14.  i:-i5.  7  :  Matt.  18.  10:  Phil.  2.  1-7:  James  4.  ii,  12: 
Acts  15.  8,  9  :   II,  17  :   i  Pet.  3,  8, 

(xi.)  The  right  use  of  miraculous  gifts,  as  prophecy,  etc.,  is 
M-raculous  ^^^S^^J  explained  in  these  Epistles.  These  gifts  were 
and  other  intended  to  confirm  the  truth  of  the  gospel,  promote  its 
^'^''*'  rapid  dissemination,  and  were  essential  to  prove  a  new 

revelation.  Note,  we  are  referred  for  evidence  and  for  spiritual 
knowledge  to  the  Scriptm-es.  Outward  instruction,  personal  expe- 
lience,  careful  study,  and  a  spirit  of  devout  dependence  on  God'.-i 
teaching  in  his  word  occupy  the  place  of  miraculous  endowments. 
2  Tim.  2-1:  3.  3,  15,  16:  2  Thess.  2.  15:  2  Pet   i.  15-21:  3.  r-4:  14-17- 


CORINTHIANS:    VARIOUS  TRUTHS.  601 

James  i,  5,  In  these  passages,  however,  we  learn  that  the  church 
of  Christ  ought  to  be  edified  by  the  "willing  and  combined  ser\dce, 
according  to  their  gifts,  of  all  its  members,  i  Cor.  12:  14:  Rom.  12. 
4-8:  Gal,  3.  1-5:  Eph.  4.  7-13  :  Heb.  2.  1-4. 

(xii.)  Mark  the  nature,  and  superlative  excellence  of  Christian 
On  Christian  love.  I  Cor.  13:  Col.  3.  12,  14:  Gal.  5  :  6:  i  Tim. 
''^^'^-  I.  5:  I  Johns.  10-24. 

(xiii.)  Mark  the  importance  and  consolation  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
On  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  how  it  is  insured  by  the 

resurrection,  resurrection  of  our  Lord.  1  Cor.  15  :  Rom.  8.  11,  19-25  : 
I  Thess.  4.  13-17:  Rev.  20.  11-13:  John  5.  21,  28. 

(xiv.)  Mark  also  with  what  order  and  devotedness  the  Lord's 
On  observ-  supper  is  to  be  observed,  and  mark  that  it  is  not  sacri- 
anceofthe  ficial  but  only  commemorative,  i  Cor.  11.  17-34: 
suppen  10.  15-18:  Matt.  26.  26-30:   Acts  2.  42-47:  20.  7. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Romans. 
Corinth,  a.D.  58. 

177.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  addressed  to  the  Christians 
residing  in  the  metropolis  of  that  great  empire,  whose  dominion 
then  extended  over  almost  the  whole  known  world. 

The  way  had  been  prepared  by  Divine  Pi'ovidence  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  gospel  into  Rome  by  the  extensive  settlement  of  Jews 
there.  That  the  establishment  of  the  Jewish  worship  at  Rome  had 
produced  considerable  effect  on  the  general  commvmity,  is  clear 
from  the  statements  of  heathen  writers.  Ovid  speaks  of  the  syna- 
gogues as  places  of  general  resoi-t :  and,  still  later,  Juvenal  ridicules 
his  countrymen  for  becoming  Jews, 

At  what  time  or  by  whom  the  gospel  was  first  preached  in  the 
imperial  city  is  unknown.  That  it  was  at  an  early  period  may  be 
inferred  from  the  cuxumstance  that,  when  Paul  wrote  this  Epistle, 
the  faith  of  the  Roman  Christians  "was  spoken  of  throughout  the 
whole  world,"  chap.  i.  8.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  those 
"strangers  of  Rome,  Jews  and  proselytes,"  who  were  present  at 
Jerusalem  on  the  gi'eat  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.  10),  carried  back 
to  that  city  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel.  And  it  is  not  improbable, 
also,  considering  the  constant  intercourse  between  Rome  and  the 
provinces,  that  some  of  the  numerous  converts  to  Christianity  in 
Judcea,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  might  soon  have  found  their  way 
to  the  capital.  That  some  of  the  persons  concerned  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  church  of  Rome  (two  of  whom  Patd  mentions  as  having 
been  converted  earlier  than  himself)  were  Paul's  particular  friends, 
with  whom  he  had  met  while  preaching  in  Asia  and  in  Greece,  is 
evident  from  the  form  of  the  salutations  in  chap.  16.  3-16. 

2  D 


602  EPISTLE  TO   ROMANS. 

The  traditions  of  some  of  the  ancient  fathers,  that  Peter  was  the 
founder  of  the  church  at  Rome,  appeal's  plainly  inconsistent  vnth 
the  evidence  derived  from  this  Epistle,  as  well  as  from  the  book  of 
the  Acts,  which  shows  him  to  have  been  at  Jerusalem  at  the  very 
time  Avhen  he  is  alleged  to  have  been  at  Rome.  In  this  whole 
Epistle  there  is  no  mention  of  Peter  as  ever  having  been  at  Rome. 
Now,  if  Peter  had  not  only  been  there,  but  had  actually  founded 
the  church,  and  had  presided  over  it,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose 
that  Paul  could  have  failed  to  advert  to  that  fact.  And,  further, 
had  Peter  been  at  Rome  when  Paul  wrote  this  Epistle,  he  would 
certainly  have  been  included  in  the  particular  enumeration  of  persons 
to  whom  salutations  are  sent,  in  chap.  i6. 

The  date  of  this  Epistle  is  very  precisely  fixed  by  the  following 
facts,  Paul  had  not  yet  been  to  Rome  (i.  ii,  13,  15).  He  was 
intending  to  visit  it,  after  first  visiting  Jerusalem  (15.  23-28),  and 
this  was  his  purpose  during  his  three  months'  residence  at  Corinth, 
Acts  19.  21.  He  was  about  to  carry  a  collection  from  Macedonia 
and  Achaia  to  Jerusalem  (15.  26,  31):  and  this  he  did  carry  from 
Corinth  to  Jerusalem  at  the  close  of  his  visit.  Acts  24.  17.  When 
he  wrote  the  Epistle,  Timothy,  Sosipater,  Gains,  and  Erastus  were 
vfith.  him  (16.  21,  23).  Gains  was  his  host,  and  resided  at  Corinth, 
I  Cor.  I.  14.  Erastus  was  himself  a  Corinthian,  and  had  been  sent 
shortly  before  from  Ephesus  with  Timothy  on  their  way  through 
Corinth  to  Macedonia,  Acts  19.  22:  i  Cor.  16.  10,  11 ;  and  the 
first  three  are  expressly  mentioned  in  Acts  (20.  4)  as  being  with 
Paul  at  Corinth.  Phoebe,  moreover,  the  bearer  of  the  Epistle,  was 
a  member  of  the  church  at  the  Corinthian  port  of  Cenchrea  (16.  i). 
As  Paul,  therefore,  was  preparing  to  visit  Jerusalem  one  of  his  con- 
verts was  also  departing  from  Corinth  in  an  opposite  direction,  for 
Rome,  and  by  her  this  Epistle  was  taken  to  that  city.  Its  date  is 
thus  fixed,  A.  D.  58. 

The  character  of  the  Roman  church  may  be  gathered  from  the 
Epistle  itself.  It  contained  several  converts  from  Judaism  (3.  4,  14. 
etc.);  but  the  majority  were  clearly  of  Gentile  origin  (i.  13:  15. 
14,15).  To  all  it  was  important  that  they  should  have  a  full  and 
inspired  exhibition  of  Divine  truth ;  and  this  is  given.  The  doctrine 
of  justification  by  faith  had  been  employed  to  justify  immoral 
practices  (3.  8),  and  moreover  dissensions  had  sprung  up  between 
Jewish  converts  and  Gentile  Chx'istians  (11.  17,  18:  14).  The 
Jewish  believer  was  unwilling  to  I'egard  his  uncircumcised  Gentile 
brother  as  his  equal  in  Christ's  kingdom  (3.  9:  15.  7-11);  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  more  enlightened  Gentile  convert  was  inclined 
to  treat  the  lingering  scruples  of  the  Jew  with  contempt  (14.  3 J. 
Here,  therefore,  the  doctrine  of  justification  is  shown  to  produce 


ROMANS:  OUTUNE.  603 

iioliuess.  To  the  Jewish  Christian,  truth  and  its  claims  are  re- 
vealed; to  the  Gentile  Christian,  love  and  its  claims;  and  both  are 
taught  that  faith  in  Christ  and  subjection  to  him  are  the  only  con- 
ditions of  a  place  in  the  church  and  of  an  interest  in  the  covenant. 
In  the  whole  of  this  discussion  principles  are  laid  down  of  the 
greatest  value  to  the  church  in  every  age. 

The  Epistle  may  be  divided  as  follows  (see  §  171,  note.) 
I.  I,  8,  13,  16,  18,  24:  2.  1,  17,  25:  3.  I,  5,  9,  21,  27,  29,  31: 
4.  I,  6,  9,  10,  13,  18,  23:  5.  1,  3,  6,  II,  12:  6.1,  12,  15:  7.1,7,  13: 
8.  I,  12,  18,  26,  28,  31 :  9.  I,  6,  10,  14,  19,  30:  10.  I,  14,  18  :  ir. 
I,  7,  II,  16,  22,  25,  33:  12.  I,  3,  6,  9,  14:  13.  I,  11:  14-  I,  13: 
15.  I,  5,  8,  14:  16.  I,  17,  21,  25. 

178.  As  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  treats  of  the  doctrine  which 
has  been  regarded  as  the  test  of  a  time  church,  and  is  moreover  the 
most  full  and  systematic  of  all  the  apostle's  writings,  we  append  an 
analysis  of  the  whole,  showing  the  course  of  argument  and  illustra- 
tration.  The  significance  of  particular  passages  depends  in  a  gi-eat 
degree,  as  will  be  readily  seen,  on  their  connection  and  tendency. 


(i.)  Introductimi  (i.  1-17). 

(i.)  The  salutation  (i.  1-7). 

(2.)  Introduction,  and  Paul's  estimate  of  the  gospel  (8-17), 

(11.)  Doctrinal  Exposition  (i.  18  :-ii.  36). 

(a.)  Sinfulness  of  the  human  race, 
(i.)  Condition  of  the  heathen, — 

In  relation  to  God  (i.  18-23). 
In  relation  to  human  duty  (24-32). 
(2.)  Condition  of  the  Jews, — 

Mere  knowledge  will  not  save  (2.  i-ii). 
It  even  aggravates  guilt  (12-29). 
(3.)  Comparison  of  Jews  and  Gentiles, — 

Value  of  Old  Testament  dispensation  not  lowered  (3.  i-8;. 
Both  guilty,  and  needing  salvation  (9-20). 
(b.)  The  gospel-plan  of  salvation  explained,  in  iteelf,  and  in 
its  results. 
(i.)  This  plan   explained,   a  revelation  of   Divine  justice  and 
mercy  excludes — 

All  boasting  (3.  21,  26-28),  and — 
Saves  all  on  the  same  terms  (29-31). 
f  2.)  Holy  men  of  old  justified  by  faith,— 

Illustrated,  Abraham  (4,  1-5):  David  (6-8). 

2  D  2 


604  ROMA^^s:  outline. 

Circumcision  the  sign  (9-12),  and  the  theocracy  (13-1)-), 
the  result  of  the   covenant  :    the  result,  therefore,  of 
justification,  rather  than  subservient  to  it. 
(3.)  Abraham's  faith  described.     Its  results  (4.  18-25). 
(4.)  The  fruits  of  faith  in  Christian  experience,  in  imparting 
peace,  joy,  and  hope  (5.  i-ii). 

(5).  The  excellence  of  faith  shown  by  a  comparison  between 
Adam,  the  head  of  the  fallen  race,  and  Christ,  the  author  of 
spiritual  life,  to  all  who  are  united  to  Him  (5.  12-21). 

(c.)  This  way  of  salvation  {xap^s,  diKaiocrivT]),  favom-able  to 

holiness.     (See  3.  8). 

(i.)  We  cannot  go  on  in  sin,  that  grace  may  abound;  for  we  are 

one  with  Christ  our  Head,  in  his  baptism,  death,  and  life  (6.  1-14); 

verses  12-14  illustrating  the  idea  that  Christ  is  our  King,  as  well  as 

Head. 

(2.)  Nor  can  we  go  on  in  sin,  because  under  grace  and  not  under 
law. 

For  the  servants   of  another  ai'e  bound  to   obey  their 

master,  and  moreover — 
Men  are  increasingly   swayed  by  that  authority,   which 
they  heartily  acknowledge.     It  becomes  a  yoke,  which, 
however,    if   it   be  righteousness,    is    free,  and  has  a 
glorious  issue,  (6.  15-23). 
(3.)  He  illustrates  the  same  truth  as   in  6.  2,  by  an  example 
founded  on  law  (7.  1-7). 

Hence  a  twofold  objection  : 
(4).  Either  the  law  is  sin — 

No ;  for  it  reveals  sin,  and  impresses  it  on  the  conscience 
(7.  7-12): 
(5.)  Or  being  itself  good,  it  has  become  death  (7.  13-25). 

No;  for  we,  ("  our  inner  man,")  admit  it  to  be  spiritual, 
even  when  not  obeying  it ;   a  fact  admitted  by  the 
awakened  and  regenerate. 
Eoth  facts  meet  the  objection,  and  show  our  need  of  a  new 
system. 

(d.)  The  laio  having  failed  to  justify  and  sanctify,  he  repeats 
and  expands  the  truth,  that  Christ  for  its,  and  Christ  in  us, 
is  our  justification  and  holiness. 
([.)  Christians  justified  in  Christ  and  sanctified  in  Him,  through 
the  Spiiit;  which  sanctificatoon  will  be  complete  (8.  i-ii). 
(2.)  Christian's  duty  and  privilege  (8.  12-17.) 
(3.)  The  connection  between  the  perfection  of  creation,  and  that 
cf  the  children  of  God  (8.  18-25). 

(4.)  Other  blessings  (8.  26-27,  28-30,  31-39"). 


ROMANS:   OUTLINE.  605 

(e.)  As  in  chap,  i.  i8:-3.  20,  the  apostle  has  explained  the 
relation  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  the  law,  so  in  chap.  9. 
I  :-ii.  36,  he  explains  the  relation  of  both  to  the  gospel. 

That  salvation  is  by  Christ,  and  for  all  that  believe,  is  the  con- 
clusion to  which  the  apostle  has  come;  but  if  so,  the  great  majority 
of  the  Jews  perish,  and  the  Gentiles  have  taken  their  place ;  a  result 
apparently  severe,  and  to  the  Jew  particularly  stax^tling.  The  apostle 
meets  this  feeling. 

(i.)  He  aflB.x'ms,  that  he  is  himself  greatly  distressed  at  then*  state 
of  rejection  (9.  1-6). 

(2.)  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  the  promise  is  unfulfilled, 
or  that  this  difference  of  treatment  is  without  precedent;  for — 

The  promise  did  not  extend  to  all  the  children  of  Abraham,  but 
only  to  the  descendants  of  Sarah ;  nor  to  all  her  descendants,  but 
only  to  Jacob  (7-13),  the  ground  of  the  difference  being,  not  the 
actual'merit  of  the  persons,  but  the  election  of  God. 

Least  of  all  does  it  follow  that  God  is  lonjust,  for  all  mercy  on 
God's  part  is  evidence  of  kindness,  and  is  altogether  undeserved. 

That  God  has  a  right  to  make  distinctions  in  his  dealings,  .and 
does  make  them,  is  further  shown  in  the  case  of  Pharaoh  (14-18). 

(3.)  But  does  not  this  idea  of  purpose  on  God's  part,  free  us 
from  blarae?  To  which  the  apostle  replies  by  affirming,  first,  that 
God  has  a  right  to  do  as  he  will ;  suggesting,  that  in  the  exercise  of 
that  right,  there  can  be  no  wrong;  and  secondly,  that  in  exercising 
that  \n\\,  both  the  justice  and  the  mercy  of  God  will  be  the  more 
illustrioxisly  revealed  (19-24;,  saving  all  on  the  same  conditions, 
both  Jews  and  Gentiles  (24). 

(4.)  Both  this  call  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  salvation  of  a  remnant 
only  of  the  Jews,  are  foretold,  or  have  their  precedents  in  the  Old 
Testament  (25-29). 

(5.)  The  failure  and  rejection  of  the  Jews,  though  in  one  sense 
in  accordance  with  the  Divine  purpose,  are  really  results  of  un- 
belief (30-33). 

Chap.  10.  This  last  thought  is  expanded  in  chap.  10.  After  again 
expressing  his  distress  at  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews,  he  shows  that 
their  rejection  is  the  result  of  unbelief;  and  that  all  who  call  on 
the  name  of  the  Lord,  Jews  or  Gentiles,  shall  be  saved  (1-13). 

It  is  then  objected,  that  the  Jews  coiild  not  call  upon  one  of  whom 
they  had  not  heard  (14-17),  and  the  apostle  answers  by  showing 
that  they  have  heard,  and  that  their  rejection  of  truth  was  not 
owing  to  ignorance,  but  to  disobedient  imbelief :  a  fact,  which,  in 
all  aspects  of  it,  their  own  prophets  foretold  (18-21). 

Chap.  II.  The  apostle  proceeds  to  explain  his  statements. 


606  ROMANS  :    OUTLINE. 

(6).  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  Israel,  as  a  wliole,  have  beeir 
rejected. 

It  is  not  Jews,  as  Jews;  but  Jews  as  unbelievers;  for*'  I  myself,' 
says  he,  ''am  an  Israelite"  (i),  and,  as  in  Elijah's  days,  there  were 
thousands  who  had  not  bowed  to  Baal,  so  now  there  is  a  remnant 
according  to  the  election  of  grace,  chosen  not  for  their  works,  but 
from  free  favour;  while  the  rest  have  missed  the  blessing  through 
unbelief  (2-10), 

Nor,  speaking  of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  is  this  utter  rejection: 

Their  unbelief  gave  occasion  for  the  proclamation  of  the  truth  to 
the  Gentiles,  and  their  conversion  will  be  connected  with  the 
general  diffusion  of  the  truth  (11-15),  of  all  which  the  faith  of  theii? 
fathers  is  a  kind  of  earnest  (16). 

(7.)  Humility,  faith,  adoring  reverence  of  the  justice  and  mercy 
of  God,  with  hope  in  this  general  issue,  become  all  Gentile  converts 
(17-24),  and — 

(8.)  By-and-by,    Israel  as  a  whole,  shall  be  converted  to  God 

(25-32). 

(9.)  The  whole  scheme  of  salvation,  an  evidence  of  the  unfathom- 
able wisdom  and  love  of  God  (33-36),  to  whose  praise  all  ^vill  vdti- 
mately  redound. 

(ill.)  Ethical  development  of  Truth  (12. -15.  14). 

(i.)  In  relation  to  general  behaviour, 

(i.)  All  previous  doctrine  points  to  consecration  of  the  whole  life 
as  the  appropriate  result,  and  with  this  consecration  all  holiness 
begins  (12.  i,  2). 

This  founded  in  humility, ».  e.,  in  a  true  and  healthy  view  of  our- 
selves, and  of  our  position  (12.  3). 

This  consecration  will  include — 

(2,)  The  Christian's  relation  to  the  church  (12,  4-13),  includ- 
ing love,  faith,  and  hope;  and — 

(3.)  The  Christian's  relation  to  the  world  (12.  14-21). 

(4.)  Chap.  13.  Especially  is  this  spirit  of  consecration  seen  in 
submission  to  the  ruling  power,  which  has  the  force  of  a  Divine 
law  (1-7).— Obedience  in  such  cases,  is  another  form  of  the  great 
law  of  love  (8-10),  which  is  especially  incumbent  imder  the  gospel, 
as  is  all  spiritual  holiness,  (II- 14). 

(ii,)  In  relation  to    our    behaviour    in  things  indifferent  (14. 

x:-i5-  7)- 

Here,  forbearance  is  our  rule.  He  who  regards  things  indifferent 
as  binding,  may  be  the  weaker  Christian,  but  God  has  received  him; 
he  does  all  to  Christ  who  is  his  judge;  and  in  accordance  with  liis 
own  conscience,  which  is,  subordinately,  his  law. 


ROMANS  :   VARIOUS  TRUTHS.  60T 

Therefore,  neither  is  he  the  less  welcome,  nor  is  he  to  be  tempted 
by  ridicule  or  rebuke  to  violate  what  he  himself  believes  (14.  2-23). 

The  example  of  Chiist,  and  the  ultimate  design  of  the  Scriptures, 
teach  this  duty  on  even  more  comprehensive  grounds — the  common 
good  (15.  1-7). 

The  lesson  is  repeated,  that  Gentiles  and  Jews  are  one  body,  and 
that  the  salvation  of  each  illustrates  the  faithfulness  and  mercy  of 
God  (15.  8-13). 

(iv.)  Personal  Communications. 

(r.)  Explanation  of  the  apostle's  relation  to  the  Gentiles,  and  of 
his  earnestness  on  their  behalf  (15.  14-21). 

(2.)  Notice  of  his  proposed  journeys  (15.  22-23). 

(3.)  Salutations  (16.  1-23),  with  cautions  in  reference  to  such  as 
caused  divisions  (17-20). 

(4.)  Conclusion  (24-27). 

179.  iMark  in  this  Epistle  the  following  truths,  doctrinal  and 
moral. 

(i.)  Man's  extreme  need  of  salvation,  in  consequence  of  liis  guilt,  depravity,  and 
wretchedness  (i.  iS.-j.  20,  compare  6.  19-21  :  8.  6-8):  Gal.  j.  10-22 ;  Eph.  2.  i-j: 
4.  18,  19 :  Col.  3.  5-10 :  Heb.  9.  1-9  :  10.  i-ii :  x  Pet.  4.  3  :  Tit.  j.  3 :  Psa.  ijo.  j : 
14?-  2. 

(ii.)  The  only  way  of  justification— by  the  free  favour  of  God  through  faith  in  the 
lishtcousness  of  Christ ;  explained  and  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  history  of 
Abraham  and  David  (3.  21 1-4.  25 :  5.  16 :  8.  i) :  Gal.  3.  6-29  :  Eph.  2.  8-10  :  Phil.  3. 
"j-io :  Titus  3. 4-7 :  Heb.  10.  11-18 :  Psa.  22.  lo,  31 ;  Isa.42.  21 :  Jer.  23.  5,  6.  This 
faith  is  sanctifying,  see  James  and  Acts  26.  18. 

(iii.)  Peace  and  reconciliation,  hope  and  joy,  the  fruits  of  faith  (5.  i-ii :  10.  15  : 
14.  17)  :  2  Cor.  5.  i8-2i :  Eph.  2.  11-20  :  Col.  i.  19-27  :  i  Pet.  i.  18-21 :  Isa.  32.  71 : 
Psa.  85.  8-10  :  16.  9-11. 

(iv.)  As  by  the  disobedience  of  one  all  are  sinners,  so  are  righteousness  and 
eternal  life  through  the  obedience  of  Christ  (5.  12-31)  :  i  Cor.  15.  20-23,  45-49 : 
I  Tun.  1-14:  Gen.  3.  6  :  5.  3  :  Isa.  53.  10-12. 

(v  )  The  evangelic  motives  of  obedience ;  deliverance  from  the  dominion  and 
condemnation  of  ancient  law,  living  union  with  Christ,  and  submission  to  his 
authority,  the  constraining  influence  of  his  love,  the  efiBcacy  of  his  death  and  resur 
rection,  the  transforming  power  of  his  example,  the  promised  aid  of  his  Spirit,  and 
the  hope  of  an  eternal  reward ;  in  one  word,  all  the  affections  and  desires  of  our 
new  life  (6.  i  :-7.  25) :  2  Cor.  5.  14-17  :  6.  14-18  :  Gal.  2.  19,  20  :  5.  24  :  6.  14  :  Eph. 
2.  4-10  :  Col.  2.  6-17  :  3-  1-3 :  Tit.  2.  10-14  :  I  Pet.  2.  20-25  :  4.  I,  2  :  2  Pet.  i.  4-9 : 
Phil.  3.  17,  18  :  Psa.  116.  16 :  Jer.  31.  31-34 :  Acts  26.  18. 

(vi.)  The  privileges  consequent  on  justification— adoption,  the  inward  presence, 
testimony  and  help  of  the  Spirit,  the  certainty  of  complete  salvation  and  a  glorious 
inheritance  (8.  1-27  :  5.  5)  :  2  Cor.  i.  21,  22  :  Gal.  4.  1-7  :  Eph.  i.  14  :  6.  18  :  i  Pet. 
X.  3-9  :  I  John  3.  1-3,  19-21. 

(vii.)  The  source  of  redemption — God's  sovereign  love   and  eternal  piirpose 
(8.  28-39)  :  Eph.  I.  3-10  :  2  Thess.  2.  13-17  :  i  Pet.  i.  2-5  :  2.  7.10 :  2  Tim.  i.  9-12 
John  17,  9-24. 


608  ROilANS  :   VARIOUS  TRUTHS. 

(viii.)  The  principal  duty  of  Cliristians,  individually,  socially,  as  members  of  the 
church  of  Christ,  and  as  subjects  of  civil  government  (12.  i  :-i5.  7).  Christian 
morality  requires  imivcrsal  and  peiTuanent  rectitude,"  must  proceed  from  a  renewed 
heart,!'  be  based  on  religion,  i.  e.,  on  the  consecration  of  man  in  all  his  powers  and 
affections  unto  God.c  needs  the  sanctifying  influence  of  the  Spirit,^  and  can  be 
offered  with  acceptance  only  through  the  mediation  of  Christ.*  This  morality  is  the 
beUever's  chief  concern  ;  for  his  justification  is  complete,  while  his  sanctification  is 
not ;  and  the  attaimnent  of  it  is  the  business  of  the  Christian's  life,  as  it  was  one 
end  of  the  coming  of  our  Lord.f 

a  Compare  the  foUowhig  passages,  which  all  treat  of  morality,  and  it  will  be  seen 
that  no  sin  is  excused,  nor  is  any  branch  of  righteousness  excepted  in  the  Christian 
code.  Rom.  12.  i  :-i5.  1  :  i  Cor.  6 :  11.  1-16 :  2  Cor  4 :  6.  14-18  :  Gal.  5:6:  Eph* 
4.-6:  Phil.  I.  27:-2.  16:  J.  18:  Col.  j.  i  :-4.  6:  1  Thess.  4:  2  Thess.  j.  6-15: 
I  Tun.  2.  9-15  :  6  :  2  Tim.  j.  1-9  :  Tit.  i.  12  :-j.  8 :  Philem.  :  Heb.  13 :  James  all 
(see  2.  10) :  i  Pet.  i.  22  :-2.  j :  2.  11  ;-j.  17  :  4.  8-1 1 ;  5.  1-7  ;  2  Pet.  2 ;  j.  11-14; 
I  John  2.  j-ii,  15-17,  29:  I.  3-18,  24;  Jude. 

b  Eph.  4.  22-24 :  Col.  I.  22,  2  j :  Phil.  2.  j-5  ;  Rom.  12.  2.  All  the  passages 
which  speak  of  motives  to  obedience,  and  the  very  structm-e  of  the  ]']pistles, 
addressed  as  they  are  to  Christians,  and  basing  precepts  on  doctrines,  obedience  on 
faith,  Psa.  51.  10  ;  Ezek.  j6.  25,  27. 

0  Rom.  12.  I :  I  Cor.  6.  20  :  2  Cor.  5.  15 :  6. 14-18 :  7.  i :  8. 5  :  Phil.  i.  20  :  i  Pet. 
2.  24 :  4.  2  :  Eph.  5.  25-27  :  i  Thess.  5.  2j,  24  :  i  John  3.  3. 

d  Rom.  15. 16 :  Phil.  4. 13  ;  Heb.  9.  14 :  i  Pet.  i.  22. 

e  Eph.  I.  6 :  Phil.  i.  9-11  :  i  Pet.  2.  5  :  i  John  3-  6-10 :  Col.  3.  17. 

1  Eph.  4.  11-13 ;  5.  25-27  :  Phil.  2.  I2  ;  3-  i3  :  Titus  2.  11-14. 

The  various  duties  of  morality  are  easily  arranged.    They  refer  to  God — to  our- 

.  selves— to  others.    All  indeed,  are  enjoined  by  a  Divme  law,  and 

r .  f Lj  must  be  perfonned  from  religious  motives.    Yet  is  the  distinction 

'  °    '         convenient  and  Scriptural.    We  find  it  recognised  in  the  12th  of 

Romans,  and  elsewhere.    Living  devotedness  to  God  is  first  enjoined,  ver.  i,  2 ; 

then  the  personal  virtue  of  humility,  ver.  3,  and  lastly,  the  duties  we  owe  to  the 

church  of  Christ,  and  to  the  world. 

(ix.)  In  relation  to  God,  it  is  incumbent  upon  us— to  ascertain  his  character  and  will, 
especially  as  revealed  in  his  Son  ;g  to  exercise  appropriate  faith  and 
Jn  relation  to  ^^^,^^  submission,  and  reverence  ;h  to  imitate  his  moral  perfections, 
to  obey  his  commands,!  and  to  express  our  feelings  in  acts  of  accep- 
table worship.]    The  smn  of  our  affection  is  reverential  love,  and  of  our  service, 
living  consecration.^ 

g  2  Cor.  4.  6 :  2  Pet.  i.  2,  3  :  i  John  5.  20:  John  17.  3  ;  Psa.  9.  10. 

h  I  John  5.  10-12  :  I  Cor.  8.  3;  i  John  4.  9  :  Heb.  12.  9:  i  Pet.  i.  10-21 :  5.  6 : 
James  4.  7,  10 :  2  Cor.  7.  i :  Eph.  5.  21 :  Heb.  12.  28  :  Examples,  Heb.  11 :  Matt. 
8.  10  :  Psa.  18.  I :  John  21 :  Job  2.  10  :  2  Sam.  15.  26. 

i  2  Cor.  3-  18  :  Eph.  4.  32 :  5-  i :  Col.  3-  U  :  Matt.  5.  44,  45,  48  :  i  John  4.  11 ; 
I  John  2.  3-5  :  John  14.  23  :  Rom  16.  19  :  Examples,  our  Lord,  Eph.  5.  2  ;  1  Pet. 
2.  21 :  Abraham,  12.  1-4. 

j  Rom.  10.  9,  10  :  Heb.  10.  25  ;  Phil.  4.  6 :  James  i.  5,  6 :  i  John  3.  22  ;  John  14. 
13  :  Eph.  5. 19,  20  :  Col.  3. 16, 17  :  Mark  14. 26  :  Ex.,  Acts  1. 14 :  2.  i,  2  :  4.  24-Ji : 
Luke  4.  15,  16:  Acts  18.  4. 

k  I  John  5.  2-5  :  Mark  12.  29,  30 :  Deut.  6.  5 :  10.  12 :  }o.  6:  Rom.  12.  i :  i  Cor. 
6.  20 :  2  Chron.  30.  8. 


ROMANS:   CHRIHTIAX  DUTIES.  609 

(x.)  In  relation  to  ourselves,  it  becomes  us  to  be  bumble,  never  thinking  more 
highly  of  our  gifts  than  we  ought,  and  ever  remembering  that  they 

ourselves!^  '"  ^^^  6'i/'<s.''  meek,  restraming,  withm  proper  bomidg  all  irascible 
passions,l>  contented  with  our  lot,c  temperate,'!  self-denying,e  careful 

in  preserving  for  God's  service,  our  health  and  life.f  diligent,g  and  pure.** 

a  Rom.  12.  J :  I  Cor.  4.  "J :  2  Cor.  12.  7 :  Gal.  6.  j :  Phil.  7.3,4:  Eph.  4.  2  :  Col. 
».  12:  James  4.  6:  i  Pet.  5.  5,  6.  Ex.,  Gen.  18.  27  :  32.  10:  18.  ij  :  i  Cor.  15.9: 
Phil.  2.  5-8.  False  humility  condemned.  Col.  2.  18-23 :  2  Chron.  12.  6 :  i  lOngs 
21.  29. 

0  Eph.  4.  2  :  Col.  3.  12 :  Tit.  3.  2 :  Gal.  5.  23 :  James  3.  13,  17  :  i  Pet.  3. 4-15 : 
Ex.,  Numb.  12.  2 :  Psa.  ijr.  i :  i  Thess.  2.  7  :  Christ,  2  Cor.  10.  i :  Matt.  11.  29. 

c  Heb.  13.  5  :  Phil.  4-  6 :  i  Tun.  6.  6-8  :  Matt.  6.  25  :  Ex.,  Paul,  Phil.  4.  11,  12. 

<i  Rom.  ij.  ii-ij  :  Gal.  5.  23  :  i  Cor.  7.  30:  9.  25-27:  Tit.  2.  2,  11,  I2:  2  Pet. 
1.6:  Luke  21.  34. 

e  Rom.  14.  20 :  15.  i :  8.  13  :  2  Cor.  8.  9  :  6.  4,  5-10  :  i  Cor.  8.  13  :  Col.  3.  5  : 
Phil.  2.  4  :  I  Pet.  4.  i,  2  :  2  Tun.  2.  4,  15  :  Ex.,  Acts  2.  45  :  i  Cor.  8.  13  :  Heb.  11. 
24,25. 

1  Eph.  5.  29 :  I  Tim.  5.  2  :  Acts  16.  27,  28  :  27.  34  :  Matt.  10.  23  :  Acts  14.  6.  7. 
g  Rom.  12.  II  :  Eph.  4.  28  ;  i  Thess.  4.  11,  12  :  2  Thess.  3.  11,  12  :  Col.  4. 12,  13, 

see  Prov.  6.  6-8  :  22.  13.  Diligence  in  seeking  our  Scriptural  improvement  is  an 
urgent  duty,  Phil.  2.  12  :  3-  14  :  Heb.  6.  3,  4  :  2  Pet.  i.  5,  10  :  John  6.  10 :  2  Cor. 
8.  7  :  Heb.  6. 12  :  Gal.  6.  9.  An  earnest  character  is  cleai'ly  to  be  the  aim  of  each 
Chi-istian. 

h  Rom.  13. 13  :  16.  8  :  i  Cor.  5.11:  6. 9, 13-18  ;  2  Cor.  7.  2  :  Gal.  5. 19-21 :  Eph.4. 
19  :  5-  5.  5  :  P^U,  3.  19  :  Col.  3.  5-8  :  i  Thess.  4.  3  :  Heb.  13.  4  ••  2  Pet.  2.  13,  14  : 
Tit.  3-  12. 

(xi.)  In  relation  to  others  we  owe  justice  and  veracity — the  virtues  of  reciprocity 
In  relation  to  ^s  they  are  called— peace  and  love,  the  virtues  of  ienevoUnce  or  good- 
others,  will. 

I.  "We  owe  them  justice,  i.  e.,  the  lighteous  fulfilment  of  righteous  expectation".! 
Duties  of  re-  ^^®  must  respect  their  liberty,  and  neither  oppress  nor  unnecessarily 
ciprccity,  viz.  condemn  them  p  their  property,  and  neither  steal  nor  covet,  nor  de- 
I.  Justice.  fraud  ;»£  their  character,  and  neither  slander  nor  misrepresent  them  ;1 
their  happiness,  and  not  envy  their  worth  or  rank ;»»  their  lives,  and  neither  quarrel 
with  nor  hate  them  :n  their  virtues,  and  withhold  neither  the  gi-atitude,  the  admira- 
tion, nor  the  love  which  they  may  justly  claun. 

i  Rom.  13.  7  :  James  2.  6 :  5.  4 :  Mai.  3.  5  :  Zech.  7.  7-10  :  and  frequently  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Ex.  Job  29.  14  :  Jer.  23-  25  (Josiah)  :  Luke  23.  51  (Joseph)  :  our 
Lord  especially,  Psa.  98.  9  :  Isa.  11.  4.  Injustice,  a  characteristic  of  the  ungodly 
and  of  hypocrites,  i  Cor.  6.  i  :  Matt.  23.  23. 

j  Rom.  14.  4 :  2  Cor.  i.  24 :  Gal.  2.  4,  5  ;  Col.  2.  16,  17,  20  :  James  3.  i :  4-  ir,  12 : 
I  Pet.  5.  3- 

k  Eph.  4.  28  :  5.  3-5  :  i  Cor.  6. 10 :  I  Pet.  4.  15 :  Col.  3.  5  :  Psa.  10.  3. 

1  Rom.  I.  29:  2  Cor.  12.  20:  i  Tun.  3-  n:  5-  13:  Tit.  3.  2.  Ex.  The  devil. 
Job  I :  Rev.  12.  10 :  Psa.  4.  20. 

m  Rom.  13. 7  :  Eph.  6.  5 :  i  Pet.  2.  17,  18  :  Matt.  22.  21 :  Phil.  2.  3  :  i  Cor.  12. 21  , 
I  Pet.  5.  5. 

n  Rom.  12.  19:  Gal.  5.  20:  Col.  3-  21 :  Eph.  4.  31 :  i  John  3.  15-17  :  Lev.  19^ 
17.  18- 

The  relative  value  of  piety  and  rank  is  defined.    Piety  is  not  to  be  despised  l)e- 

2  D  3 


GIG  ROMANS  :   CHRISTIAN   DUTIES. 

cause  of  povertj',  nor  is  wickedness  to  be  respected  because  of  wealth,  James  2.  1-9,: 
Jude  16. 

2.  To  others  we  owe  veracity  or  trnthfulness.     This  is  the  basis  of  all  confiden- 
^       ..        tial  intercourse  between  intelligent  beings,  and  is  essential  to  virtue. 

Its  opposites,  hypociisy,  flatttsry,  slander,  lying,  are  either  the  parents, 
or  the  offspring  of  many  vices. 

Eph.  4.  25  :  5.  4  :  Col.  3.  9.    See  Psa.  51.  6  :  Prov.  12.  19,  22. 

Hark  the  origin  of  lies,  Gen.  3-  4  "  Jolin  8.  44 :  Acts  5.  3  :  and  their  end.  Rev.  21. 
8.  27:  22.  15.  Natural  to  man,  Psa.  58.  j:  Isa.  57.  4:  hateful  to  God,  Prov.  6. 
16-19:  Isa.  59.  2,  4.  Lies  form  one  of  the  marks  of  the  great  apostasy,  2  Thess. 
2.  9  :  I  Tim.  4.  2  :  i  John  2.  22. 

3.  To  others  in  special  relations,  there  are  owing  various  duties,  which  we  are 
bound  in  justice  to  discharge,  see  Cor.  and  Titus. 

And  here,  perhaps,  heathen  morality  would  end.  The  gospel,  however,  has  pre- 
Duties  of  cepts  of  even  a  nobler  kind.  In  addition  to  duties  that  spring  out  of 
benevolence :  what  is  due  to  man  it  enjoins  others,  the  duties  of  peace  and  love,  or 
Peace  and  of  benevolence  to  all,  irrespective  of  character  or  desert.  Natural 
love.  affection  is  a  feeling  which  is  due  between  those  who  sustain  mutual 

relations.  Gratitude  is  the  least  return  which  the  recipient  of  kindness  can  pay  to 
his  benefactor.  Admiration  is  the  homage  which  is  paid  to  virtue.  But  over  and 
above  these  feelings  the  gospel  inculcates  universal  good-will,  in  spite  even  of  vice 
and  hostility. 

Upon  all  it  urges  the  exercise  of  a  peaceful  disposition,  a  calm,  patient,  friendly 
p  temper  in  ourselves,  and  all  proper  effort  to  promote  a  kindred  feeling 

in  others.  No  duty  is  more  solemnly  enjoined,  and  from  the  descrip- 
tions as  well  as  from  the  precepts  of  the  Bible,  it  may  be  gathered  that  peace  in 
our  homes,  in  our  churches,  in  nations,  and  throughout  the  world  is  the  thing  most 
needed  to  secure  individual  and  social  happiness,  and  that  such  peace  is  the  fruit  of 
the  gospel. 

Rom.  12. 18:  14.  19:  2  Cor.  13.  11  :  Gal.  5.  22:  Eph.  4.  j:  i  Thess.  5.  13,  14: 
Heb.  12.  14:  James  3.  16-18 :  1  Pet.  3.11:  2  Tim.  2.  22. 

•Peace,  like  truth,  is  one  of  the  attributes  of  God,  Phil.  4.  9  :  Col.  j.  15  :  i  Thess.  5. 
23  :  2  Thess.  3.  16  :  and  of  the  gospel,  Eph.  6.  15.  In  value  it  is  second  only  to 
truth  and  principle,  Gal.  2.  11-16  :  James  3-  17,  18. 

To  preserve  it,  cultivate  the  tempers  favourable  to  it,  Eph.  6.  10-18 :  Gal.  5. 
16-26  :  Phil.  2.  2 :  James  4.  i-ii  :  i  Pet.  3-  4  :  i  Tim.  2.  2.  Avoid  all  bitter  con- 
tentious language,  i  Cor.  10.  32  :  Eph.  4.  31 :  and  seek  it  of  the  God  of  peace,  i  Tim. 
2.  2  :  Psa.  122.  6-8.  If  lost,  copy  Abraham,  Gen.  13.  8  :  or  Abunelech,  21.  25-^2  : 
or  the  Israelites,  Josh.  22. 

Further,  as  religion  begins  in  love  to  God,  so  it  ends  in  love  to  man,  universal 
-  good-will.     Its  principle  is,  a  desire  for  the  good  of  others;  in  its 

operation  it  teaches  us  to  avoid  insincerity  (which  is  to  love  what 
hypocrisy  is  to  truth),  flattery,  censoriousness,  to  practise  liberality,  a  spirit  of 
forbearance  and  forgiveness,  and  secures  when  perfect  the  consecration  of  life  itself 
to  the  welfare  of  our  race. 

The  neglect  of  this  second  class  of  duties  has  done  irreparable  mischief  in  tne 
world.  Men  have  everywhere  forgotten  that  bare  justice  is  not  the  Scriptural  rule. 
Love  is  always  just,  but  justice  is  not  always  loving,  and  Christian  morality  requires 
them  both.  The  recollection  of  this  truth  might  serve  to  humble  us ;  and  it  would 
certainly  serve  to  illustrate  the  perfections  of  God,  of  which  our  good-will  is  a  faint 
type,  and  commend  the  gospel  to  the  admiration  of  our  race. 

Rom.  12.  10,  19,  20  :  I  Cor.  4. 12, 13  :  13.  1-13  :  Gal.  5.  14  :  6.  10  :  i  Thess.  3.  I2 
James  2.  8  :  i  Pet.  5.9:  Luke  6.  30-36,  etc. 

(xii.)  We  have  lastly  in  this  Epistle  a  revelation  of  God's  design  in  relation  to 


ROMANS  :   LESSONS.  611 

the  Jews,  ant  propagation  of  the  gospel  among  the  Gentiles,  and  the  general 
conversion  of  ooth  in  the  last  days.  Chaps.  9.  to  11. :  read  the  three  toge- 
ther, and  chap.  15.  8-12.  Compare  Eph.  3.  1-12:  Jer.  31.-3J.:  Ezek.  ^6.-^9.: 
Zech.  12.-14. 

180.  Rich  as  this  Epistle  is  in  passages  formally  discussing 
Christian  truth,  it  is  not  less  rich  in  incidental  expressions  abound- 
ing in  spiritual  significance. 

(i.  I.)  The  gospel  is  called  with  nearly  equal  frequency  the 
gospel  of  God,  and  the  gospel  of  Christ.  It  is  God's,  for  it  originates 
in  his  counsel  and  love,  illustrates  his  righteousness,  and  is  revealed 
by  his  Spirit.  It  is  Christ's,  for  he  is  its  theme  ;  it  is  preached  by 
his  servants,  and  in  his  name.     See  i  Cor.  r.  24:  Phil.  2.  11. 

(i.  3.)  Christ's  resiu-rection  is  the  evidence  and  effect  of  the  com- 
pleteness of  his  work;  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  and  the 
earnest  of  our  resurrection.  Acts  2.  24:  17.  31:  Eph.  i.  20:  Heb. 
2.  14:  Rom.  4.  25.  Here  the  fact  is  made  an  evidence  of  his  Divine 
nature.  As  man  Christ  could  die;  as  the  Living  God,  the  Quicken- 
ing Spirit,  it  was  not  possible  that  Death  should  hold  him,  Acts  2. 
24:  John  20.  9. 

(i.  13-15.)  To  Paul's  thwarted  desix-e  to  visit  Rome,  we  owe 
subordinately  this  Epistle,  which  is  a  blessing  for  all  time.  It  pre- 
pared the  way,  moreover,  for  those  cordial  greetings  with  which 
Paul  was  afterwards  welcomed  to  the  imperial  city,  Acts  28.  14,  15. 
''Still  out  of  seeming  ill,  educing  good," 

(i.  17.)  Christ  died  to  justify  God  in  exercising  mercy.  He  lived 
to  exhibit  the  Divine  holiness,  and  honour  the  Divine  law.  He 
obeyed  unto  death,  that  he  might  lay  the  foiindation  of  our  accep- 
tance, i.  e.,  of  pardon  and  holiness.  Hence  the  plan  of  justification 
is  called  the  "  righteousness  of  God."  It  vindicates  God's  holiness 
while  illustrating  his  grace ;  and  it  gives  to  the  sinner  who  believes 
the  perfect  title  of  our  righteous  Redeemer. 

(i.  19-2T.)  Ignorance  is  clearly  not  the  primary  cause  of  man's 
hostility  to  God.  His  hostility  is  rather  the  cause  of  his  igno- 
rance. Atheism,  practical  or  avowed,  has  its  origin  in  the  heart, 
Psa.  53. 

(i.  25.)  The  same  heart  that  is  averse  to  holiness  is  prone  to  reli- 
gious observance.  Xature  pointing  to  a  Great  First  Cause;  con- 
science, implying  a  Supreme  Law-giver;  taste,  and  sentiment  even, 
suggesting  the  idea  of  One,  who  is  infinitely  fair  and  good,  combine  to 
make  a  God  a  natural  necessity.  .  .  .  The  progress  of  error  we  may 
mark,  is  ever  downward  (v.  23).  Men  first  worshipped  an  image 
made  like  to  corruptible  man — and  at  last  creeping  things ! 

(i.  22.)  So  little  did  man  feel  his  condition,  that  while  his  folly 
most  clearly  appeared,  he  was  boasting  of  his  wisdom. 


612  ROMANS:   LESSONS. 

(i.  26.)  Man's  depra\dty  begins  in  Godlessness,  and  ends  in  moral 
corruption.  The  reason  for  each  is  given  in  verses  25  and  3  2 .  These 
verses  describe,  not  the  Romans,  but  man. 

Nearly  every  word,  sentence,  and  verse,  is  thus  suggestive,  either 
in  itself,  or  when  compared  with  other  parts  of  the  Bible.  If  in 
some  respects,  our  study  of  Scripture  cannot  be  too  comprehensive, 
in  others,  it  cannot  be  too  minute. 

The  General  Epistle  of  James.     Jerusalem,  A.  D.  61. 

18  r.  There  were  two  apostles  named  James  or  Jacob ;  one  of  whom 
was  the  son  of  Zebedee  and  the  brother  of  John,  and  was  put  to 
death  by  Herod,  as  related  in  Acts  12.  2;  and  the  other,  called 
James  the  Less,  or  the  Little  (Mark  15 .  40),  probably  in  allusion  to  his 
stature,  was  the  son  of  Alphseus  or  Cleopas  (see  Matt.  10.  3  r  Mai-k 
3.  18:  Acts  I.  13:  Luke  24.  18);  and  being  a  near  kinsman  of  the 
Lord,  is  called  his  brothei'.  Gal.  i.  19,  etc.  The  latter  of  these  is 
commonly  supposed  to  have  been  the  wi-iter  of  this  Epistle.'' 

After  most  of  the  apostles  had  gone  to  other  coimtries,  James 
appears  to  have  resided  permanently  in  Jerusalem,  superintending 
the  affairs  of  the  church  in  that  city  and  neighbourhood  (see  Acts? 
12.  17:  15.  13-29:  21.  18-24:  Gal.  I.  18,  19:  2.  9.  12);  and  main- 
taining such  reputation  for  eminent  sanctity  as  to  acquire,  even 
among  his  unbelieving  countrymen,  the  honourable  appellation  of 
"  the  Just."  It  was,  therefore,  most  appropriate  that  James  should 
be  directed  to  address  this  letter  to  his  own  people,  exhibiting  to 
them,  not  so  much  the  peculiar  doctrines,  as  the  elevating  and 
sanctifying  influence  of  the  gospel.  For  he  knew  well  that  they 
had  become  too  much  -^ '  ^^stomed  to  a  professed  belief  in  God's 
word,  whether  spo^  ..n  Dy  Moses  or  by  Christ,  v.'ithout  allowing  it  to 
affect  their  hearts  or  conduct.  Hence  the  apparent  (though  not 
real)  discrepancy  between  him  and  Paul  on  the  subject  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith.     (See  Part  i.  §§  285,  297,  511  c). 

It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  adaptedness  of  the  gospel  to  our  con- 
dition, and  of  our  tendency  to  abuse  it,  that  when  the  gospel  was 
fii'st  introduced  men  were  unwilling  to  be  justified  by  gi'ace  alone: 
hence  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  to  the  Galatians.  Now  that 
the  gospel  has  been  established,  men  pervei't  it  by  overlooking  the 
importance  of  works  as  an  evidence  and  necessary  result  of 
saving  faith.  The  gospel,  however,  has  an  appropriate  message  for 
both. 

This  Epistle  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  after  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  i.  e.,  not  before  a.d.  58,  and  probably  in  61,  the  year 

""^  See,  however,  Kitto's  Cyc.  Art.,  James. 


JAMES:  date:  contents.  613 

before  the  apostle's  martyrdom.  Neander,  Davidson,  and  others, 
give  an  earlier  date,  about  a.d.  45 .  The  whole  strain  of  the  Epistle, 
however,  indicates  a  state  of  degeneracy  both  degrading  and  exten- 
sive, such  as  could  hardly  have  existed  at  the  commencement  of  the 
gospel. 

As  those  whom  the  apostle  addressed  were  in  trying  circum- 
stances, he  begins  with  encouragements  and  counsels  specially 
suited  to  then-  condition  (i.  1-15).  He  then  describes  the  nature  of 
true  religion,  in  its  origin,  and  in  its  effects  upon  the  heart  and  the 
conduct  (t.  16-27);  enjoins  sincere  and  impartial  love,  without  re- 
ference to  outward  condition  and  circumstances  (2.  1-13);  and  ex- 
poses the  hypocrisy  of  the  man  who  pretends  to  have  faith,  while 
his  works  do  not  answer  to  his  words  ;  quoting  Scripture  examples 
to  show  that  the  faith  which  God  had  approved  had  been  always 
evidenced  by  works  (2,  14-27).  Then,  to  check  some  prevailing 
evils  arising  from  a  fondness  for  becoming  teachers  and  censors,  he 
gives  cautions  and  rebukes  on  those  subjects.  He  exhibits,  in  a 
series  of  striking  metaphors,  the  evils  of  an  unbridled  tongue;  and 
contrasts  the  disputatious,  envious,  and  angry  spirit  of  the  schools 
of  earthly  wisdom  with  the  pure,  peaceful,  gentle,  and  beneficent 
character  of  that  which  is  of  heavenly  origin  (3).  He  exposes  the 
effects  of  the  spirit  of  the  world,  as  exhibited  in  the  conduct  of 
those  who  are  tmder  its  influence;  and  exhorts  to.  submission  to 
God  and  resistance  to  the  devil.  He  calls  sinners  and  hypocrites  to 
repent,  and  to  humble  themselves  before  God ;  and  warns  Christians 
against  speaking  evil,  censuring,  or  sitting  in  judgment  upon  each 
other  (4.  I -1 2).  He  reproves  the  presumption  of  those  who  formed 
their  worldly  projects  without  any  sense  of  their  dependence  upon 
God;  and  the  covetousness  and  oppression  of  the  rich  (4.  13-17:  5« 
1-6).  Then,  returning  to  the  suffering  Christians,  he  encourages 
them  to  patience  by  the  prospect  of  the  Lord's  coming;  cautions 
them  against  sweai-ing;  recommends  prayer  as  the  best  resource  in 
sori-ow,  and  praise  as  the  best  expression  of  joy;  gives  special  direc- 
tions to  the  sick;  enjoins  mutual  confessions  of  faults  and  interces- 
sions for  each  other;  the  efi&cacy  of  which  he  illustrates  in  the  case 
of  Elijah;  and,  finally,  urges  the  duty  of  seeking  to  save  an  erring 
brother;  and  shows  the  blessed  consequences  of  such  an  effort 
where  successful  (5.  7-20). 

How  instructive  are  Scriptiu-e  examples.  The  history  of  Abraham 
is  quoted  to  prove  that  true  faith  produces  holy  practice.  The  his- 
tory tells  us,  moreover,  that  more  than  twenty  years  after  Abraham 
had  been  brought  into  a  state  of  justification,  he  was  called  upon  to 
exhibit  the  influence  of  his  principles,  by  his  readiness  to  offer  up 
even  his  only  son.  Gen.  15.  6:  22.  9-12.     This  fact  again  is  a  lesson 


614  JAMES  :   EPHESIAXS. 

to  Tis,  and  is  a  decisive  proof  that  jiistifying  faith,  once  exercised,  is 
to  be  habitual.     It  is  not  so  much  an  act  as  a  state. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows: — 1.  i,  2,^,  9,  12,  16,  19,  22,  26  :  2. 
I,  12:  14.  21,  25:  3.  I,  13:  4.  I,  4,  9,  II,  13:  5.  i:  7.  9,  12,  13,  19. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Ephesians.     Rome,  a.d.  62. 

182.  That  this  Epistle  was  written  by  the  Apostle  Paul  there  is 
abundant  evidence,  both  external  and  internal.  But  as  the  name 
Ej)hesx(,s  is  wanting  in  chap.  i.  i,  in  a  few  ancient  manuscripts,  it  has 
been  doubted  to  whom  it  was  addressed.  Some  have  supposed  it  to 
be  the  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans,  referred  to  in  Col.  4.  16.  Others 
have  conjectured  from  the  general  character  of  its  contents,  and  the 
absence  of  local  and  personal  allusions,  that  it  was  a  circular  letter 
to  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor.  But  it  is  most  probable  that  the  re- 
ceived reading  in  chap.  i.  i,  is  correct;  and  that  the  Epistle  was  writ- 
ten to  the  Ephesian  Christians ;  although  probably  the  other  churches 
in  that  district,  of  which  Ephesus  was  the  centre,  weit  included  in 
the  apostle's  intention  and  object. 

Such  is  the  view  taken  by  Usher,  Hug,  Michaelis,  and  others. 
Paley,  Wetstein,  and  Greswell  suppose,  on  the  other  hand,  that  this 
Epistle  was  addressed  to  Laodicea.  Its  circular  character  is  sus- 
tained by  most  evidence. 

Ephesus  was  a  large  city  in  Ionia,  the  capital  of  the  Roman  pro- 
vince of  Asia.  It  was  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Diana, 
which  was  of  extreme  magnificence,  enriched  with  immense  trea- 
sures, and  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  Its  inha- 
bitants were  noted  for  luxury  and  voluptuousness,  and  for  the 
practice  of  magical  arts. 

The  book  of  Acts  (18.  18-26:  19.)  mentions  two  visits  of  Paul  to 
Ephesus,  The  first  time,  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem,  he  preached  on 
one  sabbath  in  the  synagogue,  leaving  behind  him  Priscilla  and 
Aquila,  v/ho  were  shortly  afterwards  joined  by  Apollos.  On  his 
second  visit,  Paul  remained  there  more  than  two  years  ;  probably 
on  account  of  the  importance  of  the  place,  as  a  principal  seat  of 
idolatry,  and  a  great  centre  of  influence,  and  his  labours  were 
crowned  with  signal  success,  both  among  the  citizens  and  the  in- 
habitants of  the  surrounding  country.  About  a  year  subsequently, 
when  he  was  on  his  way  from  Macedonia  to  Jerusalem,  he  had  an 
interview  with  the  elders  of  the  Ephesian  church  at  the  neighbour- 
ing sea-port  of  Miletus. 

This  Epistle  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  of  those  written  by 
Paul  while  he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome,  about  five  years,  therefore, 
after  his  third  interview  with  them;  and,  like  the  two  which  follow 


EPHESIANS.  615 

it,  is  remarkable  for  a  peculiar  pathos  and  elevation  of  thought  and 
feeling.  His  whole  mind  seems  to  have  been  filled  with  the  trans- 
cendent excellency  of  the  privileges  and  hopes  of  believers  in 
Christ,  the  all-comprehensive  character  of  the  Christian  dispensa- 
tion, and  its  certain  tritmaphs  and  glorious  results. 

Anxious  for  the  welfare  of  his  Ephesian  converts,  the  apostle  was 
about  to  send  Tychicus  to  them ;  and  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  one 
object  of  which  was  to  remove  any  feelings  of  distrust  or  discou- 
ragement which  the  intelligence  of  his  imprisonment  might  have 
prodiiced  in  their  minds ;  and  to  prevent  that  circumstance  being 
taken  advantage  of  by  Jewish  zealots  to  lower  his  apostolic  autho- 
rity, or  oppose  the  great  truth  in  which  he  gloried — the  unity  and 
universality  of  the  church  as  the  body  of  Christ. 

This  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  two  parts  : — i.  Doctrinal  (1.-3)  ;. 
and  ii.  Practical  (4.-6). 

i.  After  the  opening  salutation,  Paul  breaks  forth  into  expressions 
of  praise*  to  God  for  the  blessings  of  redemption,  and  especially  for 
the  extension  of  them  to  the  Gentiles,  of  which  they  had  an  earnest 
in  the  baptism  of  the  Spirit;  dwells  on  the  two  wonderful  displays 
of  omnipotent  grace,  first  in  the  glorification  of  Christ,  and  then  in 
that  of  his  regenerated  people  (i :  2.  i-io),  and  reminds  the  Ephe- 
sians  of  their  former  heathen  state  of  spiritual  death  and  distance 
from  God,  and  of  the  great  change  in  their  condition  by  being  now, 
through  his  sovereign  mercy,  admitted  to  the  fellowship  of  the 
saints  (2.  11-22)^.  Then,  describing  himself  as  a  prisoner  in  the 
cause  of  Chiist  for  the  sake  of  the  Gentiles,  he  speaks  of  the  special 
revelation  and  commission,  granted  to  him  in  reference  to  them; 
grounds  iipon  it  an  exhortation  not  to  be  discouraged  at  his  suffer- 
ings ;  and  assvires  them  of  his  prayers  that  they  might  be  increas- 
ingly enlightened  and  strengthened,  and  have  a  full  enjoyment  of 
the  benefits  of  Christ's  redeeming  love  (3). 

ii.  In  the  remaining  chapters  of  the  Epistle,  which  are  chiefly 
practical,  the  apostle  beseeches  them  to  maintain  a  conduct  and 
spirit  worthy  of  the  exalted  privileges  to  which  they  had  been 
called;  reminds  them  of  the  great  ends  which  the  spiritual  gifts 
bestowed  upon  them  were  designed  to  promote;  enjoins  upon  them 
a  course  of  conduct  in  direct  contrast  to  that  of  the  heathen  aroimd 

*  Mark  how  prayers  and  thanksgivings  are  offered  vmder  the 
gospel,  through  the  Spirit,  and  by  the  Son,  Rom.  8.  26:  i.  13-25: 
3.  14-21:  6.  18:  I  John  5  :  Jas.  i:  Jude  20 :  Phil.  i.  3-1 1 :  Col.  i. 
9-12. 

^  On  the  favour  manifested  towards  heathen  converts,  see  Bom. 
4:5:001.2.9-14:  I  Pet.  I.  18  :-2.  10. 


616  EPHESIAXS  :   COLOSSI ANS. 

them  and  to  their  own  former  lives ;"  exhorts  them  particularly  to 
unity,  truthfulness,  meekness,  honesty,  and  industry;  to  purity  of 
speech;  to  kindness  and  generosity,  after  the  example  of  Christ; 
and  to  universal  uprightness  and  holiness  of  conduct  (4:  5.  1-20.) 
He  then  enforces,  by  motives  peculiar  to  the  gospel,  an  exemplaxy 
discharge  of  all  relative  duties  (5.  21:  6.  9);  concluding  with  ani- 
mated exhortations  to  fortitude,  watchfulness,  and  prayer;  followed 
by  a  commendation  of  Tychicus,  the  bearer  of  the  Epistle,  and  by 
his  apostolic  benedictions  (6.  10-24).^ 

In  the  cii'cumstances  in  which  this  Epistle  was  written,  and  in 
the  subsequent  history  of  the  Ephesian  church,  there  is  much  that 
is  instructive.  The  Epistle  which  dwells  most  on  the  unsearchable 
riches  of  God's  wisdom  and  love,  was  written  when  its  author  was 
in  bonds.  A  heart  filled  with  thoughts  most  spiritual  and  hea- 
venly devotes  attention  to  relative  and  moral  duties  (4. 28 :  5.  6.1-9), 
and  enforces  them  by  appeals  founded  on  our  relation  to  Christ  and 
the  Holy  Spirit  (4.  32:  5.  2-25:  6.  5:  4.  30).  The  churches  to 
which  the  Epistle  was  addressed,  are  not  much  censured  here,  but  a 
few  years  later  they  were  in  a  very  different  state,  Eev.  2.  1-7:  3. 
I4-I9„  Their  history  is  a  solemn  warning  to  Christians  in  every  age. 

Connect  and  read  as  follows  : — 1.  1,  3,  15  :  2.  1,  11,  19:  3.  i,  14: 
20 :  4.  1-7:  17.  25,  26,  28,  29,  31 :  5.  3,  15,  25  :  6.  i,  4,  5,  10 :  21. 
23. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Colossians.     Rome,  A.D.  62. 

183.  Colosse  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Phrygia,  which,  at  the 
date  of  this  Epistle,  was  a  very  rich  and  fei'tile  country,  though  now 
xmder  the  Moslem  yoke ;  and  is  in  a  great  measure  uncultivated.  Phry- 
gia was  twice  visited  by  Paul,  Acts  16.  8:  18.  23,  but  whether  he 
reached  Colosse  is  doubted.  The  tenor  of  the  Epistle  favours  the 
conclusion  that  he  did  not  (see  especially  2.  i)  ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  he  knew  several  of  the  Colossian  Christians,  of  whom  Archippus, 
their  minister,  and  Philemon  are  expressly  named.  The  Colossians, 
having  heard  of  Paul's  imprisonment,  sent  to  him  Epaphras,  their 
minister,  to  comfort  the  apostle,  and  to  inform  him  of  their 
state.  Epaphras,  shortly  after  reaching  Rome,  Avas  also  imprisoned, 
Phil  em.  24. 

This  Epistle  was  -written  during  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at 
Rome  ( I.  24:  4.  18)  ;  and  probably  at  an  early  period  of  it,  about 

^  See  Col.  3.  1-13. 

*»  On  the  warfare  and  armour  of  the  Christian,  see  6.  io-i8: 
I  Thes.  5.  6-jo:  i  Pet.  5.  7,  8:  Heb.  4.  12:  2  Cor.  6.  7. 


COLOSSIANS.  617 

the  same  time  as  those  to  the  Ephesians  and  to  Philemon  ;  as  they 
appear  to  have  been  all  sent  by  the  same  messengers,  Tychicus  and 
Onesimus,  the  latter  of  whom  was  returning  to  his  master,  Phile- 
mon, at  Colosse,  The  account  given  of  the  church  by  Epaphras 
was  on  the  whole  satisfactory.  There  appears,  however,  to  have 
been  some  danger  from  false  teachers,  who  aimed  to  combine  with 
Christianity  the  speculations  of  the  philosophers  (2,  4-8),  and  su- 
perstitious observances  (2.  16). 

The  striking  resemblance  between  this  Epistle  and  that  to  the 
Ephesians,  indicates  some  similarity  in  the  tendencies  of  the  two 
churches. 

The  two  Epistles  must,  in  fact,  be  read  together.  "  The  one  is," 
as  Michaelis  observes,  "  a>  commentary  on  the  other."  Both,  more- 
over, ai-e  exceedingly  rich  in  exhibitions  of  the  glory  of  the  gospel. 

This  Epistle  was  to  be  sent  to  Laodicea,  and  the  Colossians  were 
to  receive  from  Laodicea  the  Epistle  he  had  du-ected  to  be  sent  on 
to  them,  probably  the  present  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 

The  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  two  parts— doctrinal  and  prac- 
tical. 

i.  After  the  usual  salutation,  the  apostle  expresses  his  thankful- 
ness for  the  effects  of  the  gospel  among  the  Colossians,  and  his 
prayerful  anxiety  that  they  might  continue  to  advance  in  spiritual 
knowledge  and  in  Christian  virtues  (i.  1-14)  ;  he  sets  forth  the 
divine  and  the  mediatorial  gloi-ies  of  the  Redeemer,  and  gives  a 
sublime  view  of  the  whole  doctrine  of  reconciliation  by  Christ,  both 
in  its  amplitude,  as  affecting  all  created  beings,  and  in  its  individual 
application  to  believers  in  their  personal  conversion  to  God  (i.  14- 
21).  He  then  speaks  of  his  own  labours  and  sufferings  as  the  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  expresses  his  intense  solicitiide  for  their  sta- 
bility and  perseverance  (1.21:  2.  5). 

He  cautions  them  against  particular  errors;  showing  that  no 
philosophical  speculations,  no  human  ordinances  or  traditions, 
no  ascetic  austerities,  could  raise  the  soul  above  gross  pursuits,  or 
enable  it  to  realize  unseen  and  eternal  objects.  But  that,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  Christ  is  perfect  salvation;  faith  in  him  not  only  re- 
conciling us  to  God,  but,  by  connecting  us  with  an  ascended  Re- 
deemer, leading  our  thoughts  and  desires  to  things  above  (2.  6:  3.  4). 

ii.  He  then  expands  the  application  of  the  foregoing  doctrine, 
points  out  the  operation  of  this  vitalizing  faith,  in  subduing  the 
propensities  of  the  old  sinful  nature,  and  producing  and  sustaining 
the  varied  holiness  of  the  new  man ;  and,  above  all,  brotherly  love, 
wliich  is  to  be  exei'cised  in  social  worship  and  mutual  edification 
(3.  4-16).  He  gives  brief  directions  for  the  fulfilment  of  domestic 
duties  (3.  18-25:  4.  i)  ;  exhorts   the   Colossians  to   constancy  111 


618  coLOSSiANs:  Philemon. 

prayer  and  thanksgiving,  and  to  consistent  conduct  before  the  world 
(4.  1-6)  ;  and,  in  conclusion,  mentions  Tychicus  and  Onesimus, 
who  would  give  them  full  information  of  all  his  circumstances ;  and 
sends  salutations  from  his  fellow  labourers  and  from  himself,  among 
others,  to  their  minister  :  adding  a  touching  injxmction,  at  the 
moment  of  signing  the  letter,  to  remember  his  bonds  (4.  6-18). 

Connect  and  read  as  follows  : — 1.  1,  3,  9,  19,  21,  24:  2.  i,  6,  8> 
i6,  20:  3.  I,  5,  12,  16,  18,  20,  22:  4.  I,  2,  5,  7,  10,  15,  18. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Philemon.     Rome,  A.  D.  62. 

184.  This  inspired  model  of  private  Christian  correspondence 
was  addressed  by  the  apostle  Paul  to  Philemon,  one  of  his  converts 
residing  at  Colosse  (compare  ver.  2,  10,  19,  with  Col.  4.  9,  17),  of 
whom  nothing  more  is  knowoi  than  may  be  gathered  from  the  letter. 
From  this  it  has  been  supposed  that  Philemon  was  an  elder  or  deacon 
in  the  church,  and  that  Appia  was  his  mfe.  Archippus  seems  to  have 
been  pastor  at  Colosse,  Col.  4.  17. 

This  Epistle  was  evidently  written  (see  ver.  i,  10,  23),  and  sent 
at  the  same  time  as  that  to  the  Colossians  (see  Col.  4.  8  ;  compare 
also  ver.  23,  24,  with  Col.  4.  10-14).  Onesimus,  the  subject  of  this 
Epistle  and  the  bearer  of  both,  was  a  slave  Cprobably  a  domestic 
servant)  of  Philemon,  who,  having  fled  from  his  master,  had  foimd 
his  way  to  Eome  ;  and,  while  there,  had  been  converted  by  the 
insti-umentality  of  Paul,  ver.  10.  After  a  time,  Paul,  thinking 
it  right  that  he  should  return  to  his  master,  wrote  this  elegant  and 
persuasive  letter  in  order  to  secure  for  him  a  kind  reception. 

After  an  affectionate  salutation  from  himself  and  Timothy,  the 
apostle  expresses  his  thankfulness  at  hearing  of  the  good  reputation 
which  Philemon  as  a  Christian  enjoyed:  and  then  gi-acefully  intro- 
duces the  main  subject  of  his  letter:  requesting  as  "  Paul  the  aged,'' 
now  a  prisoner  for  their  common  faith,  what  he  might  as  an  apostle 
have  commanded.  Acknowledging  the  fault  of  Onesimus,  he  men- 
tions the  happy  change  which  had  taken  place  in  him :  and  hints 
that  his  flight  had  been  overruled  for  his  master's  benefit  as  well  as 
his  own;  and  entreats  that  he  may  be  received  back,  no  longer  as  a 
slave,  but  as  a  beloved  Christian  brother.  He  then  delicately 
proposes  to  make  good  any  loss  Philemon  might  have  sustained; 
whilst  he  intimates  how  great  were  his  friend's  obligations  to 
himself. 

This  short  letter  is  invaluable,  as  oflFering  an  example  of  humility, 
courteousness,  and  freedom,  in  the  intercourse  of  Christian  friend- 
ship :  and  we  cannot  but  suppose  that  the  gentleness  and  address  of 
the  apostle's  pleading  were  effectual. 


PHILIPPIANS.  61  g 

Connect  and  read,  1.  1,  4,  8,  21,  23,  25.  Compare  on  the  whole 
spirit  of  this  Epistle,  i  Tim.  6.  i,  2:  James  i.  9-11:  Philip.  2.  3-8. 

The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Philippiam. 
Rome,  A.  D.  63. 

185.  Phiiippi  was  a  city  of  Macedonia,  enlarged  by  Philip  of 
Macedon,  and  afterwards  colonized  by  Julius  Casar,  who  gave  the 
people  the  pri\'ileges  of  a  Roman  city;  and  it  is  distinguished  as 
having  been  the  first  place  in  Eui-ope  which  received  the  gospel. 
Paul  having  been  specially  directed  thither  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  in 
opposition  to  his  previous  plans,  Acts  16.  On  arriving  at  Phiiippi, 
Paul  followed  his  usual  custom  of  addi-essing  himself  fii^st  to  the 
Jews;  who  appear,  however,  to  have  been  few  in  number.  Those  who 
met  for  worship  at  a  place  of  prayer  outside  the  city  were  chiefly 
women;  one  of  whom,  a  pious  stranger  from  Asia,  was  the  first  con- 
vert to  Christianity.  The  successful  labours  of  Paul  and  Silas,  and 
the  persecution  raised  against  them,  which  led  to  theii-  suddea  de- 
pariure  from  it,  are  related  in  Acts,  chap.  16.  That  Paul  visited 
Phiiippi  again,  before  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  is  plain  from 
Acts  20.  I,  2,  6.  On  his  first  visit  he  seems  to  have  left  Luke 
behind  him  (16.  12:  17.  i).  Luke  also,  who  was  with  him  at  the 
earlier  part  of  his  imprisonment  (Acts  27:  Col.  4.  14),  seems  now  to 
have  left  him  (2.  20,  21). 

This  Epistle  was  manifestly  written  at  Rome  (see  chap.  i.  12-14: 
4.  22),  and,  probably,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  apostle's  first 
captivity  in  that  city.  For  Paul,  at  the  time  of  writing  it,  antici- 
pated a  speedy  decision  of  his  case,  and  hoped  to  obtain  his  release, 
(i.  25,  27:  2.  23,  24).  It  appears  to  have  been  written  on  the 
occasion  of  the  retvu-n  of  Epaphroditus,  whom  the  Philippian  church 
had  sent  to  Rome  with  a  pecuniary  contribution  for  the  apostle's 
relief  during  his  imprisonment,  and  who,  while  zealously  performing 
this  service,  had  fallen  dangerously  ill:  the  tidings  of  which  so 
afflicted  the  Philippians,  that  the  apostle  was  induced,  upon  his 
recoveiy,  to  send  him  back  sooner  than  he  had  intended  (2.  24-30). 

The  church  at  Phiiippi  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  pure 
and  generous  of  that  age.  Its  members  showed  the  tenderest 
regard  for  Paul.  Twice  while  he  was  at  Thessalonica,  and  once 
when  at  Corinth,  they  had  generously  sent  him  contributions  for 
his  support,  which  he  accepted,  to  prevent  the  gospel  being  burden- 
some to  more  recent  converts  (4.  15,  16:  2  Cor.  11.  9).  They 
had  also  cheerfully  borne  many  sufferings  for  their  adherence  to  the 
Saviour  (i.  28-30).  Their  conduct  had  been  uniformly  so  exem- 
plary that  he  had  only  to  rejoice  over  them.     Accordingly,  in  this 


620  ■PH1LI^PIA^'S, 

Epistle,  he  pours  forth  his  heart  in  expressions  of  devout  thankful- 
ness and  hearty  commendations,  not  unmingled,  however,  with 
exhortations  and  counsel. 

The  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : — 

i.  After  an  affectionate  introduction,  Paul  expresses  his  gratitude 
to  God  for  the  Philippians,  and  his  earnest  desire  for  the  increase 
of  their  knowledge  and  holiness  (i.  i-ii).  That  they  might  not 
be  dejected  on  his  account  he  assures  them  that  his  imprisonment 
had  not  hindered  but  promoted  the  gospel  ;  some  gathering  bold- 
ness from  his  bonds,  and  others  preaching  Christ  of  contention.  If 
Christ  be  but  preached  and  magnified,  whether  it  be  by  Paul's 
labours  or  by  his  martyrdom,  he  himself  is  more  than  content. 
The  former  he  thinks  most  probable;  and  exhorts  the  Philippians 
at  all  events  to  maintain  a  conduct  worthy  of  the  gospel ;  to  be 
stedfast  and  com-ageous,  united,  generous,  and  humble,  copying 
the  example  of  their  blessed  Lord,  and  reminds  them  that  their 
consistency  and  usefulness  are  his  oAvn  highest  rewards.  He  pro- 
mises to  send  Timothy  to  them,  gives  his  reason  for  sending 
Epaphroditus,  and  adds  the  character  of  each  (i.  12  :  2).* 

ii.  He  exhorts  them  to  rejoice  in  their  Christian  privileges;  and 
to  be  on  their  guard  against  Judaizing  teachers,  who  prided  them- 
selves upon  distinctions  in  which  he  himself  could  more  than  com- 
pete with  them;  but  v/hich,  however  he  once  valued,  he  now 
regarded  as  utterly  worthless,  in  comparison  with  the  surpassing 
excellency  of  the  knowledge  of  Chi'ist;  and  then,  referring  to  his 
own  holy  ambition  to  strive  after  perfection,  urges  upon  the  Phi- 
lippians a  similar  spirit ;  contrasting  with  this  the  conduct  of  some 
false  professors,  against  whom  he  had  previously  warned  them 

(3-4.  I). 

iii.  Admonitions  are  addressed  to  individual  members  of  the 
church;  followed  by  exhortations  to  holy  joy,  moderation,  prayer, 
and  thanksgiving ;  and  to  the  study  and  practice  of  all  that  is  true, 
just,  pure,  amiable,  and  praiseworthy  (4.  2-9).  The  Epistle  con- 
cludes with  grateful  acknowledgments  of  the  i-epeated  proofs  of 
affection,  care,  and  sympathy,  which  he  had  received  from  the  Phi- 
lippians, in  which  he  rejoiced  for  their  sakes;  intimating,  however, 
with  noble  delicacy,  his  contentment  with  either  poverty  or  abund- 
ance, and  closes  with  salutations  and  a  benediction  (4.  10-23). 

Connect  and  read  as  follows:  1.  1,  12,  15,  21,  27:  2.  i,  5,  12,  17, 
19,  25:  3.  I,  2,  12,  15:  4.  2,  4,  6,  8,  10,  15,  20,  21,  23. 

«  Terseaition  endured  with  stedfastncss  conforms  us  to  Christ,  and  is  a  token 
of  coining  judgment,  i.  i-j  :  2  Thess.  i.  5,  6  :  i  Pet.  i.  6-10:  3.  i^i-^.  7,  12-18: 
i  John  J.  13. 


HEBREWS  :   AUTHORSHIP.  621 


The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Hebrews, 
Rome,  A.  D.  63. 

1 86.  As  the  Holy  Spirit  did  not  direct  the  author  of  this  Epistle  to 
insert  his  own  name,  or  to  specify  the  persons  to  whom  it  was 
addressed,  the  determination  of  these  questions  cannot  be  essential 
to  its  right  use :  nor  is  it  sm-prising  that  there  should  have  been 
much  diSerence  of  opinion  upon  them.  Whilst,  however,  many 
both  in  former  and  in  later  times  have  thought  otherwise,  it  has 
always  been  the  prevailing  belief  that  the  apostle  Paul  was  its 
author.  The  follo^ving  remarks  will  show  how  strong  is  the  evi- 
dence in  favour  of  this  decision. 

(i.)  Those  to  whom  the  Epistle  was  sent  must  have  known  the 
writer  (see  chap.  to.  34:  13.  18,  19,  23):  and  in  preserving  and  cir- 
culating it  could  hardly  fail  to  communicate  their  knowledge.  Now 
the  earhj  fathers  of  the  Eastern  and  Alexandrian  churches,  in  the 
second  and  third  centuries,  tell  vis  that  the  ''ancients"  (who  must 
have  been  contemporary  with,  if  not  the  same  persons  as  those  who 
received  the  original)  had  handed  it  down  to  them  as  a  writing  of 
Paul's.  And  the  most  learned  among  them,  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, Origen,  and  Eusebius,  though  sensible  of  some  difl&culties  and 
doubts  on  the  point,  i-egarded  this  testimony  as  conclusive. — (2.) 
This  is  corroborated  by  the  author's  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
Jewish  system — so  worthy  of  the  disciple  of  Gamaliel;  and  his 
sympathizing  interest  in  the  salvation  of  the  Jewish  people — so  like 
that  which  is  expressed  in  Rom.  9.  10.  11.,  and  Phil.  3, — (3.)  The 
few  personal  allusions  found  in  the  Epistle,  are  all  perfectly  com- 
patible with  what  we  know  of  the  history  of  Paul. — (4.)  Nor  is 
there  anything  in  the  peculiarities  of  style  and  treatment  of  the 
subject  that  cannot  be  satisfactorily  I'econciled  with  Paul's  other 
Epistles.  If  it  differ  from  them  in  the  rhetorical  length  of  words 
and  finish  of  sentences,  it  is  only  the  more  like  his  speeches  re- 
corded by  Luke.  So  regular  a  composition  would  naturally  vary 
in  manner  from  letters  of  a  difierent  character,  ^vritten  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances.  Yet  the  careful  reader  may  sometimes  find 
the  concise  expressions,  abrupt  transition,  reasonings  addressed  to 
the  latent  thoughts  and  objections  of  the  readers,  and  the  occasional 
involutions  and  long  parentheses  resulting  from  the  kindling  of  soul 
and  exuberance  of  feeling,  which  characterize  the  apostle's  other 
writings.  So  that  the  internal  as  well  as  external  evidence  appears 
to  support  the  opinion  of  the  early  fathers,  that  the  Epistle  is  sub- 
stantially Paul's ;  though  he  may  have  adopted  occasionally,  as 
some  critics  suppose,  the  phraseology  of  his  companion  Luke. 


€22  HEBREWS  .   CONTENTS. 

"Why  this  Epistle,  like  the  First  of  John,  was  anonymous,  it  is 
impossible  to  say.  Perhaps  the  apostle  wished  that  its  first  hearers 
or  readers  should  feel  the  force  of  its  contents  before  knomng  from 
whom  it  came,  as  the  Jews  generally  were  greatly  prejudiced 
against  him 

The  Epistle  was  clearly  addressed  to  Hebrew  Christians:  who 
appear  to  have  been  inhabitants  of  some  particular  city  or  region  (aee 
chap.  13.  23):  and  to  have  formed  an  organized  society  or  church 
which  had  existed  some  time ;  having  had  pastors  who  had  been 
removed  by  death  (13.  7):  and  having  now  teachers,  whom  they 
are  exhorted  to  obey  (13.  17).  It  has  been  generally  supposed  that 
they  wei'e  resident  in  Palestine,  either  at  Jenisalem  or  Crcsai'ea. 

To  this  class  the  Epistle  is  ijeculiai-ly  adapted:  exposed  as  they 
were  to  the  danger  of  falling  back  into  Judaism,  or  of  attaching 
too  much  importance  to  the  ancient  law.  The  writer  sets  befoi-e 
them  the  supreme  authority,  the  peculiar  sanctions,  and  the 
transcendent  glory  of  the  Christian  dispensation,  as  concurring  to 
render  unbelief  the  more  inexcusable,  and  apostasy  the  more  cri- 
minal and  fatal. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  how  the  whole  reasoning  was  fitted  to  those 
for  whom  the  Epistle  was  written.  Addressing  Jews,  the  writer 
exhibits  with  due  prominence  all  that  they  justly  venerated;  and 
draws  all  his  illustrations  (12.  16,  18:  13.  2,  10,  12,  14:)  and  ex- 
amples of  what  is  noble  and  excellent  (11.)  from  their  own  records 
and  history.  When  about  to  make  a  statement  at  variance  with 
JevTish  views  and  feelings,  he  cautiously  prepares  their  minds  for  it 
(5.  11);  and  he  constantly  reasons  upon  their  own  principles.  The 
Jews  had  looked  upon  themselves  as  especially  favoured,  in  pos- 
sessing a  Divine  revelation  which  appointed  Moses  as  the  lawgiver, 
Aaron  and  his  race  as  the  priests,  and  all  the  temple  rites  as  the 
worship  of  God.  The  apostle  does  not  overlook  this  peculiarity; 
but,  accommodating  to  it  his  line  of  proof,  shows  that  the  Christian 
faith  is  but  the  completion  of  their  own. 

This  Epistle  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts :  the  first, 
intended  to  explain  the  meaning,  and  prove  the  infei'ioi'ity  of  the 
Jewish  dispensation:  the  second,  to  confirm  and  comfort  Jewish 
believers  in  their  religious  profession. 

i.  Having  noticed  that  the  Mosaic  and  the  Christian  dispensation 
both  proceed  from  the  same  Divine  author,  the  sacred  writer  shows 
the  surpassing  excellency  of  the  latter,  as  being  introduced  by  the 
Messiah. — i.  Greater  than  prophets,  and  even  angels;  notwith- 
standing his  humiliation  unto  death,  which,  so  far  from  diminishing 
liis  glory,  was  the  very  means  of  accomplishing  his  great  work  of 
redemption  (i.  2). — 2.    Superior  to   Moses,  their  venerated  law- 


HEBREWS:   CONTENTS.  623 

giver,  who  nevertheless  was  but  a  servant.  Here  the  apostle 
solemnly  warns  the  Hebrew  Christians,  lest  they  should  lose 
through  unbelief  that  present  rest  and  final  glory,  of  which  the 
Canaan  into  which  Joshua  had  led  their  forefathers  was  but  a  type 
(3. :  4.  1-13). — 3.  Then,  as  the  Jews  rightly  attached  the  highest  im- 
portance to  their  priesthood  and  sacrifices,  he  expatiates  at  length 
upon  the  superior  excellence  and  efl6.cacy  of  the  priesthood  and  sacrifice 
<>f  Christ ;  shows  that  the  necessary  qualifications  of  a  high  priest, 
namely,  that  he  should  be  appointed  by  God  and  able  to  sympathize 
with  men,  wei-e  found  in  the  Lord  Jesus  (4.  16:  5.  10):  and  having 
cited  from  the  prophetic  Scriptures  a  declaration  concerning  the 
supreme  and  eternal  priesthood  of  the  Messiah  as  typified  by  Mel- 
chisedec,  he  interrupts  his  argument  with  a  reproof  to  those  whom 
he  addressed  for  their  small  proficiency  in  Christian  knowledge; 
adding  warnings  and  encouragements  (5.  ii:-6).  Then,  return- 
ing from  this  digression,  he  compares  the  priesthood  of  Christ 
with  that  of  the  Je%^ash  high  priests  in  several  particulars  (7.:  8). 
He  next  illustrates  the  emblematical  and  temporary  nature  of  the 
Levitical  services,  which  are  realized  in  Christ ;  compares  the 
ministrations  of  the  high  priest  in  the  worldly  sanctuary  with  the 
intercession  of  Christ  in  the  presence  of  God  above ;  and  contrasts 
the  merely  typical  virtue  of  the  oft-repeated  Jewish  sacrifices  with 
the  intrinsic  and  perpetual  efl&cacy  of  the  one  perfect  and  all-suffi- 
cient propitiation  (9.:  10,  I -I 8). 

ii.  Upon  this  reasoning  the  apostle  grounds  his  practical  applica- 
tion. After  a  general  exhortation  to  stedfastness  in  faith,  hope, 
and  mutual  encouragement,  he  points  out  the  aggravated  guilt  and 
awful  issue  of  apostasy.  Then,  having  reminded  the  Hebrew  be- 
lievers of  their  fortitude  and  faithful  adherence  under  former  trials, 
he  points  out  the  indispensable  necessity,  in  order  to  their  perse- 
verance and  salvation,  of  maintaining  the  life  of  faith  (10.  19-25). 
After  describing  the  nature  of  faith,  he  shows  it  to  have  been  the 
main  principle  of  religion  in  every  age;  and  illustrates  its  pow- 
erful operation  and  triumphant  efficacy  in  a  long  line  of  heroes, 
martyrs,  and  confessors,  from  Abel  to  the  close  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment dispensation;  and  above  all  in  Jesus  Christ  himself,  whose 
temptations  and  sufferings  were  far  beyond  theirs  (11.:  12,  1-3). 
He  further  encourages  them  by  reminding  them  that  their  afflictions 
were  but  the  discipline  of  a  Father's  hand,  and  designed  for  their 
ultimate  good  (12.  4-1 1):  enjoins  upon  them  tender  mutual  consi- 
deration and  watchfulness ;  warns  them  against  bartering,  like 
Esau,  spiritual  prixdleges  for  present  gratifications  (12.  12-17): 
stimulates  them,  by  contrasting  the  terrific  material  splendours  of 
the  Mosaic  law  ■Nrith  the  solemn  but  cheering  spiritual  glories  of 


624  HEBREWS:   VARIOUS  TRUTHS. 

the  gospel;  and  infers  that,  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  their 
privileges,  would  be  the  danger  of  neglecting  them  (12.  18-29). 

In  conclusion,  he  gives  specific  precepts  on  various  practical 
duties,  and  closes  with  salutations  and  a  benediction  (13.  1-25). 

187.  Mark  in  this  Epistle  the  following  lessons: — 

The  dignity  of  Christ,  as  the  express  image  of  the  Father,  the 

Creator  of  all  things,  the  restorer  of  fallen  man,  the  righteous  King, 

the  object  of  angelic  worship: 

1.  i:-2.  9:  Col.  I.  13-19:  2.  10:  2  Cor.  4.  6:  i  Pet.  3.  22:  i  John 

1.  I,  2:  Rev.  4.   11:  5.   6-13:  19.  11-21:  John   i.  1-18:  3.  13-21, 
31,  36:  Zech.  9.  9:  Psa.  2.:  Isa.  12.  2:  Acts  10.  40-2. 

His  incarnation  and  its  objects:  He  gives  a  complete  revelation. 
Buffers,  sympathizes,  aids  ;  and  as  Captain  of  our  salvation  conducts 
to  glory.  The  plea  that  men  need  saintly  intercession  is  mere  than 
met  by  the  humanity  and  sympathy  of  our  Lord : 

2.  10-18:  4.  15:  5.:  2  Cor.  5.  18-21:  Phil.  I.  5-11:  2.  7,  8:  Gal. 
4.  4-7:  Rom.  8.  3:  Gen.  3.  15:  Isa.  7.  14:  John  i.  14. 

His  superiority  over  Moses,  Joshua,  and  Aaron;  and  the  conse- 
quent duty  of  hearkening  to  his  voice,  -svith  the  fearful  sin  of  imbe- 
lief  and  apostasy : 

3.  T:-4.  13:  see  Numb.  12.  i-io:  Josh.  11.  15-23:  Rev.  7.  9-17: 
Isa.  9.  6,  7:  John  6.  32-58. 

4.  i4:-6.,2o:  2.  17,  18:  10.  19-23:  Eph.  2.  18:  3.  12:  Exod. 
28:  29.:  Psa.  no.     Compare  2  Pet.  2.  15-22. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  Christ's  priesthood,^  of  the  new  cove- 
nant, and  of  Christ  as  Mediator,''  and  of  the  sacrifice  offered  by 
our  Lord,*^  with  the  sentiments  and  responsibilities  appropriate  to 
each."^ 

The  apostle  gives  the  significance  of  the  ancient  economy  and  its 
various  ordinances.  The  ichole  was  a  shadow  or  type  of  good  things 
to  come  (10.  i):  but  the  significance  of  particular  parts  only  is  here 
explained. 

The  holy  of  holies,  as  entered  by  the  high  priest,  may  represent 
heaven  into  which  Christ  enters,  9.  1-14,  21:  Lev.  16.  The  sanc- 
tuary, as  dwelt  in  by  God,  may  represent  our  Lord  (John  2.  21: 
Col.  2.  9),  or  the  church,  Eph.  2.  19-22:  i  Pet.  2.  5,  9:  the  golden 

'^  7.  i:-8.  6:  Rev.  5.  6-13:  i.  5,  6:  Eph.  i.  7:  CoL  i.  14:  i  John 

2.  2:  Matt.  20.  28. 

''  8.  7:  9.  1-22:  2  Cor.'3.:  i  Cor.  11.  25:  Rom.  3.  19  31:  5.  2:  6, 
John  14.  6:  Exod.  34.  28:  20.  1-17, 

*  9.  23:-io.  18:  Eph.  5.  2:  Tit.  2.  14. 

«i  10.  19-37:  2.  i-r8:  4.  16:  Rom.  8.  28-39:  15-17:  i  Cor.  10. 
1-12:  Rev.  3.  1-4:  Rom.  11.  21. 


HEBREWS  :    i    TETER.  625 

candlestick,  the  church  as  enlightened  by  the  word  and  Spirit  of 
God,  Rev.  I.  :o:  4.  5:  Phil.  2.  15,  16:  Matt.  5.  14-16:  the  incense, 
the  prayers  and  praises  of  saints,  Heb.  13.  15 :  Rev.  8.  3,  4:  Exod. 
^o.  1-8,  34-36:  the  second  vail,  Christ's  flesh,  rent  to  allow  access 
xinto  God,  10.  19,  20:  Mark  15.  37,  38:  Exod.  26.31-33:  the  pot 
ofmanna,  the  true  bread.  Rev.  2.  17:  Johu6.  48-51:  Exod.  16.  32-34: 
and  the  mercy-seat,  the  throne  of  grace,  to  which  the  penitents  have 
free  access  by  the  blood  of  Christ  who  is  the  propitiation  for  sin, 
9.  5,  compared  with  4.  16:  Col.  2.  10-17:  Rom.  3.  25:  Psa.  40.  6-8: 
Exod.  25.  10-22. 

The  inferiority  of  this  ancient  dispensation  is  repeatedly  an 
nounced,  Heb,  7.  22:  9.  9:  Gal.  3.  1-5:  4.  9,  10:  2  Cor.  3.:  John  i. 

As  faith  is  the  grand  duty  of  the  gospel,  enforced  by  the  facts 
already  examined,  so  here  the  apostle  illusti-ates  it  by  Old  Testa- 
ment examples.  In  spite  of  mysteiy,  difficulties,  trials,  and  delay, 
ancient  saints  confided  in  the  Divine  word,  and  acted  in  accordance 
not  with  what  they  saw  biit  with  what  they  believed.  So  must  we. 
Faith  is  the  principle  both  of  our  pardon  and  of  our  stedfastness. 

II.  i:-i2.  13:  Rom.  4.  13-25:  5.  I,  2:  8.  24:  2  Cor.  4.  i3:-5.  8: 
1  Pet.  I.  8. 

The  practical  lessons  of  this  Epistle  are  remarkable  for  the 
peculiarly  appropriate  motives  to  which  the  inspired  writer  appeals. 

Be  thankful,  stedfast,  and  obedient,  for  the  darkness  and  teiTor 
of  the  ancient  law  have  ceased,  and  a  kingdom  that  cannot  be 
moved  is  revealed,  12,  18-29:  i  Pet.  2.  4-10. 

Be  content,  though  no  earthly  inheritance  is  set  before  you. 
There  still  remain  .Toshua's  promise  and  the  care  of  Joshua's  God, 
13.  5,  6.  Note  the  beauty,  to  a  Jew  especially,  of  the  reason  given 
for  exercising  hospitality,  13.  i. 

Follow  faithful  teachers,  hold  fast  the  unchangeable  doctiine  of 
Christ,  discountenance  vain  traditions  and  ritual  observance,  joinin<; 
Chinst  without  the  camp,  and  look  for  the  Xew  Jerusalem,  in  retm-n 
for  what  is  lost,  13.  7-14. 

The  closing  benediction  (ver.  20,  21)  is  beautifully  comprehensive 
and  rich  in  allusions  to  the  chief  doctrine  of  the  Epistle,  the  New 
Covenant,  and  the  dignity  and  grace  of  the  Mediator. 

The  First  Epistle  General  of  Peter.     Babylon,  a.d.  63. 

188.  Peter,  whose  original  name  was  Simeon  or  Simon,  was  a  na- 
tive ot  Bethsaida,  on  the  sea  of  Galilee  ;  and  the  son  of  Jonas 
/whence  he  is  called  Bar-jona,  Matt.  16.  17.)  At  the  time  of  his 
first  appearance  in  the  gospel  history  he  was  max'zied,  and  living  at 
Capernaum,  Mark  r.   29,   30;  and,   like  tie  sons  of  Zebedee,  fol- 

'Z  E 


626  1    PETER. 

lowed  the  occupation  of  a  fisherman.  He  was  hrougut  to  Jesus  by 
his  brother  Andrew,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist, 
but  was  led  by  his  master's  testimony  to  attach  himself  to  the  Di- 
vine Teacher.  For  some  time  after  this,  the  two  brothers  continued 
to  follow  theu'  business,  until  they  were  summoned  by  our  Lord  to 
be  in  constant  attendance  upon  him,  Matt.  4.  18-20;  after  which 
they  were  his  devoted  followers. 

The  numerous  facts  related  of  Peter  during  his  attendance  upon 
our  Saviour,  throw  much  light  upon  his  character  at  that  period. 
His  sincere  piety,  ardent  attachment  to  his  Master,  and  zeal  for  his 
honour,  seem  to  have  been  blended  with  some  measui-e  of  rashness 
and  inconstancy  ;  but,  after  his  fall  and  restoration,  and  when 
''endued  with  power  from  on  high,"  a  great  change  is  observable  in 
him.  So  that  he  fully  justifies  the  appellation  which  our  Lord  had 
prophetically  bestowed  on  him,  calling  him  Cephas  or  Petros ;  the 
former  a  Sjn-iac,  the  latter  a  Greek  word,  both  signifying  a  stone  or 
rock.  Immediately  after  the  out-pouring  of  the  Holy  Spii'it,  Peter 
was  honom-ed  by  being  commissioned  to  open  the  gates  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  first  to  the  Jews,  and  aftei'wards,  in  the  case  of 
Cornelius  and  his  family,  to  the  Gentiles. 

These  facts  do  not  imply  that  he  had  any  supreme  dignity;  while 
Matt.  23,  8:  Gal.  2.  2,  plainly  prove  that  he  had  not — a  conclusion 
which  the  testimony  of  antiquity  confirms. 

Of  the  latter  part  of  Peter's  life  nothing  is  known  with  certainty; 
but  it  is  supposed  that,  after  his  visit  to  Antioch,  mentioned  Gal.  2. 
1 1,  he  remained  at  Jerusalem  for  some  years,  and  then  visited  Syria 
and  the  countries  mentioned  in  the  inscription  of  this  Epistle,  which 
he  A\T:ote  when  he  had  gone  into  the  Parthian  empire.  It  is  said  by 
some  that  he  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  and  was  there  put  to  death 
by  crucifixion,  in  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  of  our  Lord  respect- 
ing him,  John- 21.  18,  19.  Others  maintain  that  he  died  in  Baby- 
lonia.'^  Both  parties,  however,  agree  that  he  was  put  to  death  early 
in  Nero's  reign,  probably  A.  D.  64  or  65,  and  in  the  persecutions 
excited  by  that  Emperor.  The  alleged  visit  of  Peter  to  Rome  in 
the  days  of  Claudius  is  altogether  without  satisfactory  foundation 
(see  Introduction  to  Romans.) 

This  Epistle  is  generally  assigned  to  a.d.  63,  though  some  give  it 
an  earlier  date.  It  is  certain  that  Mark,  who  was  now  with  Peter 
(5.  13),  was  thinking  of  leaving  Paul  in  62  a.d.,  when  the  Epistle 
to  the  Colossians  was  written,  Col.  4.  10,  and  was  absent  from  him 
in  64  A.D.,  2  Tim.  4.  11.  These  facts  favour  the  later  date. 

**  See  on  -the  one  side,  Gieseler's  Eccl.  History,  i.  §  27,  Philadel- 
phia; and,  on  the  other,  Simon's  Mission  and  Martyrdom  of  St, 
Peter,  Lond.,  1852. 


1  PETER  :  co^'TE^'TS.  627 

This  Epistle  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  scattered 
throughout  the  diflferent  provinces  of  Asia  Minor;  yet  not  altoge- 
ther without  reference  to  the  numerous  Gentile  converts  w^hich  those 
churches  contained  (i.  14:  4.  3).  It  appears  to  have  been  wi'itten 
from  Babylon  (5.  13),  which  some  have  supposed  to  be  a  mystical 
name  for  Eome.  This  notion  has  been  favoured  by  winters  of  the 
church  of  Eome,  in  order  to  prove  the  contested  point  of  Peter's 
residence  in  the  imperial  city.  But  there  is  no  evidence  that,  at 
that  early  period,  the  name  Babylon  was  ever  given  to  Rome;  nor 
can  any  reason  be  assigned  "^fhy  such  a  name  should  at  that  time  be 
applied  to  it;  or  why  Peter  should  choose  a  figurative  name,  which, 
thoxigh  adapted  to  a  symbolical  style,  is  plainly  unsuited  to  episto- 
lary writing.  It  appeal's,  therefore,  most  reasonable  to  take  the 
name  in  its  obvious  and  natural  signification,  like  all  the  other 
names  mentioned  in  the  apostolic  Epistles,  and  to  refer  it  either  to 
the  region  of  Babylonia,  to  Babylon,  or  to  Seleucia,  which  had  been 
built  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city,  and  in  its  immediate 
neighbourhood.  The  Jews  were  very  numerous  in  that  district, 
and  were  not  likely  to  be  overlooked  by  the  "  apostle  of  the  cir- 
cumcision ;"  and  among  them  it  is  probable  that  a  Christian  chui-ch 
had  been  planted. 

It  is  well  described  by  Leighton,  as  "  a  brief  and  yet  very  clear 
summary,  both  of  the  consolations  and  instructions  needful  for  the 
encouragement  and  direction  of  a  Christian  in  his  journey  to 
heaven  ;  elevating  his  thoughts  and  desires  to  that  happiness,  and 
strengthening  him  against  all  opposition  in  the  way,  both  that  of 
corruption  within,  and  temptation  and  afifiictions  from  without. 
The  heads  of  doctrine  contained  in  it  are  many;  but  the  main  that 
are  most  insisted  on  are  these  thi-ee, /ca'M,  obedience,  and  patience ; — 
to  establish  in  believing,  to  direct  in  doing,  and  to  comfort  in  sufier- 
ing;  often  setting  before  those  to  whom  he  wrote  the  matchless  ex- 
ample of  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  the  greatness  of  their  engagements 
to  follow  him." 

The   general  object  of  the  Epistle  is  stated  in   5.  12,   and  the 
whole  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  exclusive  of  the  salutation 
(i.  I,  2),  introduction  (3-12),  and  conclusion  (5.  13,  14). 
i.  General  exhortations  to  love  and  holiness  (i.  13  :-2.  10). 

ii.  Particular  exhortations  on  specific  duties  (2,  11 -.-5.  12). 

While  the  Epistle  has  thus  a  practical  design,  it  is  as  evangelical 
as  if  it  had  been  chiefly  doctrinal.  It  points  everywhere  to  Christ ;  to 
his  atonement  foretold  by  prophets,  contemplated  by  angels  appointed 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world ;  to  his  resurrection,  ascension, 
^md  gift  of  the  Spirit ;  his  example  as  a  suffering  Saviour,  and  the 
awful  solemnities  of  the  last  judgment.  Like  his  beloved  brother 
Paul,  he  urges  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel  as  the  great  motives  to 

2  E  2 


628  1  peter:  1  timothy. 

lioliness  and  patience;  like  liim  he  descends  to  the  eufoi'ceraent  of 
every  relative  duty,  while  giving  the  most  exalted  view  of  ovu'  pri- 
vileges as  believers  in  Christ. 

His  humility,  as  illustrated  by  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  has  been  no- 
ticed already.  His  honourable  notice  of  Paul,  2  Pet.  3,  who  had 
publicly  reproved  him,  and  then  recorded  that  reproof  in  his  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians,  to  whom  Peter  himself  was  now  writmg.  Gal.  2. 
11:  I  Pet.  I.  i:  2  Pet.  3.  i,  is  a  fi-esh  manifestation  of  the  same 
spirit.  He  illustrates  in  this  way  his  own  precept,  i  Pet.  5.5,  and 
had  clearly  not  forgotten  the  lessons  of  the  last  days  of  our  Lord. 

189,  Mark  that  the  incorruptible  word  is  the  appointed  means  of 
the  Christian's  growth  in  holiness,  i  Peter  2.  3:  Col.  i.  5^  6:  2  Pet. 
I.  8:  3.  18:  John  17.  17:  Psalm  119. 

Connect  and  i-ead,  1.  1,  3,  10,  17:  2.  13,  17,  18:  3.  i,  7,  8,  18: 
4.  I,  7,  12:  5.1,  5,  8,  10,  II,  14. 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  Timothy. 
Macedonia,  a.d.  64  or  5  7. 

1 90.  The  tAVO  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  the  Epistle  to  Titus  have 
been  called  pastoral  Epistles.  Thej^  abound  in  instruction  relative 
to  the  oversight  of  the  church  and  other  duties  of  the  Christian 
ministry.  They  also  abound  in  instruction  suited  for  the  churches 
themselves. 

Timothy  was  an  inhabitant,  perhaps  a  native,  of  Lydia,  Acts  16. 
I,  2.  His  father  was  a  Greek,  his  mother  and  grandmother  pious 
Jewesses,  by  whom  he  was  carefully  trained  in  a  knowledge  of  the 
Scriptures,  2  Tim.  3.  14.  He  was  probably  converted  by  Paid  on 
his  first  visit  to  Lydia,  Acts  14.  6  (see  i  Tim.  i,  2:  2  Tim.  i,  2: 
I  Cor.  4.  17);  and  on  his  second  visit  was  chosen  to  be  the  com- 
panion of  the  apostle  in  his  journeys  and  labours.  He  is  every- 
where spoken  of  in  terms  of  high  praise,  i  Thes.  3.  2:  Phil.  2.  20, 
and  is  a  noble  instance  of  eminent  gifts  and  grace  in  one  young 
in  years  and  feeble  in  health  (4.  12:   5.  23). 

It  is  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  determine  when  this  Epistle 
was  wi-itten.  It  was  evidently  addressed  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus, 
and  when  Paul  was  either  in  Macedonia  or  on  his  way  thither  (see 
I.  3).  From  Acts  20.  i,  we  learn  that  Paul  left  Ephesus  after  the 
uproar  caused  by  Demetrius,  and  went  to  Macedonia  ;  and  some 
learned  critics  have  supposed  that  this  Epistle  was  AATitten  at  that 
time.  There  are,  however,  several  serious  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
tliat  supposition. 

(i.)  Before  Paul  left  Ephesus,  be  bad  sent  Timothy  and  Erastus  before  him  into 
IMacedonia,  proposing  to  follow  them  (Acts  19.  22),  and  it  is  verj-  unlikely  that 
Timothy  returned  from  this  long  journey  before  Paul  left  Ephesus. 


1  timothy:  truths.  629 

(2.)  About  the  period  supposed  Timotby  was  -with  Paul  in  ^Macedonia  (see  2  Cor. 
X.  i)  ;  whereas,  when  Paul  wrote  this  Epistle,  it  appears  that  not  only  was  Timothy 
at  Ephesus,  but  Paul  expected  him  to  remain  there  for  some  time  (see  chap.  j.  15: 
4.  13).  Timothy  was  also  with  the  apostle  at  Coiinth  afterwards,  when  he  wrote 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  (Rom.  16.  21),  and  when  he  left  Greece  to  return  to 
Syiia,  Acts  20.  4.  Although  Paul  may  have  remained  some  time  in  Macedonia, 
and  have  written  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  shortly  before  his  departure 
from  that  country,  yet  it  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  he  could  have  been  joined 
there  by  Timothy  so  soon  if  he  had  given  him  a  charge  to  abide  at  Ephesus.  (See 
chap.  I.  i). 

(j.)  Further,  in  this  Epistle,  Paul  expresses  his  intention  of  coming  to  Ephesus 
shortly  (j.  15).  But,  at  the  jjeriod  now  in  quesion,  it  appears  from  Acts  19.21,  and 
20.  J,  that  Paul  liad  intended,  after  passing  through  Macedonia  and  Achaia,  to  pro- 
ceed to  Jerusalem,  and  to  go,  not  by  the  circuitous  route  of  Troas  and  Ejihesus, 
but  direct  from  Greece  to  Syria. 

'J'liesc  and  other  considerations,  have  led  many  to  the  conclu.-ion  that  this  Epistle 
mr.st  have  been  written  at  a  later  period,  after  the  apostle's  fiist  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  ^\  hile  upon  a  journey  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  undertaken  shortly  before 
his  final  imprisonment.  The  chief  diflBculty  in  this  hypothesis  is  the  declaration  of 
I'anl  to  the  elders  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  when  he  met  them  at  IMiletus,  Acts 
20.  25  ;  but  that  this  was  an  inference  of  his  own  appears  from  verses  22,  23,  where 
he  says  that  he  does  not  know  what  shall  befall  him,  only  that  he  is  assured  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  that  "  bonds  and  afflictions  abide  him. '  (See  also  Phil.  i.  25,  compared 
with  chap.  2.  17,  23,  24).  Upon  the  whole,  this  question  must  be  considered  as  still 
(ioubtful.  But  the  difBculties  attending  the  later  date  appear  less  than  those  con- 
nected ^^■ith  the  earlier. 

The  Epistle  appears  to  liave  two  chief  objects  : 

(i.)  To  counteract  the  false  doctrines  of  Jewish  teachers,  who,  whilst  professing 
adherence  to  the  Law,  taught  doctrines  at  variance  with  its  holy  requirements. 
Their  fallacies,  and  the  contrary  truths  are  forcibly  exlubited  in  chap,  i :  4.  7-10 : 
6.  j-5,  20,  21.    Compare  Acts  20.  27-32  :  2  Cor.  4.  1-7. 

(ii.)  To  guide  and  encourage  Timothy  in  the  duties  of  his  ofiBce ;  directing  him  as 
to  ( I,)  public  devotions,  chap.  2.  1-8;  (2,)  the  duties  and  behaviour  of  Christian 
women,  chap.  2.  9,  12:  compare  i  Cor.  11.  3-16:  14.34-40:  i  Pet.  3.  1-6;  (3,) 
church  officers,  chap.  3.  1-13  ;  (4,)  his  own  teaching,  chap.  3-  14  :-4 ;  (5.)  liis  per- 
sonal holmess,  chap.  4.  11-16  ;  and  (6,)  his  church  administration  in  the  treatment 
of  offenders,  of  widows,  of  good  elders  and  bad,  of  slaves,  of  the  rich  ;  and  the 
duties  of  those  several  classes  of  persons,  chap.  5,  6 ;  compare  Titus  i.  10  i-j.  10. 
■\Vitli  these  are  mingled  many  iirgent  and  affectionate  appeals,  tender  references  to 
Pauls  own  conversion,  and  solenm  anticipations  of  the  coming  of  Christ. 

The  object  of  the  Epistle  is  stated  in  the  following  passages: — 
1,  3,  4:  3.  15:  6.  20,  21. 

Connect  and  read  together: — 1.  1,  3,  5,  18  :  2,  1,  9:  3.  1,  8,  14: 
•i.  1,  6,  12:  5.  1,  3,  17,  19,  20,  22,  23,  24:  6.  I,  3,  6,  ir,  17,  2c. 

191.  In  the  Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus— the  pastoral  Epistlee— we  have  the 
„,    .    ,  clearest  revelation  given  in  Scripture  of  the  character  («),  qualifica- 

and  duty  of  tions  (fj),  and  duties  (c),  of  the  Christian  minister.  Though  the 
Christian  whole  are  often  described  in  the  same  passage,  they  may  be  thus 
ministers.         arranged  : 

(a.)  I  Tim.  i  :  2  Tim.  i.  6-8  :  2.  i-8,  14-26 :  2  Cor.  4.  1-7  :  Acts  20.  27  32. 

(b.)  I  Tim.  3.1-7:  Tit.  i.  5-1 1 :  i  Pet.  5.  1-3. 

(:■.)  I  Tim.  4.  6:-6.  21 :  Tit.  i.  13;  2.  i:-3.  11  (see  Rom.  16.  17,  18):  2  Tim.  3. 
14  :-4-  5- 


630  1    TIMOTHY  :   TITUS. 

AVith  all  these  passages  compare  Paul's  description  of  his  own  experience,  motive^ 
Rod  labours  (see  Cor.)  ;  a  model  of  the  gospel  ministry. 

The  qualifications  of  deacons  are  described  in  i  Tim.  3.  8-15  ;  Acts  6.  2-6 :  see 
also  Phil.  I.  I,  where  ministers  and  deacons  are  addressed  with  all 
Deacons.  ^j^^  ^^5^^^^ 

On  the  other  hand,  churches  owe  to  their  ministers  support  (a),  affection  and 
Corresnond-     ^'^^P^^''  (P)'  °^^  within  proper  limits,  obedience  (c). 
iiig  duties  of       (a.)  i  Tim.  5.  17,  18  :  Gal.  5.  6,  7  :  i  Cor.  9.  4-14 :  2  Thess.  3.  8. 
churches.         9;  Matt.  10.  10:  Luke  10.  7. 

(b.)  I  Tim.  5.  17  :  i  Thess.  5.  12,  13. 

(c.)  Heb.  13.  17  ;  for  the  limits  see  i  Cor.  11.  i :  Phil.  3. 17  :  Heb.  13.  7 :  i  Pet.  5.  3. 

These  Epistles  contain  also  the  fullest  account  of  the  approaching  corruption  of 
Annroachinc  Christianity  (a),  and  of  the  extensive  prevalence  of  infidelity  (6),  in 
corruption  of  what  Scripture  calls  the  last  times. 

Christianity.        ^^^  ^  ^j^^^  ^_  ^  ^.  ^  ^.^^  ,_  ^.j^  ,  ^  jiiess.  2.  1-12  :  2  Pet.  2: 
Jude  17, 18. 

(p.)  I  Thess.  5.  2  :  2  Pet.  3  :  Ptev.  13.  11. 14  :  Luke  12.  35-33  :  18.  8. 

To  con-ect  these  eiTors,  inspired  writers  direct  us  to  appeal  to  apostolic  doctrine 
and  example,  and  to  the  Scriptures  generally,  i  Tim.  4.  6-1 1 :  2  Tim. 
How  met.        ,    i4:-4.-5:  2  Thess.  2.  13-17  :  2  Pet.  i.  12-21 :  Jude  20,  21.    This 
Scriptural  plan  of  checking  error  is  highly  instructive. 

TIte  Ejnstle  of  Fend  to  Titus.     Macedonia,  a.d.  64  or  5  7. 

192.  Of  Titus  nothing  more  is  certainly  known  than  we  find  in 
the  Epistles  of  Paul.  From  incidental  allusions  to  him  we  learn 
that  he  was  a  Greek  by  birth,  Gal.  2.  3,  who  had  been  eonverted  to 
Christianity  by  the  instrumentality  of  Paul,  Gal.  1.4.  He  went  up 
with  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusalem,  Gal.  2.  i,  and  afterwards 
accompanied  Paul  on  his  travels ;  and  Is  repeatedly  mentioned  by 
him  in  terms  of  approbation  and  affection,  2  Cor.  2.  i,  2,  13 :  7.  5,  7 : 
8.  16-24  :   12.  17-21. 

Being  the  son  of  Gentile  parents,  and  therefore  in  different  cir- 
cumstances from  Timothy,  he  was  not  circumcised.  Circumcision 
in  his  case  would  have  involved,  as  Paul  reasoned,  a  compromise  of 
principle.  Gal.  2.  5. 

At  the  time  when  this  Epistle  was  written,  Titus  had  been  left  by 
the  apostle  in  the  island  of  Crete,  that  he  might  establish  and  regu- 
late the  churches  there  (i.  5).  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  when 
this  occurred;  no  opportunity  for  it  having  been  afforded  by  the 
only  visit  to  Crete,  recorded  in  Acts  27.  7,  8;  for  he  was  then  on 
his  way  to  Rome  as  a  prisoner,  his  stay  Avas  short,  nor  could  he 
then  expect  to  spend  the  ensuing  winter  in  Nicopolis  (see  3.  12.) 

Some  have  supposed  that  Paul  may  have  been  at  Crete  on  his 
voyage  from  Corinth  to  Ephesus,  mentioned  in  Acts  18.  18;  and 
liave  written  this  Epistle  subsequentlj'  from  Ephesus,  having  formed 
the  intention  of  spending  the  winter  at  a  town  named  Nicopolis, 
between  Antioch  and  Tarsus  (see  3.  12).  Others  have  placed  Paul's 
visit  to  Crete  between  his  leaving  Ephesus  for  Macedonia  and  his 


TITUS  :   CONTENTS.  631 

second  visit  to  Corinth,  mentioned  in  Acts  20.  2.  But  the  more 
general  opinion  is  that  the  visit  to  Crete  here  referred  to  was  upon 
a  journey  which  Paul  took  after  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
when  he  sailed  to  Asia,  taking  Crete  in  his  way,  and  leaving  Titus 
there  ;  and  that  he  wrote  this  Epistle  from  Macedonia,  when  on  hi3 
way  to  Nicopohs, 

It  is  further  supposed  that  Titus,  according  to  Paul's  desire, 
joined  the  apostle  at  XicopoHs,  and  afterwards  accompanied  him  on 
his  last  journey  to  Rome,  being  with  him  there  during  part  of  hia 
second  imprisonment,  2  Tim.  4.  10;  and  having  then  gone  into  Dal- 
matia,  probably  to  preach  the  gospel,  or  to  visit  churches  already 
formed  there.  What  became  of  him  aftens^ards  we  are  not  informed. 
The  tradition  is  that  he  returned  to  Crete,  and  died  there  at  the 
age  of  94. 

We  know  nothing  of  the  first  introduction  of  the  gospel  into 
Crete,  but  as  there  were  Jews  from  that  island  among  Peter's  au- 
dience on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  2.  11),  and  they  were  nume- 
rous there  (Philo),  it  is  probable  that  the  Christian  faith  was  carried 
thither  by  converts  from  among  them.  It  appears  also  from  this 
Epistle  that  Paul  had  laboured  there,  and  probably  with  consider- 
able success ;  but  that  by  some  means  he  had  been  hurried  thence 
before  he  could  order  the  state  of  the  churches  in  a  regular 
manner. 

The  commission  intrasted  to  Titus  in  Crete  appears  to  have  been 
peculiaxiy  difficult.  Although  nature  had  endowed  this  island  with 
all  that  could  tend  to  render  man  happy,  and  the  inhabitants  had 
formerly  been  renowned  for  the  wisdom  of  their  constitution  and 
their  laws,  long  before  this  time  the  state  of  law  and  of  morals  had 
sunk  very  low.  The  character  of  the  people  was  unsteady,  insin- 
cere, and  quarrelsome  :  they  were  notoriously  given  to  licentious- 
ness and  intemperance.  Some  of  the  Jews  who  had  settled  among 
them  seem  to  have  been  regarded  by  the  apostle  as  more  dangerous 
in  many  respects  than  the  natives  themselves. 

There  is  a  striking  resemblance  between  this  Epistle  and  the  First 
to  Timothy;  and  they  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  written 
about  the  same  time.  This  Epistle  is  particularly  remarkable,  as 
compressing  into  a  very  short  compass  a  large  amount  of  instruc- 
tion, embracing  doctrine,  morals,  and  discipline.  Its  contents  are 
as  follows : — 

After  an  apostolic  salutation,  declaring  the  object  for  which  Paul 
had  invested  Titus  with  special  aiithority,  he  describes  the  qualifi- 
cations required  in  those  who  were  to  be  ordained  to  the  ministry ; 
and  which  were  the  more  necessaiy  on  account  of  the  dangerous 
principles  of  the  false  teachers  whom  they  had  to  oppose,   and  the 


632  TITUS:  2  rETEU. 

general  character  of  the  Cretans  (i).  He  next  describes  the  in- 
structions which  were  to  be  given  to  various  classes  of  persons, 
enjoining  upon  the  aged  and  the  young  the  Airtues  which  ought  se- 
verally to  distinguish  them;  exhorting  Titus  (himself  a  young 
man)  to  set  a  pattern,  in  his  own  conduct,  of  the  -vdrtues  he  was  to 
inculcate;  teaching  servants  to  be  obedient  and  faithful;  for  the 
salvation  of  the  gospel  was  designed  for  all  orders  and  classes  of 
mankind ;  making  them  holy  in  this  life,  and  preparing  them  for  a 
liigher  and  better  (2).  Titus  is  then  instructed  to  enjoin  obedience 
to  rulers,  and  a  peaceable  and  gentle  behaviour  to  all  men ;  remem- 
bering  their  own  former  sinfulness,  and  their  salvation  through  the 
free  grace  of  God.  The  indispensable  obligation  which  believers  ai-e 
under  to  excel  in  good  works  is  insisted  upon;  cautions  are  given 
against  engaging  in  frivolous  inquiries  and  un^jrofitable  disputations; 
and  after  some  other  brief  directions  to  Titus/  the  Epistle  is  closed 
with  salutations  and  a  benediction  (3). 

It  is  very  observable  in  ibis  Epistle,  tbat  those  of  tlie  humblest  rank  are  exhorted 
to  adorn  tbc  gospel  (2.  10),  and  that  while  our  salvation  is  ascribed  exclusively  to 
grace  .(2.  ii),  to  the  "  kindness  and  love  of  God  our  Saviour"  (}.  4),  this  fact  is 
made  the  ground  of  most  urgent  exhortations  to  holiness  (2.  14  :  j.  8> 

On  the  duties  Christians  owe  to  civil  government,  Tit.  3.1:  See 
Kom.  13.  i-io:  i  Pet.  2.  13-17:  2  Pet.  :.  10:  Jvide  8. 

The  Second  Epistle  General  of  I'eter.     a.d.  64  or  65. 

193.  The  Epistle  is  addressed  to  ail  believers  (i.  i),  and  espe- 
cially to  the  same  persons  as  the  former  (3 .  1 ).  It  was  ^Titten  not 
long'  before  the  apostle's  martyrdom  (r.  14),  a  circumstance  that 
gives  it  a  solemn  interest. 

As  in  the  earlier  Epistle  he  exliorts  to  patience  under  persecution, 
so  here  he  exhorts  to  perseverance  in  truth  amidst  prevailing  error 
and  practical  infidelity.  The  best  preservative  is,  as  he  tells  them, 
progi'essive  piety  (i.  3-xi):  decisive  evidence  of  the  truth  of 
j^cripture  doctrine  being  given  also  by  irrefragable  testimony,  and 
fulfilled  prophecy  (i.  16-21).  In  terms  most  energetic  and  awful  he 
warns  false  teachers,  and  those  who  were  beginning  to  yield  to  their 
seductions,  of  their  .guilt  and  danger  (2 .  1-2  2),  and  assures  them 
that  the  second  coming  of  the  Lord,  though  long  delayed,  through 
long-suffering,  is  as  certain  as  the  fact  of  the  deluge  (3.  1-3.)  He 
then  exhibits  the  bright  side  of  the  same  truth,  and  bids  Christians 
be  diligent  and  holy  (3.  14-18).  Appealing  to  Paul's  teaching,  in 
confirmation  of  liis  views,  he  marks  how  men  had  wrested  his  teach- 
ing so  as  to  make  it  countenance  most  pernicious  practices,  an  evil 
to  be  remedied  not  by  neglecting  those  Scriptures,  but  by  increased 
teachableness  and  humility  (5.  15,  \h). 


teter's  last  words  :  2  timothy.  633 

What  sect  of  heretics  is  here  condemned  is  not  cei-tainly  kno\vn 
Their  licentious  practices  (2.  10-15),  their  covetousness,  their  denial 
of  the  Lord  (2.  i),  their  promises  of  freedom  (2.  19)  are  clearly 
defined,  and  serve  to  connect  the  advocates  of  such  views  with 
those  mentioned  (in  nearly  the  same  terms  throughout),  by  Jude 
and  by  John,  Rev.  2.  14,  etc. 

On  the  genuineness  of  this  Epistle,  and  of  the  other  antilego- 
mena  (questioned  Epistles),  see  §  170,  and  Pai-t  i.  §  153,  155. 

How  prone  men  seem  to  be  to  pervert  truth !  The  Thessalonians 
supposed  that  our  Lord's  coming  was  to  be  immediate;  those  of 
whom  Peter  Avrites  supposed  it  to  be  indefinitely  delayed.  Amidst 
such  tendencies  nothing  less  than  the  Divine  Spii'it  could  have  pre- 
served apostles  in  a  watchful  patient  frame,  nor  could  anything  less 
than  the  energy  of  the  same  Spirit  have  taught  poor  fishermen  to 
speak  as  they  do  of  God,  of  sin,  and  of  coming  judgment.  The 
sublimity,  spirituality,  and  harmony  of  these  revelations  are  among 
the  most  decisive  evidences  of  a  Divine  inspu-ation. 

We  treasure  up  the  last  words  of  great  men.  In  the  immediate 
prospect  of  mai-tyrdom,  holiness  appears  to  Peter  of  the  last  im- 
portance, and  stedfastness  the  greatest  blessing.  His  last  precept 
13  "  Grow  in  grace  and  in  the  knowledge  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour, 
.Tesus  Christ,"  and  his  last  testimony  is  to  the  Divinity  of  his  Lord, 
''  To  Him  be  gloiy  both  now  and  for  ever.  Amen,"  2  Pet.  3.  18. 

Diligence  and  eminent  piety  enjoined  from  various  considerations, 
I.  5-ri:  Heb.  3.  14:  4.  11 :  G.  7-18:  Gal,  6.  9:  Col.  i.  23:  Rev.  5. 
11:  I  John  3.  10-24. 

On  the  final  judgment  and  its  issues,  see  3.  10-13:  Rom.  2.  16: 
3.5,6:  14.  10-12  :  I  Cor.  4.  5  :  2  Cor.  5.  10  :  i  Thess.  3.  13  : 
2Thess.  T.  7-10:  Phil.  i.  10:  2.  16:  Heb.  9.  27:  2  Tim.  4.  i:  Jude 
24  :  Rev.  20.  11-15  :  Matt.  13.  40:  16.  27  :  25.  31-46  :  John  5.  22-29  • 
Acts  10.  42:  17.  30,  31:  Psalm  96.  13:  Ecc.  12.  14. 

Connect  and  read,  1.  1,  3,  12,  16,  19:  2. 1,  4:  3.  3,  5,  8,  ir,  14,  17. 

TJie  Second  Epistle  of  Pau  the  Apostle  to  Timothy. 
Borne,  A.  D.  65  or  66. 
1 94.  This  Epistle  was  apparently  Avritten  when  Paul  was  a  prisoner 
at  Rome  (see  chap,  i,  8,  16:  4.  6);  and  probably  during  his  second 
captivity,  not  long  befox-e  his  martyrdom.  That  it  was  not  written 
during  his  first  imprisonment  may  be  gathered  in  part  from  the 
absence  of  several  who  were  with  him  then  (see  Phil.  i.  i :  Col.  i.  i : 
Philem.  ver.  i:  Heb.  13.  23:  compare  also  chap.  4.  10,  ir,  -svith 
Col.  4.  10,  14);  and  from  the  difference  in  the  apostle's  expecta- 
tions, which  were  now  fixed  upon  a  speedy  decease  (compare  chap. 
4.  6,  with  Phil.   I.   25:  2.   24:  Philem.  ver,  22:  Heb.  13.   23);  as 

2  E  3 


634  PAUL'S  LAST  WORDS  :   2  TIMOTHY. 

well  as  from  his  circumstances  of  increased  restriction  and  greater 
solitude  (compare  chap.  i.  17,  18,  with  Acts  28.  30,  31,  and  Phil. 
I.  13).  But  more  decisive  evidence  is  afforded  by  several  incidental 
allusions  to  events  which  had  clearly  occurred  not  long  before  this 
letter  was  written.  Mention  is  made  of  a  cloak  and  books  left  at 
Troas  (4.  13),  which  Paul  had  not  visited  for  five  years  before  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome;  of  Trophimus,  who  had  been  left  sick  at 
Miletus  (4.  20),  but  who  had  been  with  the  apostle  at  Jerusalem  at 
the  time  of  his  first  apprehension,  Acts  21.  29:  of  Erastus  as  having 
stayed  at  Corinth  (4.  20),  where  Paul  had  not  been  since  his  visit 
there  five  years  before,  accompanied  by  Timothy,  Acts  20.  4.  All 
these  circumstances  seem  to  show  that  this  Epistle  must  have  had  a 
later  date,  probably  about  the  year  65  or  66  :  two  years  later  than 
his  Fii^t  Epistle.  The  interval  between  his  two  imprisonments  he 
seems  to  have  spent  in  Asia,  Philem.  22:  Phil.  2.  24:  i.  25:  Mace- 
donia, I  Tim.  I,  3:  wintering  in  jSTicopolis,  Tit.  3.  12.  Why  he 
i-eturned  to  Eome  we  are  not  told,  but  he  was  soon  imprisoned  as 
an  evil-doer,  2  Tim.  2.  9;  and  among  his  accusers  was  Alexander 
the  Judaizing  teacher  of  Ephesus,  ''who  did  him  much  evil," 
4.  14. 

If  this  view  be  correct,  and  this  Epistle  was  the  last  which  the 
ai:)ostle  wrote  before  his  martyrdom,  it  is  invested  with  peculiar 
interest,  as  containing  the  dying  counsels  of  one  who  was  not 
*'  behind  the  chiefest  of  the  apostles." 

One  object  of  writing  this  Epistle,  was  to  request  Timothy  to 
come  to  him  speedily  (4.  9) ;  because  his  other  friends  had  left  him 
(see  4  10-12).  He  desired  the  presence  of  Timothy  and  Mark,  that 
they  might  both  cheer  him  in  his  trials,  and  aid  him  in  the  work  of 
the  ministry  (see  ver.  11).  The  absence  of  all  allusion  to  Peter 
throws  light  on  the  question  raised  (on  p.  626),  in  reference  to  the 
place  of  his  martyrdom. 

Commencing  with  strong  expressions  of  affectionate  regard,  he 
addresses  to  his  son  Timothy  a  series  of  earnest  exhortations  ta 
stedfastness,  diligence,  and  patience  in  his  work;  to  courage  and 
constancy  under  persecutions;  and  to  the  exercise  of  all  personal 
virtues :  encouraging  him  by  calling  to  mind  his  early  training  in 
piety  and  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures:  reminding  him  of 
some  who  had  proved  unfaithful  in  the  hour  of  trial :  warning  both 
Timothy  and  his  flock  against  false  teachers,  vain  controversies,  and 
false  professors,  the  increase  of  whom  is  predicted :  foretelling  the 
gi'ievous  times  which  were  yet  to  come :  and  enforcing  his  solemn 
charge  to  Timothy  to  be  vigilant,  faithful,  and  zealous  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  ministry,  by  the  consideration  that  his  ovrn  com'se  was 
uearly  run,  and  the  time  of  his  departure  was  at  hand , 


PAUL'S  LAST  WORDS  :   JUDE.  635 

Throughout  this  letter  to  his  beloved  friend,  Paul  manifests  a 
strong  conviction  of  the  truth  of  the  principles  he  had  embraced,  a 
happy  superiority  to  all  his  past  or  future  sufferings  in  support  of 
them,  and  a  triumphant  assurance  of  his  great  Master's  approbation 
and  reward. 

Connect  and  read,  1.  1,  3,  6,  8,  13,  15:  2.  1,  8,  14,  19,  22:  3.  i, 
10,  14:  4.  I,  6,  9,  14,  16,  19,  22. 

This  Epistle  contains  a  noble  view  of  the  consolation  which  Chris- 
tians enjoy  in  the  midst  of  suffering,  and  in  the  prospect  of  death, 
I.  9-18:  2.  9-13:  4.  6-8,  16-18.  The  holiest  spii-itual  affection  to 
God  and  Christ  is  not  only  consistent  with  human  friendships,  but 
productive  of  them,  i.  2-5:  4.  9,  21.  No  where  are  privilege  and 
duty,  gi'ace  and  holiness  more  closely  combined,  2  Tim.  2.19,  In 
the  approaching  coiTuption  of  Christianity,  Paul  directs  Timothy  to 
the  true  conservative  principle  of  its  purity;  not  miracles  nor  a 
fresh  revelation,  but  the  doctrine  in  which  Timothy  had  been  in- 
structed, and  those  Scriptures  which  make  the  man  of  God  perfect, 
thoroughly  furnished  unto  all  good  works,  3.  14-17:  2  Thess.  2.: 
2  Pet.  I.  15-21:  3.  1-4,  14-17.  How  instructive  that  in  the  last 
writings  of  both  Peter  and  Paul,  nor  less  in  the  writings  of  John, 
(Rev.  22),  and  in  the  prospect  of  the  heresies  that  were  to  prevail 
in  the  chm-ch,  we  should  be  dh-ected  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  and 
that  we  are  thus  led  to  expect  no  additional  disclosux'e  of  the  Divine 
will.  The  Cross — our  hope,  our  model,  our  motive :  The  Crown 
— its  purity,  certainty,  blessedness :  The  Word — its  promise,  pre- 
cept, doctrine  all  complete — are  among  the  last  words  of  the  sacred 
page.  Only  let  these  continue  to  be  set  forth,  and  the  chm-ch  need 
not  fear. 

The  General  Epistle  of  Jude.     Syria,  A.  D.  75  or  64. 

195.  Jude,  the  author  of  this  Epistle,  was  called  also  Lebbseus 
and  Thaddseus,  Matt.  10.  3  :  Luke  6.  15.  He  was  the  brother  or  near 
relation  of  our  Lord,  and  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  We  read  little 
more  of  him  in  the  Gospels  than  that  he  inquired  of  our  Lord  how 
he  intended  to  manifest  himself  to  his  disciples  and  not  to  the 
world,  John  14.  22.  His  Epistle  is  supposed  to  have  been  vmtten 
to  Jewish  Christians  in  Syria  and  Arabia  where  he  is  reported  to 
have  laboured:  as  Peter's  Second  Epistle  was  written  to  persons  of 
the  same  character  in  Asia.  It  is  highly  probable  that  one  had 
seen  the  writings  of  the  other.  Compare  2  Pet.  2.  Those  who  think 
that  Peter  had  seen  Jude's  Epistle  give  to  the  latter  the  date  of  64 
or  65  A.  D.,  as  does  Lardner,  or  even  an  earlier  date:  while  others 
conclude  that  it  was  written  about  75  a.  d.,  or  even  later. 


636  1st  epistle  of  johx. 

The  design  of  the  Epistle  is  clearly  to  guuid  the  ChrLstiau  church 
against  those  false  teachers,  who  resolved  all  religion  into  .snecula- 
tive  belief  and  outward  profession,  and  sought  to  allure  the  disciples 
into  insubordination  and  licentiousness.  The  whole  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts:  the  first,  descriptive  of  tlie  punishment,  5-7:  the 
second,  of  the  character  of  these  seducei"s,  8-19,  To  guard  the  disci- 
ples against  being  led  astray  by  them,  the  apostle  refers  to  the 
Israelites  who  had  perished  in  the  wilderness,  to  the  angels  who  had 
fallen  from  their  original  dignity,  and  the  cities  of  the  plain  which 
had  been  made  an  example  of  Divine  vengeance;  and  shows  that  a 
similar  fate  awaited  those  wicked  seducers.  He  reminds  them  that 
it  had  been  predicted  that  such  persons  should  arise  in  the  last 
period  of  the  world ;  exhoi-ts  them  to  stedfastness  and  prayer,  and 
to  efforts  for  the  salvation  of  others;  and  concludes  with  an  ascrip- 
tion of  praise  to  Him  who  alone  could  preserve  them  from  falling. 
See  2  Pet.  2.  3.:  2  Thess.  2.:  2  Tim.  3. 

Ungodly  men  have  many  pleas  to  urge  in  arrest  of  judgment. 
''They  had  experienced  deliverance:"  but  so  had  Israel,  ver.  3. 
"  They  had  lived  near  to  God,  and  his  favour  had  exalted  them:"  so 
had  the  lost  angels,  6.  ''  They  but  yielded  to  natural  propensity:" 
80  did  Sodom,  7.  Thus  may  the  Old  Testament  be  used  to  illus- 
trate the  New,  and  facts  to  prove  principles. 


Sec.  4.  Helps  to  i.  2.  and  3.  Joint  cud  Hevelation, 

The  First  Epistle  of  John.     Towards  the  close  of  the  \st  Century  or  68. 

196.  This  sacred  Avriting,  though  called  an  Epistle,  has  more  of  the 
character  of  a  discourse  on  the  doctrines  and  duties  of  Christianity. 
It  appears  to  have  been  addressed  to  believers  generally,  especially 
to  Gentiles  and  I'esidents  in  Asia  Minor,  among  whom  John  himself 
had  laboured  (2.  7:  2.  12-14,  20-27).  The  writer  has  not  deemed 
it  necessary  to  prefix  his  name;  but  its  remarkable  similarity,  both 
in  matter  and  expressions,  to  the  other  writings  of  the  apostle  John, 
confirms  the  testimony  of  the  early  Christians,  and  aSbrds  satis- 
factory evidence  that  he  was  its  author.  It  Avas  certainly  written  by 
an  eye-witness  of  the  person  and  labouis  of  our  Lord  (1.  1-4: 
4.  14).  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  been  written  from  EphesuK, 
Ijut  at  what  precise  date  is  uncertain;  a  late  date  is  highl}'  probable 
from  the  errors  which  are  here  condemned. 

It  was  evidently  one  object  of  this  Epistle  to  counteract  errors 
already  prevalent.  Some  (Questioned  the  Dii-iac  dignity  of  our  Lord, 
and  denied  him  to  be  the  Son  of  God.    'I'hoso  the  apostle  calls  de- 


1  JOHN  :  LESSOXS.  C37 

ceivers  aud  autichrist^  (2.  22:  4,  15:  5,  i).  Others  denied  bis 
hunuoiitij,  thiis  contradicting  the  real  fellowship  of  Christ  with  men 
(Heb.  2.  16:  4.  15),  and  the  reality  of  his  death  and  propitiation. 
His  incarnation  was,  as  they  held,  but  an  appearance,  and  the  story 
of  his  life,  a  myth.  This  delusion  the  apostle  strongly  denounces 
(4.  3),  and  declai-es  that  he  had  himself  felt  with  his  hand  the  body 
of  his  Lord  (i.  i).  A  third  party  seem  to  have  held  that  it  was 
enough  to  worship  God  with  the  spirit,  and  that  the  body  might 
have  all  possible  indulgence.  This  immoral  creed  the  apostle 
refutes  by  sho^\dng  that  every  sin  is  real  transgi'ession  (3.  4);  that 
fellowshi^D  with  God  purifies  the  Christian,  and  that  by  this  purity 
only  can  we  be  recognised  as  His  (3.  8-10:  2.  5:  4.  13:  5.  11). 

The  errors  which  are  thus  rebuked  early  ripened  into  heresy,  and 
their  advocates  were  known  by  diSerent  names  (see  §  191  (3),). 
Whether  they  had  made  such  progress  as  to  have  formed  defined 
sects  at  the  time  this  Epistle  was  wx'ittisn  is  doubtful;  but  its  con- 
tents are  such  as  refute  these  and  similar  errors,  both  of  ancient 
and  modern  times,  and  in  this  respect  it  possesses  peculiar  value. 

While  the  correction  of  prevalent  error  was  clearly  one  aim  of 
this  Epistle,  it  was  not  the  only,  perhaps  not  the  chief  aim.  Other 
topics  are  introduced  and  discussed  of  the  deepest  interest,  and  to 
these  the  correction  of  error  seems  regarded  as  subordinate. 

i.  We  are  taught  the  true  natux-e  of  fellowship  with  God  (i.  3''). 
He  is  Light  (1.5)  and  Love;  and  fellowship  implies  conformity  to 
Him:  light,  and  therefore  man  must  be  purified  and  redeemed 
(r.  7:-2.  2):  light,  and  therefore  man  must  be  holy  (2.  3-7):  love, 
aud  thei-efore  we  must  love  one  another  (2.  27).  Let,  however, 
Christ  be  denied,  and  all  these  blessings  are  lost  (2.  22-24). 

ii.  We  are  taught  the  blessedness  and  duties  of  sonship.     Not 

a  The  word  Antichrist  occurs  onlj'  in  these  Epistles.  It  means  either  one  who 
claims  to  be  Christ,  or  one  opposed  to  him ;  and  such  are  all  who  deny  that  Jesus  is 
::^[essiah  (or  Christ),  or  that  the  Messiah  has  come  in  the  flesh.  When  the  word  ig 
applied  to  the  Great  Apostasy  (2  Thess.  2.  5-10),  as  it  is  in  modern  discussions, 
it  means  that  that  apostasy  is  supremely  opposed  to  our  Lord  in  his  teaching  and 
office. 

b  Note  the  revelation  here  given  of  the  theme  of  apostolic  teachiug  (r.  1,2),  and 
its  result  (j).  (i.)  Christ's  eternity  and  union  with  the  Father,  John  i.  i :  16.  28  : 
17-  5-  24-  (2-)  Christ's  manifestation  m  the  flesh,  and  to  each  Clu-istlan,  John  i.  14.. 
( J  )  Eternal  life  in  him,  John  10.  28:  i  John  5.  11.  In  its  results,  this  message 
brings  fellowship  with  apostles,  with  God,  and  with  our  Lord ;  with  apostles,  for  we 
share,  i.e.,  have  "in  common"  with  them  (Acts  4.  32),  forgiveness,  love,  and 
parental  discipline,  Rom.  5.  i :  Rev.  i.  9;  with  God,  for  we  share  his  holiness 
(2  I'et.  1 :  2  John  2.  29  :  5.  18),  and  blessedness;  with  Christ,  for  we  share  his  jus- 
tification— sin  has  no  more  dominion  over  him, — his  resurrection,  adojjtion,  and 
glory.  This  idea  of  "  fellowship,"  of  which  pecuniaiy  contribution  is  one  and  a 
lower  form,  b?ing  expressed  by  the  same  word,  KOivavia,  explains  manj'  passages. 


638  1    AND    2   JOHN. 

only  fellowship,  but  adoption  is  our  privilege  in  Christ :  and  again 
we  are  led  to  the  same  results.  God  is  righteous :  as  his  children 
we  too  must  be  righteous  (2.  2<):-^.  3).  Christ  came  to  take  away 
sin;  and  in  him  is  no  sin;  to  him  we  must  be  conformed  (3.  4-10). 
He  gave  his  life  for  us,  and  herein  his  love  is  our  model  (11 -18). 
Having  his  spirit  we  shall  share  his  other  blessings  (19-24).  Again, 
let  Christ  be  denied,  in  his  human  nature  especially,  and  these 
blessings  are  lost  (3.  i9:-4.  6). 

iii.  He  had  begun  with  the  truth  that  God  is  light ;  and  thence 
shown  what  fellowship  with  him  and  sonship  involve;  now  he  gives 
another  view.  God  is  love  (4.  7,  8).  Love  is  his  essence,  was  mani- 
fested in  the  mission  and  character  of  his  Son,  and  is  the  necessary 
condition  of  sonship  (5.  21).  Love  to  God  and  one  anothei",  faith 
in  Christ,  such  confidence  as  casts  out  fear,  are  all  among  the 
results  which  this  revelation  secures.  Only  let  us  truly  believe 
that  God  gives  eternal  life,  and  that  life  in  his  Son  (5.  11 -13),  and 
we  become  holy  and  happy;  we  are  forgiven  and  sanctified.  Reject 
this  truth  or  any  part  of  it,  and  we  are  left  without  hope.  Like  the 
world  we  lie  in  wickedness  (5.  18). 

Very  beautiful  is  it  to  mark  how  from  the  holiness  (light)  and 
love  of  God  he  gathers  the  doctrine  of  propitiation,  and  proves  the 
necessity  of  holiness.     Compare  i.  5  :-2.  ii;  and  4.  7-13. 

197.  The  general  character  of  this  Epistle  probably  gave  occasion  to 
the  opinion  early  entei-tained  that  John  was  of  a  peculiarly  afiec- 
tionate  disposition  ;  and  this  opinion  seems  just.  Yet  none  has 
spoken  of  false  doctrine  more  sharply.  The  gentlest  Christian  may 
be  a  son  of  thunder  (Luke  3.  13-19)  when  Chi-ist's  honour  is  at 
stake,  and  charity  may  be  exercised  in  denouncing  sin  as  well  as 
in  loving  the  brethren. 

The  truth  most  largely  insisted  upon  in  this  Epistle  is  the  neces- 
sity of  holiness,  as  the  evidence  and  fruit  of  faith,  i.  6:  2.  3-11, 
29:  3-  3-15,  39:,  21,  24:  5.  18:  Rom.  8.  16:  James  2.  17-26:  Tit. 
I.  16:  2.  II,  12:  Eph.  2.  10:  John  15.  2. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  John. 

198.  Of  the  thirteen  verses  of  this  Epistle,  eight  are  in  substance 
found  in  the  first,  and  it  is  concluded  from  the  similarity  of  style 
and  subject  that  both  were  written  about  the  same  time,  and  in 
refei'ence  to  the  same  topics.  It  is  addressed  to  a  Chxistian  lady 
and  her  children  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  them  to  continue 
in  the  truth,  and  avoid  giving  any  countenance  to  deceivers.  He 
calls  her  Electa,  possibly  from  her  name,  but  more  probably 
(see  ver.  13),  on  account  of  the  eminence  of  her  piety.     The  opinion 


2   AND   3   JOHN  :   REVELATION.  639 

that  some  chiirch  or  the  church  at  large  is  addressed  vinder  this 
title  can  scarcely  be  maintained. 

An  Epistle  so  addressed  shows  with  what  vigilant  affection  the 
ministers  of  the  gospel  ought  to  cherish  the  piety  of  those  whom 
they  have  gained,  and  it  shows  no  less  the  importance  in  the  sight 
of  God  of  the  station  of  a  Christian  mother,  and  the  earnestness 
with  which  she  should  interest  hei'self  in  the  religious  welfare  of 
her  children. 

Tlie  Third  Epistle  of  John. 

199.  That  the  Gaim  or  Cuius,  to  whom  this  Epistle  is  addressed, 
was  the  person  mentioned  inRom.  16.  23,  and  i  Cor.  i.  14,  though  not 
cex*tain,  is  highly  probable ;  as  he  appears  to  have  been  an  eminent 
Christian,  particularly  distinguished  for  his  hospitality  to  Christian 
evangelists  or  missionaries.  The  apostle  expresses  his  affectionate 
joy  at  this  and  other  evidences  of  his  piety;  cautions  him  against 
one  Diotrephes,  noted  for  his  ambition  and  tui'bulence ;  and  recom- 
mends Demetrius  to  his  friendship;  deferring  other  matters  to  a 
personal  interview. 

'*  The  Elder,"  the  name  assumed  by  the  author  of  this  and  the 
preceding  Epistle,  might  probably  be  applied  to  John,  when  all  the 
other  apostles  were  dead,  as  a  title  of  honourable  distinction;  for 
he  was  the  senior  of  the  whole  church ;  or  he  might  modestly,  yet 
as  claiming  authority,  use  it  upon  this  occasion. 

Comparing  these  two  Epistles  with  Philemon,  it  is  evident  that 
the  apostles  wrote  as  apostles  even  in  then-  private  letters,  and  that 
whatever  the  theme  of  their  communications,  they  imparted  to  each 
a  savour  of  Christ. 

Tlie  Eevelation  of  John.     Patmos,  a.d.  96. 

200.  This  book  is  styled  the  Apocalypse^  or  Revelation  (i.  e.  the  re- 
vealing or  unveiling  of  that  which  had  been  hidden),  as  consisting 
of  matters  chiefly  prophetical,  which  were  revealed  to  John  by  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ.  This  took  place  when  he  was  in  the  isle  of 
Patmos,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  -^rhither  he  was  banished,  as  is  generally 
supposed,  by  the  emperor  Domitian,  a.d.  94  or  95.  Some,  indeed, 
are  of  opinion  that  this  happened  much  earlier,  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  Nero,  A.  D.  67  or  68;  but  the  arguments  adduced  in  support 
of  this  opinion  are  by  no  means  conclusive.  Irenseus,  Eusebius,  and 
in  the  3rd  century  Yictorinus  expressly  refer  the  book  to  the  age 
of  Domitian ;  a  view  favoured  by  the  testimony  of  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Jerome,  nor  is  there  any  other  tradition  in 
the  early  church.  Internal  evidence  also  confirms  it,  such  as  the 
prevalence  of  persecution,  and  the  great  declension  which  appears 


640  REVELATION  :    OrTLlNE. 

to  have  takeu. place  in  the  Ephesiau  chr.i-ch,  which  as  late  as  a.  d.  62 
was  warmly  commended  by  Paul,  for  the  fidelity  and  love  ofits 
members.  ISTo  book,  it  may  be  added,  was  earlier  commented  upon, 
nor  is  it  surpassed  in  dignity  and  sviblimity  of  composition. 

This  book  greatly  resembles  those  of  Ezekiel  and  of  Daniel  both  in 
form  and  in  substance.  It  appears,  indeed,  to  be  a  continuation  of 
the  prophecies  of  Daniel ;  but  given  with  greater  fulness  of  detail ; 
the  pi-incipal  topics  being  the  same,  and  the  termination  exactly 
identical.     It  consists  of  two  principal  divisions: — 

Pai't  i.  (i.-3.)  relates  to  "the  things  which  are;"  comprising  a 
preparatoiy  vision  exhibiting  the  Divine  perfections  and  the  human 
sympathy  of  the  Redeemer,  and  the  Addresses  or  Epistles  to  the 
Seven  Churches ;  each  of  Avhich  consists  of  three  parts :  i .  The 
introduction,  referring  in  each  case  to  some  of  the  attributes  of  Him 
who  addresses  the  church,  taken  from  the  preceding  vision,  in  which 
a  progressive  order  is  observable,  and  an  appropriateness  to  the 
general  tenor  of  the  epistle  which  follows;  2.  A  description  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  church,  with  suitable  encouragement,  admoni- 
tion, or  reproof;  and  3 .  Promises  of  reicard  to  those  who  overcome, 
which  are  addressed  to  all  the  churches. 

ii.  The  remainder  of  the  book  (4.-22.)  is  occupied  with  the  pro- 
phecy of  "  the  things  which  shall  be  hereafter."  It  consists  of  a 
series  of  visions,  showing  forth,  by  means  of  symbolical  imagery  and 
figurative  language,  the  conflicts  and  sufferings  of  the  people  of  God, 
and  liis  judgments  upon  their  enemies;  and  concluding  vdth  a  re- 
presentation of  the  church  of  Christ,  the  ISTew  Jerusalem,  after  the 
final  judgment.  The  principal  contents  of  this  prophecy  are  as 
follows : — 

An  introductor)^  vision,  representing  the  Divine  glory  (4.),  the 
.sealed  scroll,  and  the  Lamb  who  alone  is  worthy  to  open  it  (5). 
The  opening  of  the  first  six  seals  (6).  The  sealing  of  the  144,000 
of  the  tribes  of  Israel;  the  appearance  and  worshij?  of  the  innu- 
merable multitude  from  all  nations ;  and  the  opening  of  the  seventh 
t^eal  (7.  8.  i).  The  vision  of  an  angel  offering  incense  at  the  altar; 
followed  by  the  sounding  of  the  first  six  trumpets  (8,  2-13  :  9).  The 
vision  of  a  mighty  angel,  with  a  little  scroll  open  in  his  hand; 
which,  after  the  seven  thunders,  and  the  angel's  proclamation, 
John  is  directed  to  take  and  eat  (10).  The  measuring  of  the  temple 
and  altar;  the  two  witnesses;  their  prophesying,  death,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension;  the  sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet  (11). 
The  vision  of  the  woman  persecuted  by  the  drngou;  the  conflict 
between  Michael  and  his  angels,  and  the  dragon  and  his  angels; 
preservation  of  the  woman  in  the  wilderness  (12).  Tlie  beast  rising 
up  out  of  the  sea,  and  the  second  beast  coming  up  oiit  of  the  earth 


REVELATIOX  :    OUTLIXE.  G4T 

(13).  The  vision  of  the  Lamb  and  the  144,000  ou  Moiiut  Siou;  the 
pi'oclamations  of  the  three  angels;  the  hai-vest,  and  the  vintage  (15). 
The  pouring  out  of  the  seven  vials  of  plagues  (16).  The  angel's 
description  of  the  woman  sitting  upon  the  beast  (17).  Another 
angel's  proclamation  of  Babylon's  fall  and  destruction  (18.),  fol- 
lowed by  songs  of  praise  and  exultation  (18.:  19.  i-io).  "The 
Word  of  God"  attended  by  his  faithful  followers,  by  whom,  the 
beast  and  the  false  prophet,  and  the  confederate  kings,  are  over- 
thi'own  and  destroyed  (19.  ii-2r).  The  binding  of  the  dragon,  and 
ills  imprisonment  for  a  thousand  years,  during  which  the  saints  live 
and  reign  with  Chiist;  and  at  the  end  of  which,  Satan  being  again 
loosed,  gathers  the  nations  once  more  to  battle  against  "  the  beloved 
city,"  when  he  and  his  rebellious  hosts  are  finally  overthrown  and 
cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  (20.  i-io).  Visions  of  the  last  judgment, 
the  new  heaven  and  the  new  earth,  and  the  heavenly  Jerusalem 
(20.  io:-22.  3):  followed  by  final  addi-esses  from  the  angel,  from 
Christ,*  and  from  the  apostle,  declaring  the  Divine  origin,  the  abso- 
lute  certainty,  and  the  speedy  accomplishment  of  these  predictions 

(22.6-21). 

More  briefly  the  whole  has  been  summed  up  thus  : — 
We  have  first,  seven  epistles  to  the  seven  churches  (1.-3);  and 
scvcntJiljj,  towards  the  close,  the  !Jsew  or  heavenly  Jenisalem  (21.-22), 
We  have  sccmdly,  seven  seals  (4.1  :-8.  i). 

thirdhj,  seven  trumpets  soimded  (8.  2:-ii). 

foirrtlilii,  three  enemies,  Satan,  the  beast,  and  the  false 

prophet  warring  against  the  church  (12. -14). 
fifthly,  seven  vials  are  poured  out  (15.  16}. 
sixthly,  the  three  enemies  of  the  church  are  overthrown 
(i  7.-20). 
With  these  central  objects,   seals,   trumpets,   vials,   Satan,  the 
beast,  and  the  false  prophet  and  other  visions  are  intei'Avoven  as 
iutvoductor}'  and  concluding  scenes. 

:oi.  In  the  interpretation  of  Revelation  we  meet  with  many 
difficulties.  The  general  meaning  of  the  symbols  is  indeed  com- 
monly clear,  foimded  as  they  often  are  on  resemblance,  and  used  with 
imiformity,  but  the  application  of  symbols  to  specific  events  is  by 
no  means  obvious.  A  principle  adopted  by  Dean  Woodhouse 
seems  desening  of  general  acceptance,  namely,  that  unless  the  lan- 
guage and  symbols  of  the  Apocalyi^se  reqviu-e  another  mode  of  ap- 
plication, its  predictions  are  to  be  applied  to  events  occurx-ing  in  the 
progi-essive  kingdom  of  Christ,  or  the  history  of  the  Christian 
church  from  the  apostolic  age  to  the  end  of  time.  The  Bible  is  the 
history  of  the  chiu'ch,  and  of  other  nations  only  so  far  as  they  are 
connected  with  it.     And  it  seems  but  reasonable  to  look  in  revela- 


642  REVELATIOX  :    MODES   OF   INTERPRETATIOX. 

tion  for  the  same  general  trutli  which  we  find  elsewhere.    The 
whole  analogy  of  Scripture  is  in  favour  of  this  view. 

On  the  Prophetic  Visions  of  the  Revelation. 

As  no  other  portion  of  sacred  Scripture  is  more  difficult ;  bo  of 
none  have  the  explanations  been  more  various.  The  different 
theories  may  be  arranged  under  three  heads. 

I.  Some  consider  the  greater  part  of  these  prophecies  to  have 
had  their  fulfilment  in  the  early  ages  of  the  church. 

In  this  view  Grotius,  Hammond,  Wetstein,  Eichhorn,  De  Wette, 
Lee,  Stuart,  and  Hug  concur,  and  of  course  maintain  the  earlier 
date  of  the  book.     This  is  the  preterist  interpretation.^ 

Professor  Stuart,  who  advocates  this  view,  divides  the  whole  into 
three  great  catastrophes:  the  fii'st  (chap.  6-11),  describing  the  des- 
truction of  Jerusalem  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewish  persecutinrj 
power  by  a  series  of  Divine  judgments;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
deliverance  of  the  Christians: — second  (chap.  11-19),  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  persecuting  power  and  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over 
Paganism: — and  third  (chap.  20-22),  the  last  great  efforts  (still 
future),  of  heathen  antichristian  powers,  issuing  in  their  entire  over- 
throw; followed  by  the  general  judgment,  the  everlasting  punish- 
ment of  the  wicked,  and  the  glorified  state  of  the  righteous. 

II.  A  second  class  of  expositors,  comprising  the  gi'eater  number 
of  Protestant  writers,  regard  these  prophecies  as  a  delineation  of 
the  great  features  in  the  history  of  the  world,  or  of  the  church, 
from  the  apostolic  age  to  the  end  of  time. 

This  interpretation  regards  the  narrative  as  a  continuous  historj' 
reaching  on  to  the  end  of  time,  though  some  parts  of  the  book  are 
treated  as  synchronological.  Its  advocates  ai'e  Mede,  Sir  I.  Kewton, 
Vitringa,  Bishop  Newton,  Scott,  Forbes,  Frere,  Cuninghame,  "Wood- 
house,  Elliott,  Keith,  and  Birks. 

"VV^hile  agreeing,  however,  in  this  general  view,  they  display  the 
utmost  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  application  of  the  different" 
symbols;  some  extending  them  more  or  less  to  the  events  of  secular 
histoiy,  while  others  restrict  them  entirely  to  the  affairs  of  the 
church. 

According  to  the  scheme  of  interpretation  adopted  by  the  late 
T.  Scott,  the  first  six  seals  (chap.  6),  predict,  first,  the  early  progress 
of  Christianity,  and  then  the  gradual  undermining  of  the  Pagan 
persecuting  Roman  Empire  by  successive  judgments,  till  it  was 
terminated  by  the  conversion  of  the  emperors  to  Christianity.  In 
«  These  outlines  are  taken,  as  are  portions  of  the  introductions  to  several  of  th? 
Epistles,  from  the  Pocket  Taragraph  Bible,  published  by  the  Religious  Tract 
Society. 


REVELATION  :   MODES   OF  INTERPRETATION.  G43 

the  first  f<)iir  trumpets  (chap.  8),  is  foretold  the  gi-adual  subversion 
of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  Goths,  Huns,  Moors,  and  Vandals; 
and  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  (chap.  9),  the  spread  of  Mohammedanism, 
first  vmder  the  Saracens  and  then  under  the  Turks.  Chap.  11  is 
interpreted  as  predicting  the  corrupt  state  of  the  nominal  Christian 
church,  for  a  period  of  1260  years;  during  the  whole  of  which, 
however,  there  is  a  competent  number  of  suffering  witnesses  for  the 
truth  who  protest  against  these  coiTuptions,  till  at  length  they  are 
slain,  and  their  testimony  is  silenced  for  a  very  short  time.  These 
last  circumstances  are  considered  as  future.  Chap.  12  refers  again, 
in  more  detail  than  before,  to  the  revolution  by  which  the  Roman 
empire  became  professedly  Christian.  Chap,  13  predicts  the  rise, 
establishment,  and  dominion  of  the  pctpal  Roman  empire  as  the  ten- 
horned  beast ;  the  Eomish  clergy  as  the  two-homed  beast;  and  the  pope 
as  the  image  of  the  beast.  (These  are  supposed  to  be  afterwards 
more  fully  described  in  chap.  17).  Chap.  14  refers  to  the  opposition 
made  by  true  believers  to  this  antichristian  power.  The  seven  vials 
(chap.  16),  jjredict  a  succession  of  judgments  (the  whole,  or  by  far 
the  greater  part,  being  yet  unfulfilled),  by  which  the  papal  empire 
and  Rome  itself  will  be  utterly  desolated,  as  declared  in  chap.  18. 

The  elaborate  work  of  Mr.  Elliot  {Horce  Apocalyptica;),  proceeds 
upon  similar  principles,  though  in  gi'eater  detail,  and  with  many 
,  important  differences  in  application.  He  supposes  the  first  six 
SEALS  (chap.  6),  to  depict  six  successive  periods  in  the  history  of  the 
Roman  empire,  between  about  A.  D.  96  and  324  ;  namely,  ist,  an  era 
of  conquest  and  prosperity: — 2nd,  Civil  war  and  bloodshed : — 3rd, 
Fiscal  oppression  and  giievous distress : — 4th,Wide-spread  desolation: 
— 5th,  Persecution  and  maii;yrdom  of  Christians : — 6th,  Overthrow 
of  paganism  by  Constantine.  The  "  sealing  of  the  sei-vants  of  God" 
(chap.  7.  1-8),  denotes  the  preservation  of  a  faithful  remnant  during 
the  long  apostasy.  The  first  six  trumpets  (chap,  8,  9),  describe 
successive  scoiirges  upon  the  Roman  empire,  by  the  invasions  of  the 
Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  Saracens,  and  Turks.  The  "  little  book," 
and  the  following  visions  (chap,  10.:  it,  1-13),  are  a  supplementary 
revelation,  having  reference  chiefly  to  the  era  of  the  Reformation; 
the  measuring  of  the  Temple  denoting  a  separation  of  the  true  from 
the  apostate  church;  and  the  tico  vcitnessess  (chap.  11.  3-13),  signify- 
ing the  twofold  succession  of  faithful  Christian  churches  in  Eastern 
and  Western  Christendom.  In  chap.  11.  14-19,  the  prophetic  his- 
tory IS  resumed  with  the  sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet ;  but  is 
again  interrupted  by  a  distinct  series  of  visions  in  chap.  12,  13; 
tnat  of  "  the  woman  clothed  ^vith  the  sun"  (chap,  12),  describing 
the  struggle  between  the  Christian  church  and  the  pagan  dragon' 
the  first  beast  with  ten  horns  (chap.  13.   i-io),  denoting  the  Roman 


644  REVELATION  :   3I0DES   OP  INTERPRETATION. 

power  under  its  papal  head;  the  second  fico-horned  beast  (chap.  13. 
11-18),  rei^resenting  the  Romish  hierarchy,  with  its  two  orders  ot 
clergy;  and  the  "  image  of  the  beast "  signifying  the  general  coun- 
cils of  the  papal  church.  After  another  series  of  intermediate 
visions  in  chap.  14,  the  prophetic  history  is  carried  on  in  chap. 
J4-r6,  by  the  pouring  out  of  the  seven  vials,  which  are  applied  to 
events  arising  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  commencing  in  1789. 
The  sixth,  which  is  interpreted  as  signifjdng  judgments  upon  the 
Turkish  empire,  forms,  according  to  this  scheme,  the  boundary  line, 
separating  the  past  from  the  future. 

Dr.  Keith  intei-prets  the  fii'st  six  seals  (chap,  6),  as  representing 
the  church  of  Christ,  and  the  various  forms  of  false  faith  by  which 
it  was  to  be  assailed;  namely,  istseal,  Descriptive  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  Christian  religion;  2nd,  Mohammedanism  ;  3rd, 
Popery  in  the  dark  ages;  4th,  Infidelity;  5th,  The  depressed  and 
l)ersecuted  state  of  the  true  church  in  past  ages;  6th,  "  The  great 
day  of  the  wratli  of  the  Lord,"  yet  unfulfilled.  The  first  six 
TRUMPETS  (chap.  8,  9),  he  explains  as  describing  the  series  of  events 
v.-hich  ended  in  the  extmction  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  visions 
in  chap.  10,  he  refers  to  events  in  Eui-ope,  at  and  after  the  period 
of  the  Reformation.  The  two  m'tnesscs  (chap.  1 1),  he  considers  to  be 
faithful  churches  of  Christ;  and  their  pi'ophesying  in  sackcloth  for 
I  2 Co  years  not  to  have  yet  ceased.  The  woman  clothed  with  the  sun,, 
etc.  (chap.  12),  represents  the  history  of  Christianity,  and  the  con- 
liict  of  the  church  with  its  pagan  and  papal  enemies.  The  first  and 
second  beasts  (chap.  13),  are  imperial  and  papal  Rome.  The  seven 
VIALS  (chap.  14,  15),  are  the  judgments  of  God  on  the  papacy; 
the  first  five  of  which  were  fulfilled  in  the  French  Revolution  and 
the  wars  which  followed  it;  the  sixth  vial  signifying  the  wasting 
away  and  dissokition  of  the  Turkish  empire,  now  in  progress  of  ac- 
complishment. 

Beau  Woodhouse,  adopting  as  a  fundamental  principle,  the  religious 
icference  of  all  the  symbols,  views  the  seals  as  giving  a  general 
outline  of  the  history  of  the  Christian  church; — the  first  three  veach.- 
ing  to  the  middle  ages;  the  fourth  representing  the  papal  tj'ranny; 
the  fifth,  the  martyi-s  of  the  whole  period;  and  the  sixth,  the 
tiiumphs  of  the  Reformed  churches,  and  the  approaching  over- 
throw of  all  the  enemies  of  God.  The  trumpets,  he  supposes  to  go 
over  the  same  ground,  in  more  detail;  describing  attacks  of  here- 
tics and  antichristian  coriiipters  on  the  Christian  religion;  the  first 
four  relating  to  those  to  which  it  wtxs  subjected  in  its  early  ages  from 
Jewish  and  pagan  enemies,  and  from  false  teachers ;  the  fifth  to  the 
iiercsy  of  the  Gnostics,  and  the  sixth  to  the  Mohammedan  powers. 
The  VIALS,  he  i-egards  as  designating  successive  inflictions  of  Divine 


REVELATION  I    MODES   OF   IXTERrRETATION.  C-t.', 

vengeance  upon  the  enemies  and  perseciitora  of  the  church,  not  yet 
fulfilled. 

Another  scheme  of  interpretation,  proceeding  on  the  same  genei-al 
principle  as  the  preceding,  but  differing  considerably  in  its  applica- 
tion, proposed  in  a  work  entitled  "  The  Book  of  the  Unveiling, 
with  Notes,"  is  as  follows: — That  the  seals  (chap.  6),  represent 
different  periods  in  the  history  of  the  church;  namely,  ist.  The  early 
triumphs  of  the  gospel;  2nd,  Severe  persecution;  3rd,  Affliction, 
famine,  and  general  distress,  both  temporal  and  spiritual;  fulfilled 
m  the  invasions  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  Northern  nations,  and 
in  the  darkness  and  decay  of  the  church;  4th,  Awful  corruption, 
apostasy,  and  persecution;  comprising  the  period  from  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  papacy  to  the  Reformation;  5th,  A  period  of  com- 
parative repose  and  revival,  commencing  with  the  Reformation  and 
extending  to  the  present  time;  6th,  Shaking  among  the  nations, 
imiversal  revolution,  and  great  terror,  still  future,  but  near  at  hand. 
As,  according  to  this  scheme,  the  seveyith  seal,  and  the  seven  trumpets, 
and  seven  vials  are  still  in  futurity,  no  attempt  is  made  to  explain 
them;  but  the  series  of  visions  in  chap.  12. -16.  16,  are  considered 
to  be  illustrative  of,  and  to  synchronize  with  those  in  chap.  6-9 : — 
chap.  6,  being  parallel  with  chap.  12,  13 ;  chap.  7,  with  chap.  14,  15  ; 
chap.  8,  9,  with  chap.  16.  1-16;  and  chap.  11.  15-19,  with  chap.  16. 
17-21. 

According  to  another  view  taken  of  the  plan  of  this  Book,  a  more 
general  meaning  is  given  to  many  of  the  symbols;  and  the  subjects 
are  considered  as  not  being  arranged  in  strictly  chronological  order. 
For  example,  the  scenes  presented  at  the  sounding  of  the  first  four 
trumpets  (chap.  8.  7-12),  are  supposed  not  to  refer  exclusively  to  any 
particular  places,  times,  or  persons,  but  to  predict  scenes  of  devas- 
tation, each  rising  above  the  preceding  in  fearful  signs  of  woe ;  the 
country,  with  its  fertile  fields,  first  suffei-ing;  then  the  maritime  dis- 
tricts -with  the  sea,  then  the  rivers  with  the  cities  upon  their  banks, 
and  lastly,  the  luminaries  of  heaven.  It  is  urged  that  the  presen- 
tation in  these  symbols  of  different  departments  of  creation,  the 
progi-ess  of  the  series  to  a  climax,  and  the  recun-ence,  in  each,  of  the 
statement,  that  a  third  part  of  each  was  affected,  indicate  the  general 
nature  of  the  prophecy.  In  like  manner,  when,  upon  the  pouring 
out  oi  the  first  four  vials  (chap,  16.  2-9),  the  land,  the  sea,  the  rivers^ 
and  the  sun,  are  in  succession  affected  by  the  judgments  of  God, 
in  a  still  more  dreadful  and  extensive  manner,  those  visions  ai'e  re- 
garded as  having  no  restricted  or  exclusive  application;  but  as 
representing  generally,  in  conjunction  with  those  which  follow 
(chap.  16.  12-21),  the  judgments  of  God,  as  coming  with  increasing 
terribleness  upon  such  as  persist  in  rebellion  against  him. 


646  REVELATIOX  :   MODES   OF  IXTERPRETATIO]^ 

Oue  scheme  which  has  been  proposed  {Biblical  Review,  1847),  W^' 
ceeding  upon  these  principles,  is  in  substance  as  follows : — That  the 
first  six  SEALS  (chap.  6),  exhibit  successive  judgments  of  God  on  the 
Jewish  nation,  ending  in  its  complete  ovei-throw,  on  accoimt  of  its 
opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  persecution  of  his  people; 
while  the  -visions  in  chap.  7,  signify  the  presei'vation  of  the  servants 
of  God,  first  among  the  Jewish  people,  and  then  among  the  Gen- 
tiles:— That  the  trumpets  (chap.  8,  9),  which  form  the  central 
subject  of  the  next  series  of  visions,  are  general  symbols  of  universal 
devastation  and  of  severe  and  extensive  calamities  upon  heathen  and 
idolatrous  nations  (see  chap.  9.  20),  which  were  fulfilled  in  part  by 
the  disasters  which  came  upon  the  Roman  empire,  and  led  to  its 
fall: — That  the  visions  which  follow  (chap.  10.,  11.  1-13),  are  de- 
signed to  direct  the  mind  foi-wai-d  from  the  judgments  on  the  wicked, 
to  the  time  when  God's  promises  to  his  people  shall  be  accomplished : 
— That  the  two  visions  of  the  temple  and  altar,  and  the  tv:o  witnesses, 
present  a  general  sketch  of  the  office,  condition,  and  pi'ospects  of 
the  Christian  church,  — this  series  of  visions  being  closed  with  the 
sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet,  when  the  judgments  of  God  are 
completed,  and  the  world  is  subjected  to  his  government,  chap.  11. 
14-1^; — That  with  chap.  12,  commences  anew  series,  the  visions  in 
chap.  13,  representing  two  chief  agencies  employed  by  Satan  in  his 
opposition  to  Christ;  the  first  beast  (ver.  i-io),  denoting  tyrannical 
earthly  power,  opposed  to  the  government  of  God,  and  persecuting 
his  people;  and  the  second  beast  (ver.  11-18),  which  supports  the 
first,  representing  the  power  of  false  priesthoods,  founded  on  delu- 
sion, and  exercised  by  means  of  social  privation  and  popular  vio- 
lence : — That,  after  introductory  visions  in  chap.  14,  15,  the  seven 
VIALS,  or  vessels  of  plagues,  in  chap.  16,  exhibit  severe  and  exten- 
sive calamities  on  the  votaries  of  the  world,  and  of  power  and  su- 
perstition amongst  professed  Christians;  and  that  the  woman  sitting 
vpon  the  beast  (chap.  17),  and  Babylon  (chap.  18),  are  a  twofold 
representation  of  the  same  object,  signifying  all  antichristian  and 
persecuting  systems,  usurping  the  name  and  the  place  of  the  true 
church  of  Christ,  supported  by  worldly  power,  and  governed  by 
earthly  principles ;  and  thus  referring  clearly  to  Rome  and  the 
papacy,  but  not  to  them  only. 

III.  Another  class  of  interpreters,  taking  an  entirely  diflferent 
view  from  any  of  those  already  mentioned,  consider  the  greater 
part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  this  series  of  prophecies,  to  belong,  in  its 
strictest  and  fullest  sense,  to  the  last  days. 

This  interpretation  is  the  futurist,  and  has  been  advocated  by 
Maitland,  Burgh,  and  others. 

According  to  this  scheme,  all  the  prophetical  part  of  the  Apo- 


REVELATION  :    MODES  OF   INTEEPKETATIOX.  647 

C'llypse  is  viewed  as  a  representation  of  events,  Avhich  ai-e  to  take 
place  shortly  before  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  and  the  consum- 
mation of  all  things;  the  Israel  spoken  of  here  being  the  literal 
Israel, — the  "  two  witnesses "  being  two  individuals,  probably 
Moses  and  Elijah, — the  days  in  the  chronological  periods,  literal 
days,— and  the  antichrist  or  apocalyptic  heast,  under  his  last  head, 
a  personal  infidel  antichrist,  who  is  to  reign  over  the  whole  extent 
of  the  old  Eoman  empire,  and  to  pei-secute  and  triumph  over  the 
saints  for  just  three  yeai-s  and  a  half,  until  Chi'ist's  coming  to  des- 
troy him.  Mr.  Burgh  considers  the  "  sealed  book  "  (chap.  5,  6), 
to  be  the  book,  or  title-deed  of  Christ's  inheritance  which  has  been 
purchased  (Eph.  i.  14),  but  is  not  yet  recovered  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  usurper; — the  opening  of  the  seals  being  the  imfolding  of  the 
acts  of  Chi-ist,  when  he  shall  vindicate  his  inheritance,  and  assume 
his  throne, — and  the  whole  of  the  visions  which  follow  being  occu- 
pied with  the  events  of  that  last  great  crisis. 

202.  If  in  consequence  of  the  difficulties  of  this  book  any  are 
tempted  to  treat  lightly  all  the  prophetic  Scriptures,  let  it  be  re- 
membered that  ancient  prophecy  was  probably  as  mysterious  to  a 
Jew  as  is  Revelation  to  us.  That  a  son  of  David  should  not  see 
corruption,  that  that  son  should  be  numbered  with  malefactors,  be 
put  to  an  ignominious  death,  and  yet  sit  for  ever  upon  his  throne, 
seemed  profound  mysteries.  All,  however,  were  fulfilled,  and  they 
served  the  meanwhile  to  sustain  the  hopes  of  those  who  were  waiting 
•'  for  the  consolation  of  Israel:"  so  of  this  book. 

203.  Whatever  difference  of  opinion  may  exist  among  interpreters 
with  respect  to  the  precise  times  and  countries,  events,  and  persons, 
to  which  it  is  supposed  these  visions  refer,  they  are  mostly  agreed 
both  as  to  its  general  character  and  design,  and  as  to  the  lessons  to 
be  deduced  from  it — lessons  more  or  less  appropriate  to  every  age 
of  the  church.'*  Thus  all  have  learned  from  these  symbolical  repre- 
sentations that  Chmt  is  exalted  to  the  highest  dignity  in  heaven, 
and  exercises  universal  dominion  on  earth — that  the  state  of  the 
church  of  Chiist  is  for  a  long  time  to  be  one  of  trouble  and  conflict 
— that  stedfastness  and  fidelity  are  our  duty — that  after  the  over- 
throw of  its  first  adversaries  the  Jews,  the  gi-eat  enemy  would 
employ  against  it  other  agents — that  worldly  power  and  policy,  the 
persecutor  and  the  false  prophet,  would  be  allied  in  seeking  to  de- 
stroy or  to  corrupt  it— that  the  marks  of  this  unhallowed  combi- 
nation are  pride,  worldly  pomp,  a  persecuting  spirit,  a  careless  and 
luxurious  life  (13.  7:  18.  3-24) — that  while  exposed  to  the  assaults 
of  these  foes,  it  woidd  ever  be  under  Divine  protection — that  what- 

"  See  Delta  on  Revelation,  Nisbet,  1850. 


648  REVELATION  :   THE  MAN    OF  SIN. 

ever  was  opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  would  certainly  be 
overthrown — that  even  now  there  is  a  constant  and  most  intimate 
connection  between  the  visible  and  the  invisible  world,  prayer  and 
praise  ascending  continually  to  the  throne  of  God,  and  messengers 
of  wrath  and  mercy  descending  thence — that  the  providence  and 
"■overnment  of  God  comprehend  all  subjects  and  events,  and  render 
them  subservient  to  the  best  ends — that  the  church,  after  passing 
through  a  condition  of  abasement,  warfare,  and  tribulation,  will  be 
brought  to  a  state  of  honour,  peace,  and  felicity — that  the  Saviour 
who  redeemed  his  people  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  ever  regards 
them  with  infinite  tenderness  and  benignity,  aids  and  defends  them 
by  his  almighty  power,  and  will  receive  them  at  last  to  his  heavenly 
kingdom — and,  finally,  that  the  unholy  being  excluded,  all  the  fol- 
lowers of  Chi-ist,  of  every  age  and  country,  will  be  united  in  one 
glorious  society,  exhibiting  perfect  holiness,  and  enjoying  everlast- 
ing happiness,  in  the  presence  of  their  God  and  Saviour.  These 
are  some  of  the  most  important  truths  contained  in  this  book ;  they 
are  presented  with  peculiar  vividness  and  power;  and  they  have 
contributed  much  to  the  faith  and  love,  the  fortitude  and  patience, 
the  hope  and  joy,  of  all  the  followers  of  the  Lord. 

204.  Among  the  prophetic  visions  of  the  Apocalypse,  there  is  one 
which  appears  peculiarly  prominent  (17.  18);  and  which  acquires 
the  greater  importance,  as  Avell  as  clearness  from  other  prophetic 
intimations  evidently  referring  to  the  same  subject,  2  Thess.  2.  3-12: 
I  Tim.  4.  1-5.  There  is  unusual  agreement  among  the  greater 
number  of  the  best  expositors  in  explaining  these  combined  pro  ■ 
phecies ;  although  some  consider  them  to  refer  to  events  still 
future.  They  are  regarded  as  predicting  the  rise  and  temporary 
ascendency  of  a  great  apostate  power,  in  the  midst  of  the  Christian 
church,  which  should  be  distinguished  by  the  following  character- 
istics : — 

ist.  Eminent  coi-ruption  of  religion,  which  corruption,  by  fraud  as 
well  as  force,  it  spreads  and  maintains  throughout  the  world,  2  Thessi. 
2.  3,  8-10:  I  Tim.  4.  I,  2:  Eev.  17.  2-5  :  18.  3-5  :  19.  2.  2nd.  Gross 
immorality  and  licentiousness,  combined  with  hypocritical  and  self- 
righteous  asceticism,  i  Tim.  4.  2,  3.  3rd.  AiTOgant  and  blasphemous 
pretensions,  usurpation  of  Divine  prerogatives,  opposition  against 
God,  and  persecution  of  his  people,  2  Thes.  2.  4,  5  :  Eev.  17. 
6-14:  18.6-20:  19.2.  4th.  Great  wealth,  magnificence,  and  lux- 
ury, Rev.  17.  4:  18.  7,  8,  11-19.  5th.  Eeliance  upon  the  support 
and  aid  of  worldly  powers,  whose  tyraimy  it  sanctions  and  upholds, 
Eev.  17.  I,  2,  15,  17:  18.  3,  9. 

Such  is  the  picture  drawn  by  the  hand  of  prophecy,  of  tliis  rival 
and  enemy  of  God,  seated  in  his  temple;  and  its  counterpart  is  but 


REVELATION  :    ADMITTED  TRUTHS.  649 

too  clearly  seen  in  the  history  of  a  great  portion  of  Christendom. 
Oat  of  the  abundant  proofs  furnished  by  the  i-ecords  of  the  church 
during  the  long  dark  night  through  which  she  has  passed,  and  even 
by  the  present  state  of  the  world,  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  a  few 
leading  traits  of  character  which  mark  that  system  of  iniquity  in 
which  the  fulfilment  of  these  predictions  is  pre-eminently  seen. 
Gross  corruptions  of  Christian  doctrine  and  worship; — compulsory 
celibacy  and-uncommanded  austerities,  combined  with  meretricious 
splendour  and  a  counterfeit  Jewish  ritual  ; — blasphemous  assump- 
tions of  Divine  titles  and  honours,  claims  of  infallibility  and  supreme 
authority  over  the  conscience, — disi^ensations  and  absolution  of 
sins,  pretended  prophecies  and  miracles, — oppression  and  persecu- 
tion of  the  people  of  God,  carried  on  with  the  concm-rence  and  aid 
of  eart.hly  rulers  ; — all  these  have  been  found  more  or  less  de- 
veloped in  those  antichristiau  systems  which  have  so  greatly  pre- 
vailed both  in  Eastern  and  Western  Europe,  to  the  hindrance  of 
the  spread  of  Divine  truth,  and  the  ruinous  delusion  of  myriads, 
who,  being  blinded  by  error,  peiish  in  their  sin. 

The  fearful  errors  of  this  apostasy  are  not,  however,  the  closing 
scenes  of  this  book.  The  "wicked"  or  "  lawless  one"  ''the  Lord 
shall  consume  with  the  spirit  of  his  mouth,"  2  Thes.  2.  8.  She 
that  did  corrupt  the  eai-th  shall  be  judged.  Rev.  19.  2.  And  this 
great  event,  which  will  cause  mourning  to  some  on  earth,  will  occa- 
sion great  joy  and  thanksgiving  in  heaven.  Rev.  18.  9-19:  19.  1-6. 
Again,  and  again,  and  again,  the  cry  is  heard  there,  "  Alleluia  ;" 
and  the  servants  of  God  on  earth  are  summoned  to  join  in  the 
song. 


205.  Our  work  is  done.  The  first  chapters  of  Matthew 
show  us  Christ  in  his  weakness  ;  of  royal  descent  indeed,  and 
receiving  the  profoundest  homage,  yet  poor  and  persecuted ; 
the  last  of  Eevelation  show  him  with  memorials  of  his  suffer- 
ing—for  he  is  a  Lamb  still — but  triumphant,  "  reigning  for 
ever  and  ever."  In  Genesis  we  see  Paradise  lost,  and  man 
driven  forth  from  the  presence  of  God  ;  in  Revelation  mm-e 
than  Paradise  is  regained,  men  are  once  more  in  fellowship 
with  God  (22,  3,  4,  5),  a  fellowship  that  shall  know  no  end. 
Malachi  had  ended  with  "  a  curse,"  the  last  words  of  John 
are  of  blessing  (22.  21).  So  characteristic  are  the  various 
portions  of  the  Inspired  Volume  throughout :  so  complete 
the  whole. 


2  F 


(     650     ) 


INDEX. 


Abimelech,  kings  so  called,  154. 

Abner  more  righteous  than  Joab,  ex- 
plained, 164. 

Abraham,  his  wanderings,  395 ;  pro- 
mise made  to  him,  396,  425 ;  justified 
by  faith,  3^7,  59J,  603-4;  how  to  share 
his  blessing,  324. 

Acts,  book  t)f,  576-7 ;  illustrates  the 
deity  and  offices  of  the  Son  and  of  the 
Spirit,  577-9. 

A.D.,  the  precise  date  of,  563. 

Adam,  effect  of  his  sin,  313,  39J. 

Adoption,  two  kinds  of,  251 ;  privileges 
connected  with,  637-8. 

Adultery,  figurative  meaning  of,  305. 

Advocate,  meaning  of,  57. 

Affliction,  363;  sanctified,  367-99; 
teaching  of  ycripture  on,  with  exam- 
ples, 36q. 

Agag,  different  kings  so  called,  154. 

Alexander  on  the  two  economies,  109. 

Alexander  s  conquests,  541. 

Alexandrian  Platonists,  their  influence, 
586. 

Allegory,  kinds  of,  146  ;  rules  for  inter- 
pretmg,  273  -8  ;  Jewish  modes  of  allego- 
rizing on  words  and  letters ;  rational- 
istic mode,  on  facts  so  as  to  deny 
them,  283  ;  works  on  allegorical  inter- 
pretation, 295.  (See  Figures,  Types, 
Parables.) 

Almond,  a  symbol,  meaning  of,  223. 

Alphabetical  psahn,  388,  498. 

Ambiguous  words  in  English  version,  55. 

Ammon,  prophecies  on,  476. 

Ammonian  sections,  23. 

Amos,  book  of,  481. 

Analogy,  the  source  of  most  language 
on  spiritual  tnith,  140;  use  of,  in 
fixing  meaning  of  words,  186-7. 

Analogy  of  faith,  meanmg  of,  and  rules 
on,  174-9. 

Ancestors  for  posterity,  152. 

Angel  of  Jehovah,  125,  401. 

Ananias,  sin  and  death  of,  578. 

Anselm,  on  knowledge  and  experience, 
148. 

Antichrist,  origin  and  meaning  of,  6?7. 

Antilegomena,  10,  77  ;  Gamliier  on,  6y. 

Antioch,  different  cities  so  called,  155 

Antiochus  subdues  Judsea,  542 ;  foretold 
liy  Daniel,  501. 

Apis,  the  Egyptian  idol,  402,  520. 

Apocrj'pha,  nou-canouicity  of,  82  ;  his'.o- 


rical  value  of,  83 ;  when  declareO 
canonical  by  Rome,  208 ;  Augustine 
on,  65. 

Apostles,  their  sulferings  and  travels, 
91,  207-8  ;  their  candour,  104. 

Arabia,  divisions  of,  254  ;  prophecies 
on,  476. 

Arabic  language,  15  ;  versions,  37 ;  words 
in  modern  maps,  267. 

Arama?an  dialect,  14 ;  words  in  New  Tes- 
tament, 20. 

Aristeas,  story  of,  31-2. 

Arnold  on  the  progressive  love  of  Scrip- 
ture, 116;  on  the  practical  reading 
of  Scripture,  360. 

Ascensions  to  heaven  under  different 
dispensations,  394. 

Asia,  meaning  of,  in  New  Testament, 
266. 

Asmona'ans,  their  liistory,  542. 

Ass  in  the  east,  passages  explained,  221. 

Astronomy  aids  chronology,  218. 

Assyrian  empire,  silence  of  Scripture 
on,  119;  its  historj^  533;  prophecies 
concerning,  476. 

Atheism  springs  from  the  heart,  611. 

Athens,  idolatry  in,  207. 

Atont-mcnt,  idea  of,  how  imparted,  144  ; 
meaning  of,  i9:>-6;  importance  of, 
315  ;  day  of,  418. 

A  ugustus,  who  ;  different  kings  so  called, 
154. 

Authenticity  of  the  Scriptures,  what, 
65 ;  proofs  of  its  claim,  66-9  ,■  evi- 
dences of,  85,  ct  seq.  (See  Gcnuinenees ; 
PiVidences.) 

Authority,  double  meaning  of,  180. 

Azazel,  meaning  of,  415. 

Babylon,  prophecies  fulfilled,  99 ;  cap- 
tivity in,  506-8  ;  deliverance  from,  a 
type  of  redemption,  291 ;  its  condi 
tion  in  the  days  of  Isaiah,  487  ;  pro 
phecies  concerning,  476. 

Bacon,  on  seeking  philosophy  in  Scrip- 
ture, 116;  on  interpretation,  273. 

Balaam,  his  character,  171. 

Balm  of  Gilcad,  222. 

Baptism,  its  signification,  166. 

Barnabas,  history  of,  110;  his  conduct 
towards  Mark,  in 

Baxter's  rule  for  the  removal  of  doubts, 
115. 

Beasts,  their  symbolical  meanings,  305. 


INDEX. 


651 


Beersheba,  lessons  connected  with,  256. 

Belief,  how  controlled,  I2J. 

Benson  on  Scripture  difficulties,  359. 

Bereans,  their  study  of  Scripture  and  its 
results,  124  (ref.  Acts  17.) 

Average,  eastern,  vinegar,  etc. ;  affect- 
ing illustration  of  our  Lord  s  firmness, 
244-5. 

Bible,  reasons  for  studjing  it,  i  ;  spirit 
in  which  it  should  be  studied,  2, 148-9 ; 
meaning  of  the  word,  2;  Scriptural 
names  of,  j  ;  scope  of.  167  ;  writers  of, 
circumstances  in  which  it  was  written, 
139;  how  to  be  studied,  356;  its  great 
purpose ;  influence  of,  on  holiness, 
106;  harmonies  of,  109,  112;  pecu- 
liarities of,  as  a  revelation,  116;  gene- 
ral view  of  its  books,  J75-6 ;  how  di- 
vided, 377 ;  as  a  history,  biography, 
389;  its  threefold  revelation,  J90;  to 
be  studied  by  all;  opinion  of  early 
Christians,  208  ;  has  Divine  authority  ; 
the  only  Divine  authority,  69  ;  tlie 
book  for  the  young,  1  j8.  (See  Testa- 
ment, Division,  Evidence,  Interpreta- 
tion, Genuineness,  Authenticity,  Ca- 
non.) 

Bible  or  Testament,  editions  of,  by  Alter, 
25  ;  Athias,  jo  ;  Bengel,  25  ;  Bcza,  5  ; 
Birch,  25  ;  Boothroj'd,  ^o ;  Curcellaius, 

25  ;  Dc  Ko?si,  jo  ;  Elzevir,  5 ;  Erasmus, 
5,  24 ;  Fell,  Gricsbach,  25  ;  Ilooght 
(Van  der),  Houbigant,  jo;  J;djn,  jo-i  ; 
Keuuicott,  5,  JO- 1  ;  Koppe,  204;  Lach- 
mami,  26 ;  Matthaei,  Mill,  25 ;  Scholz, 

26  ;  Stephens,  5  ;  Tregelles,  etc.,  26. 
Bickcrsteths  View    of   Scripture    I'ro- 

phecy,  299. 
Bind  and  loose,  203. 
Birch's  Auctarium,  84. 
Birks  on  the  Chronology  of  the  Acts, 

581 ;    on    the    harmony   of   different 

parts  of  the  Gospels,  109-11. 
Bishop,  universal,  when  applied  to  the 

pope,  208. 
Bitumen,  what,  23J. 
Blood,  different  meanings  of,  158 ;  why 

offered  in  sacrifice,  415. 
Boldness  in  the  faith,  j62. 
Bomberg's  Bible,  547. 
Bom  again,  20}, 
Botany  of  Scripture ;   list  of  all  plants, 

Bottles,  eastern,  25 j. 

Boyle  on  Scripture,  i ;  on  Scripture  de- 
velopment, 129. 

Bridges  on  Systematic  Divinity,  J09. 

Browns  Harmony  of  the  Sciijpture  Pro- 
phecies, J04. 

Burial,  eastern,  252. 

Burnt-offerings,  414. 

Burtons  Bampton  Lectures,  546. 

Btishe  on  Evidences,  65. 

Business  not  to  interfere  with  holiness, 
J29;  Xehemiah  an  example,  518. 

Butler's  Analogy,  109;  on  Scripture  diffi- 
culties, J52-3  ;  on  tie  account  of  Crea- 


tion, 117  ;  on  moral  and  posi^ve  pre- 
cepts, 320. 

Cabala,  548. 

Cabalists,  546-8. 

Ca?sarea,  155. 

Caiaphas,  a  Sadducee,  548. 

Cainan,  his  place  in  genealogies,  21J. 

Calendar  of  the  Jews,  lessons  taught  by, 

270-2. 
Canaan,  meaning  of,  152;  its  divisions, 

257  ;  woman  of,  called  a  Greek,  266. 
Canaanites,  their  punishment,  its  lessons 

424 ;  some  spared,  428 ;  the  curse  on 

them  did  not  affect  the  righteous,  152. 
Candour  of  inspired  writers  illustrated, 

lOi. 

Canon,  meaning  of;  books  of,  4;  how 
preserved,  81 ;  how  settled,  75,  76,79; 
catalogues  of  the  books,  78,  80 ;  Deu- 
tero-canonical,  77;  or  anlilegomena 
ID.     (See  Apocrypha.) 

Capellus,  his  services  m  Bibl.  Crit.,  jo. 

Capernaum,  its  geographical  position, 
109. 

Captivity,  its  causes  and  results,  506; 
prophecies  on,  507 ;  return  from, 
508. 

Cecil  and  Jay,  models  of  practical  expo- 
sition, 372. 

Cecil  on  the  Connection  of  the  Two  Cove- 
nants, 116  ;  on  the  systematic  study  of 
Scripture,  127;  on  the  richness  of 
Scripture,  202. 

Cedar,  a  symbol  of  the  righteous,  220. 

Celiljacy,  when  made  compulsory,  209. 

Ceremonial  law,  its  origin  and  object, 
406-9. 

Cerinthians,  586. 

Chaldajans,  prophecies  concerning,  495-8. 

Chaldee,  14 ;  chapters  in,  500-9. 

Chariots,  meaning  of,  in  visions,  51  j. 

Cherubim,  jo6. 

Christ,  a  chief  theme  of  Scripture,  117; 
of  prophecy,  295  ;  his  work,  how  fore- 
told, 287  ;  particulars  foretold,  95 ; 
preparations  made  for  his  coming,  J91 ; 
his  death  and  resurrection,  J15 ; 
psalms  on  his  character,  340 ;  gradual 
revelations  of,  125 ;  mysteries  con- 
nected with,  120;  physical  cause  of 
his  death,  no;  joumeyings  on  the 
night  of  his  betraj'al,  265 ;  his  Divi- 
nity, the  doctrine  of  the  early  church, 
208  ;  proved  from  Old  Testament,  JJ7 
(see  Angel)  ;  his  incarnation  and  dig- 
nity, 624;  his  superiority  to  Moses 
and  Aaron,  624 ;  all  truth  in  him,  552 ; 
in  the  Gospels,  555 ;  his  teaching,  551 ; 
his  atonement,  515 ;  duration  of  his 
ministry,  564  ;  his  sonship  recognised ; 
hisdea'h;  his  first  miracle,  discourse, 
and  public  act,  568. 

Christians,  peculiar  names  in  New  Testa- 
ment, no ;  their  excellencies,  how  sot 
forth  in  Scripture,  135  ;  bound  to  spread 
the  gospel,  328. 


652 


INDEX. 


Chronicleg,  books  of,  4J4-5 ;  relations  to 
Kings  and  Samuel,  435. 

Chronology,  peculiar  difficulty  in,  from 
modes  of  writing,  54 ;  of  reckoning, 
lie-i-j  ;  of  Old  Testament,  212-15  ; 
comparative  claim  of  Hebrew,  Septua- 
gint,  and  Samaritan,  215 ;  utility  of, 
in  teaching  moral  truth,  209  ;  different 
epochs  of,  211;  niles  for  framing  a 
system,  218  ;  difficulties  in,  344-5  ;  an- 
cient, confirms  the  truth  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, 381 ;  of  the  Gospels,  563-9;  of 
the  Acts  and  Epistles,  580-2.  (See  As- 
syria, Egypt,  Pentateuch.) 

Chronological  arrangement  of  Scripture, 
127,  390-407  ;  458-60. 

Church,  its  character  and  members; 
its  discipline,  579;  described  histori- 
cally in  the  Acts,  576 ;  duty  to  minis- 
ters, 630;  the  Bible,  a  history  of, 
118;  Abrahams  seed,  289. 

Classic  usage  as  to  New  Testament 
words,  188-9. 

Claude's  Essay,  372. 

Clunate  of  Judaea,  267-9. 

Coasts,  meaning  of,  266. 

Codex,  Code,  meaning  of,  21  ;  Cod.  Alex. 
Vati,  etc.,  6,  21,  27  ;  readings  of  Cod. 
Alex,,  32,  42. 

Cognate  languages  of  Scripture,  13  ;  use 
of,  ill  interpretation,  187. 

Colossians,  Epistle  to,  167,  616-17. 

Coming  One,  the,  192,  296,  301. 

Coming  (second),  of  Christ,  301. 

Commandments,  the  ten,  rules  for  inter- 
preting, 319  ;  moral  and  positive,  320-2. 

Comparison,  how  expressed  in  Heb.,  152  ; 
of  Scripture  with  Scripture  (see  Paral- 
lels). 

Complutensian  New  Testament,  5. 

Concordance,  Hebrew  and  Greek,  197. 

Conjectural  readings  and  emendations, 
48. 

Connection  (historical),  of  the  two  Tes- 
taments, 53  7-44. 

Constitution,  the  Jewish,  described,  410. 

Context,  use  of,  in  fixing  sense,  159-62, 
178  ;  in  suggesting  lessons,  363-4. 

Contradictions  (apparent),  of  Scripture, 
their  origin,  54, 14J,  153,  156,  169,  172, 
216-17,250,316;  how  rpf-onciled  (the 
foregoing  pages,  etc.),  345-50. 

Controversy,  difficulty  of  conducting,  387. 

Conversation,  carriage,  charity,  meaning 

^  of,  55-7- 

Corinth,  its  character  and  importance, 
594- 

Corinthians  (the),  Epistles  to,  594-601. 

Corruptions  of  Christianity,  how  met, 
630-5-6 ;  whence  originating,  585-99.     ! 

Cosmogonies,  ancient,  compared  witli 
Scripture,  examples  of,  121. 

Counsel  of  God  agrees  with  his  promisee, 
322. 

Covenant,  meaning  of,  2 ;  the  new  the 
old  miveiled  and  completed,  375. 

Covenants,  different,  mentioned  in  Scrip- 


ture, 396  ;  with  David  ;  himself  refers 
them  to  the  Messiah,  431. 

Covetousness  condemned,  IJ4.  249,  453. 

Creation,  lessons  in  history  of,  392-3. 

Cretans,  their  character,  632. 

Cush,  156. 

Customs  explain  texts,  238,  251 ;  diffi- 
culties in,  344. 

Damascus,  its  character,  254. 

Daniel,  book  of,  376,  499 ;  chronology, 
divisions,  and  spiritual  lessons,  500-2  ; 
Daniel  an  example  to  young  men,  502. 

Dates  of  English  Bible,  whence  taken, 
2x2  ;  discrepancies  of,  origin  of,  216. 

Daubuz  on  symbolical  language,  304. 

David,  a  man  after  God's  own  heart,  170; 
his  righteousness  explamed,  164;  his 
prophecies  of  Christ,  432;  Christ  spo- 
ken of  under  his  name,  288  ;  his  cha- 
racter and  reign,  436;  his  sin  and  its 
chastisement,  210. 

Davidsons  Biblical  Crit.,  31,  etc. 

Davison  on  prophecy,  97. 

Day,  Jewish,  how  divided,  249. 

Deacons,  their  qualifications  and  duties, 
630. 

Dead  Sea,  156. 

Dedication,  feast  of,  418. 

Deductions  from  Scripture,  authority  of, 
313-14- 

Delta  on  Revelation,  647. 

Depravity,  human,  11 1,  131,  209,  314. 

Deuteronomy,  384. 

Development  in  Scripture,-  1 24-9  ;  abuse 
of,  129. 

Devils,  meaning  of,  56;  the  devil,  his 
personality,  393.    (See  Satan.) 

Difficulties  of  Scripture,  how  far  to  be 
studied,  origin  of,  332;  in  words  and 
scope,  342-50;  in  truths,  revealed, 
351 ;  utility  of,  354  ;  not  all  to  be  re- 
moved, 359. 

Discrepancies,  apparent,  of  Chronicle? 
and  Kings,  433-4 ;  of  tbe  Gospels,  566-7 
(See  Contradictions.) 

Dispensations,  successive,  character  and 
duration  of  each,  125-8. 

Divisions  of  Old  Testament,  3,  61 ;  of 
New  Testament;  Eutbalian  sections, 
23 ;  into  chapters  and  verses,  60 ; 
occasional  inaccuracy  and  rule,  61. 
(See  Anmionian,  Eiisebiau.) 

Divisions  among  Christians,  Uie  sin  and 
cure  of,  600. 

Docetae  586. 

Doctrine,  how  illustrated  by  example, 
390. 

Doctruies  of  Scripture,  the  foundation  of 
morality,  317  ;  to  be  held  consistently, 
312  ;  comparative  value  of,  314-15  ;  es- 
sential doctrines  the  same  in  all  ages, 
i?o-3  ;  interwoven  with  precepts,  137  ; 
surnames,  150 ;  passages  proving  (sec 
P.,om.)  how  systems  arc  framed,  311. 

Dogmatic  theology,  what,  311. 

Domestic  usages  among  the  Jews,  240-i 


Co3 


Dres3,  eastern,  "  fiaked  '  explained,  241 . 

Dulies  of  Christians  to  God,  to  man,  to 
themselves,  608-9;  duties  of  justice, 
veracity,  and  love,  609 ;  relative  du- 
ties, 610. 

Eagle,  bubits  of,  illustrate  Divine  teach- 
ing, 220. 

Earths  mentioned  in  Scripture,  233-4. 

Ebioniles,  205-6. 

Ecclesiastos,  book  of,  true  key  to,  455-7. 

Ecclesiastical  writers,  their  testimony  on 
the  genuineness  of  Scripture,  7  ;  of  the 
first  four  centuries  arranged,  86. 

Edom,  prophecies  on,  4';6 ;  fulfilment  of, 
93. 

Economy,  the  old,  624-5. 

Egypt,  history  of,  119,  535  ;  prophecies 
on,  4';6;  its  climate,  268;  plagues  of, 
204,  402;  customs  of,  380;  tendency 
of  Jews  to  rely  on,  486-95. 

Egyptian  words  in  Pentateuch,  17  ;  in 
New  Testament,  20;  Egyptian  ver- 
sions, 34. 

Ekron,  prophecies  on,  493. 

Election,  how  taught,  312. 

Eli,  how  piuiished,  209-10. 

Elihu's  humility,  387. 

Elijah's  miracles,  93,  522. 

Elisha's  miracles,  93,  522 ;  disinterested- 
ness, 248. 

Eminent  piety  enforced,  632-3. 

English  VL-rsions  :  authorized,  what,  6j  ; 
general  accuracy  of,  50;  corrections 
of,  51-9;  history  of,  62-3  ;  Wycliffe's, 
Tyudalcs,  Coverdale's,  62 ;  Genevan, 
Douay,  Rhemish,  etc.,  63. 

Englishmaus  Hebrew  and  Greek  Con- 
cordances, 197. 

Ephesians,  Epistle  to,  167-8,  614 ;  warn- 
ings suggested  by  history  of  the  Ephe- 
sian  church,  616. 

Epicureans,  205,  545. 

Epistles,  how  to  be  studied,  583-7. 

Era  of  Xabonassar,  487  ;  various  eras  or 
epochs,  211. 

Error,  its  progress  downwards,  398,  611 ; 
errors  of  the  early  church,  585. 

Esdraelon,  valley  of,  255. 

Essenes,  545,  549. 

Essential  truths,  what,  150,  315. 

Esther,  book  of,  515-16. 

Ethics,  how  taught  in  Scripture,  123- 

Ethiopic  langtiage,  15  ;  and  versions,  33. 

Ethnography,  use  of,  381. 

Etymology,  how  far  a  guide,  186. 

Eusebian  canons,  23 . 

Euthalian  sections,  23. 

Evangelists,  meaning  of  name,  554; 
candour  of,  104. 

Evidences  of  the  truth  of  Scripture  clas- 
sified, 87-8  ;  external  and  internal,  89 ; 
moral,  100;  literary,  109;  spiritual, 
iiii  want  of  faith  in,  how  removed, 
115.  (See  Authenticity,  Ecclesiastical, 
Genuineness,  Pentateuch.) 

Evil,  how  overruled,  399. 


Examples  of  Scriptm-e,  how  to  be  used, 
325  ;   applied  to  iUus  irate  principles, 
390;    intended  to   promote    holiness, 
329. 
Excuses  of  the  ungodly,  636. 
Exodus,  book  of,  383. 
;  Expiation,  193  ;  how  taught  under  the 

law,  414-15. 
I  Ezekiel,  book  of,  502-5. 
j  Ezra,  book  of,  508-10. 

I  Fables  of  Scripture,  146. 

Fabricii  Codex  Pseud.,  84. 

Faith,  defined,  160 ;  various  uses  of  the 
word,  157  ;  produces  good  works,  169, 
317;  the  gift  of  God,  124;  man's 
responsibility  for,  312  ;  how  produced, 
124;  the  principle  of  obedience  and 
success,  103 ;  examples  of,  135,  337  ; 
admits  increase,  368 ;  taught  in  Old 
Testament,  337. 

Fall,  history  of,  its  moral  completeness, 
118. 

False  teachers,  three  kinds  of,  637. 

Fanciful  interpretations,  150,  28  2-^. 

Fasts,  Jewish,  4x8. 

Felix,  his  character,  135,  207. 

Fellowship  with  Christ,  637. 

Festivals,  Jewish,  270-1 ;  416-17. 

Figurative  language,  origin  of,  140; 
cautions  on,  142-3,  175 ;  general 
nature  of,  145-59;  rules  for  inter- 
preting, 158-66-75.  (See  Allegories, 
Prophecy.) 

Flesh,  meaning  of,  157. 

Food,  eastern,  244-5. 

Forelcnowledge,  consistent  with  human 
freedom,  469. 

Forty,  peculiar  use  of,  153. 

Francke  on  practical  reading  of  Scripture, 
361. 

Furniture,  eastern,  240. 

Fiirsfs  Concordance,  197. 

Galatians,  the,    their   origin    and    cha- 
racter, 592 ;    Epistle    to,   593 ;    com- 
pared with  other  epistles,  168  ;  various 
readings   of,    11;    ijcope    of,    168-9; 
Galiiieans,  548. 
Gaza,  prophecy  on,  493. 
Gehenna,  origin  of  the  name,  265. 
i  Gemara,  546. 

i  Genealogies  of  Scripture,  use  of,  394, 
:  435- 
Genesis,  book  of,  383. 
j  Gentiles,  effect  of  Jewish  nile,  544; 
!  their  need  of  the  gospel,  572-5  ;  how 
>  met  by  the  gospel,  572  ;  preparation 
i      for  receiving  them  into  the  church, 

474-6-84. 
1  Genuineness    explained,    4;    effect    of 
printing  on  question  of,  5  ;  evidences 


I      of,  5-13,  85  ;  of  Pentateuch.  378 ;   of 
j      Isaiah,  487;  of  Gospels  and  Epistles, 

555-6. 
I  Geography,  utility  of,  253  ;   difficulties 
I     explained  by,  266 ;  outline  of,  253-64. 


654 


INDEX. 


Geology,  j8i. 

Gerard  s  Institutes,  i88. 

Gibbon  on  the  effects  of  the  gospel, 
io8. 

Gifts  improved  are  increased,  315. 

Gilgal,  lessons  connected  with,  256. 

Gill  s  Commentary,  204. 

Glory,  the,  410. 

Glossaries,  on  Scripture,  191. 

Gnostics,  586. 

God,  his  nature,  how  revealed,  124;  a 
Spirit,  174  ;  his  character ;  his  govern- 
ment, 134 ;  alone  honoured  in  Scrip- 
ture, 103 ;  illustrated  in  Genesis,  395. 

Gospel  adapted  to  man's  wants,  112; 
agreement  between  it  and  experience 
of  Christians,  1 12-13  ;  contrasted  with 
false  systems,  ijo  ;  its  chief  excellence, 
133;  influence  of,  among  heathen  na- 
tions, 107-8. 

Gospels,  the,  their  canonicity,  76 ; 
authority,  66-7 ;  meaning  of,  con- 
nection of  the  four,  554-5  ;  chronology, 
563-4 ;  verbal  agreement,  565  6 : 
harmony  of,  564 ;  apparent  dis- 
crepancies, 566-7  ;  topics  to  be  noticed 
in  studying,  570. 

Government,  Christian  duty  to,  632. 

Gradual  disclosure  of  truth  in  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  552. 

Graves  on  the  Pentateuch,  argument  of, 
382. 

Grecian,  266. 

Greece,  most  civilized  and  most  idola- 
trous, 107,  207. 

Greek  language,  its  elements,  19  ;  Hel- 
lenistic, 18 ;  Lexicons  and  Grammars 
with  special  reference  to  New  Testa- 
ment, 20,  182;  Greek  article,  import- 
ance of,  52;  rules  of,  198;  books  on, 
202. 

Greek  Scriptures,  earliest  versions  of; 
the  Septuagint,  9;  history  and  com- 
parative value  of;  chief  editions  of; 
versions   made    from,   32 ;    MSS.    of, 

5,  27  ;   quotations  from,  in  Fathers, 

6,  7  ;  use  of,  in  interpretation,  191 ; 
history  of  the  text  of  New  Testament, 
25  ;  textas  receptus,  5.  (See  Aristeas, 
Origeu,  Various  readings.) 

Greeks,  peculiar  meaning  of,  266. 
Grotius  on  Scripture  Evidence  a  test  of 

character,  115. 
Groves,  worship  in,  321. 
Growth,  Christian,  through  the  word,  628. 

Habakkuk,  book  of,  498-9. 

Habit,  power  of,  135. 

Habitations,  eastern,  described,  238-40. 

Hagenbach  on  the  spirit  in  which  the 
Scriptu'-es  must  be  studied,  148. 

Haggai,  book  of,  510;  prophecies  con- 
cerning Christ,  511 

Hagiographa,  what,  3. 

Hales'  Chronology,  219. 

Hall,  Bishop,  on  virtue,  321 ;  on  Ruth's 
history,  429. 


Hand-book,  aim  of,  i,  2. 

Hands  placed  on  sacrifice,  meaning  o^ 
414. 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  how  framed,  565 

Hatred,  in  what  sense  enjoined,  152. 

Head-dress,  242. 

Heathenism,  influence  of,  108 ;  ignorance 
of  man's  guilt,  God's  character,  and 
future  life,  572-4. 

Hebraisms  of  Scripture,  151. 

Hebrew  language,  name,  character,  and 
histoiy,  13,  16,  17  ;  helps  to  the  study 
of,  181. 

Hebrew  Scriptures,  earliest  printed 
editions,  5 ;  MSS.  of,  5,  6 ;  critical 
editions  of,  30  ;  Hebrew  text  modified 
by  passages  in  the  New  Testament, 
334;  difiBculties  in,  341-4.  (See 
Targums,  Masora.) 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to,  621. 

Hell,  meaning  of.  56. 

Hellenisms  of  New  Testament,  18,  192. 

Hellenistic  New  Testament,  196. 

Herculanevmi,  MSS.  found  at,  22. 

Heresies  in  the  early  church,  586. 

Herod,  persons  so  called,  155 ;  date  of 
death  of  Herod  Agrippa,  580 ;  Herod 
the  Great,  543. 

Herodians,  548. 

High  piiest,  411. 

History,  how  to  be  studied,  390;  pro- 
fane, its  use  in  interpretation,  206 ; 
ecclesiastical,  its  use,  207. 

History,  natural,  its  iise,  219. 

History  of  the  Bible,  on  what  principle 
written,  116;  regarded  as  allegorical, 
144,  281 ;  difficulties,  345-8. 

Historical  books  of  Scripture,  Jewish,  an 
arrangement  of,  419 ;  by  whom  writ- 
ten, 420  ;  on  what  principles,  421 ; 
religious  character  of  Old  Testament 
history,  4?6 ;  chronological  order  of, 
422-3,  458-66. 

Hody  on  the  LXX.,  9. 

Holiness,  idea  of,  how  taught,  143-4;  su- 
preme importance,  loi,  315  ;  promoted 
by  the  gospel,  107  ;  the  fruit  of  faith, 
103. 

Holy  vSpirit,  needed  in  reading  the  Bible, 
148  ;  how  revealed  in  Old  Testament, 
125  ;  his  personality  and  office,  578-9. 

Homologoumena.  10. 

Horeb  and  Sinai,  156. 

Horn,  the  little,  of  Daniel's  pi-ophecy 
501-91. 

Home's  Introduction,  31,  etc, 

Horsley  on  the  English  Bible,  150. 

Hosea,  book  of,  482-4;  marriage  of  the 
prophet,  meaning  of,  485. 

Hotiscs,  eastern,  239. 

Human  nature.  Scripture  teaching  on 
1 16-31  ;  portraits  of,  131;  its  tenden 
cies  SI  en  in  Jewish  sects,  551. 

Humility,  idea  of,  new  to  the  Greeks, 
144  ;  Peter  an  example  of,  628  ;  Eiihn, 
387  ;  honour  put  upon,  3i5-6[ ;  how 
taught  by  i^urLord,  315, 568. 


INDEX. 


655 


Idiom,  Hebrew  and  Greek,  importance 
of  attending  to,  5^. 

Idolatry,  under  tlie  law,  treason,  410. 

Iduma-a  (See  Edom). 

Immortality  believed  in  by  Old  Testa- 
ment saints,  JJ7  ;  doubted  by  heathen, 
513- 

Importance  of  truths,  how  ascertained, 

Incense,  185. 

Inns,  eastern,  252. 

Inspiration,  Scripture  teaching  on,  7;  ; 
theories  of,  73  ;  what  it  allows,  74  ; 
how  it  modifies  interpretation,  355. 

Insults,  different  kinds,  251-2. 

Interpretation,  rules  of,  150-79 ;  sanc- 
tioned by  quotations  in  New  I'esta- 
ment,  388  ;  helps  to,  202 ;  of  Psalms, 
447  ;  Song  of  Solomon,  448  ;  Proverbs, 
452  ;  Ecclesiastes,  456 ;  Joel,  480 ; 
Zechariah,  515.   (See  particular  books). 

Intoxication,  meaning  of,  in  figures,  175. 

Introduction  to  books  of  Scripture,  best 
expositors,  377.   (See  different  books.) 

Irony,  examples  of,  164. 

IsaiaJj,  book  of,  485. 

Israel  and  Jiidah,  different  histories  of, 
466 ;  spiritual  meaning  of  "  Israel," 
289. 

Isthmian  games,  594. 

Italic,  the  old  version,  32. 

Italics,  meaning  of,  in  Scripture,  59. 

'Iva,  meaning  of,  J43. 

Jacob's  conduct  to  Esau  and  its  results, 

357-8- 

Jahn's  Archeology,  249. 

James,  Epistle  of;  his  history-,  612  ;  re- 
lation of  his  Epistle  to  other  Epistles, 
169. 

Japheth,  prophecy  on,  96. 

Jehoshaphat,  521. 

Jephthah's  vow,  350. 

Jeremiah,  book  of,  494-7 ;  different  ar- 
rangement of  his  predictions,  496-7. 

Jericho,  prophecy  concerning,  423-4 ;  its 
history,  256. 

Jeroboam,  his  character,  466-7. 

Jerusalem,  history  of,  262-6. 

Jethro,  his  different  names,  156. 

Jews,  prophecies  on,  97-8  ;  their  history 
and  riles  typical,  144,  289  ;  Gods  pur- 
pose in  relation  to,  610 

Job,  book  of,  384 ;  lessons  taught  by, 
387  ;  prophecies  of  Christ  in,  394;  dif- 
ficulties of,  343  ;  peculiar  words  in,  17. 

Joel,  book  of,  479-81. 

John,  Gospel  of,  561-3  ;  Epistles  of,  636-9 

Jonah,  book  of,  478-9. 

Jones  on  the  canon,  84. 

Jordan,  255. 

Joseph,  his  history  and  character,  367, 
399- 

Josephus  on  the  canon,  3 :  his  account 
of  "Felix,  207  ;  use  of,  in  interpreta- 
tion, 189. 

Joshua,  the  high  priest,  513. 


Joshua,  book  of,  423  ;  relation  to  the 
Pentateuch,  426;  lessons  taught  in  the 
life  of,  424. 

Jubilee,  year  of,  419. 

Judcea,  heat,  seasons  of,  267-71. 

Judaiziug  teachers,  their  character,  585. 

Jude,  Epistle  of;  connection  with  2  Pot., 
635- 

Judges,  book  of,  427  ;  moral  condition  of 
the  Israelites  imder,  428. 

Julian  era,  563. 

Judgment,  the  last,  633  ;  qualities  needed 
in,  315  ;  shadowed  forth  in  Old  Testa- 
ment, 301. 

Justification  by  faith.  Scripture  view  of, 
607 ;  Paul  and  James  compared,  167-9 » 
blessings  consequent  on,  607. 

Karaites,  546. 
Keith  on  prophecy,  98,  etc. 
Kennicott,  his  labours,  5,  30-1. 
Kingdom  of   heaven,  or  of   God,   203. 

361. 
Kingdoms  received  from  Piome,  253. 
Kings,  books  of,  433-4 ;  to  be  compared 

with  Chronicles,  435-64,  527. 
Kings,   comparative  view  of  reigiis  of 

those  of  Israel  and  Judah,  467-8. 

Lajikktations,  book  of,  497-8. 

Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  272. 

Lardner,  109. 

Latin  words  in  New  Testament,  20. 

Law,  the,  its  true  puipose,  383  ;  outline 
of  its  provisions,  410-19  ;  origin  of  ce- 
remonial, 406  ;  how  to  be  interpreted, 
319- 

Lebanon,  254-60-1 ;  smell  of,  220. 

Leighton's  summary  of  i  Pet.,  627. 

Leland  on  Eevelation,  108. 

Leslie  on  ]Miracles,  92. 

Letters,  how  to  be  written,  639 ;  pecu- 
liar, in  Hebrew  Scriptures,  547. 

Levites,  411-13. 

Leviticus,  book  of,  383. 

Lexicons,  authority  of;  Hebrew,  181; 
Greelc,  182. 

Liberality,  328 ;  its  motives  and  mea« 
sure,  foo. 

Liberty,  spuitual,  in  things  indifferent, 
594.  606. 

Light,  meaning  of,  143-59;  God  ig 
light,  637. 

Lightfoot's  Hor£B  Heb.,  204. 

Lion,  habits  of,  222. 

Lisco  on  the  Parables,  280;  on  the 
Prodigal  Son,  and  the  rich  man,  371-2. 

Locke  on  Theology,  147 ;  on  general 
;  truth,  311;  his  Common-place  Book, 
■      372  ;  on  the  Epistles,  584. 

Lord's  Supper,  commemorative  not  sacri- 
ficial, 601 ;  of  two  kinds,  173  ;  primi- 
tive practices  m,  331  ;  how  to  be 
observed,  601. 

Love  constraining  motive  of  obedience; 
601 ;  sum  of  the  law,  610 ;  ChriiUian, 
iiS  supremacy,  601 ;  God  is  love,  638. 


G56 


INDllX. 


Luke,  Gospel  of,  560-1. 
Luther,  his  version,  i8j ;   on  studying 
Scripture  history,  jjo. 

Maccahkes,  54J. 

Magog,  15;. 

Malachi,  book  of,  518-19. 

Malice,  57. 

Man,  how  revcalod,  116,  IJ4-5. 

Man  of  Bin,  210;  591. 

ManasHoli,  his  repentan  e,  527. 

Manuscripts,  oldest  known,  212;  age, 
how  hxed,  20-4;  niatx;rials  of,  21;  of 
classic  authors,  6 ;  number  of,  5,  29, 
}i ;  circumslaiiccu  favourable  to  ac- 
curacy of  Scriptures,  10;  comparative 
value  of,  25,  29  ;  classifi<;ation  of  He- 
brew, ji  ;  of  Ureek,  by  Bentley,  Tre- 
gclles,  etc.,  25-6;  uncial  and  cursive, 
27-9.  (See  Cod(;x,  Genuineness,  Ureek, 
Hebrew,  Masora.) 

Marginal  glusnes,  41 ;  readings,  59. 

Mark,  Gosiiel  of,  558-9. 

Marks  of  the  Lord  Jcjsus,  171. 

Marriage,  J9?-6;  ungodly,  mischief  of, 
ij{;  its  duties,  599;  meaning  of,  in 
symbols,  }o8. 

Marsh's  iiiblical  Criticism,  }i,  1J9. 

Masora,  547  ;  Masoretic  text,  29,  ji. 

Matthew,  Gospel  of,  556-8. 

Meals,  eastern,  24}. 

Measures.  Scriptural,  247. 

Media,  history  of,  555-7. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  156,  254. 

Melchisedec,  ij. 

Messiah,  preparations  for  his  coming,  391 . 

Mesopotamia,  254. 

Metals,  2j6-8. 

Metaphor,  145. 

Metonymy,  145. 

Micah,  book  of,  489-90. 

Michaelis'  Jntroduction,  24. 

Mills  Symbology,  J04. 

Minerals,  2?  1-4. 

Mhiister,  185;  Christian  ministers,  their 
qualifications  and  duties,  629. 

Miracles,  evidence  of,  89  ;  number  of, 
90  ;  books  on,  89  ;  of  our  rx>rd,  569 ;  of 
Elijah,  522. 

Miraculous  gifts,  their  use,  600.  (See 
Leslie,) 

Mishna,  546. 

Mizpeh,  155. 

Money,  early,  218-48. 

Montfaucon's  I'alaographia  Gra.>ca,  24. 

Months,  .Jewi;,h,  tjibles  of,  270. 

Morality.  Christian,  its  peculiarities,  608  ; 
founded  on  doctrines,  jio. 

Moriah,  Mount,  262. 

Moses,  his  candour,  104 ;  how  he  honours 
God,  loj. 

Mothers,  their  influence,  6J9. 

Mourning,  eastern,  252. 

Myrrh,  222-9. 

Mysteiy,  58,  161. 

KiHDM,  book  of,  491-2. 


Naked,  meaning  of,  241. 

Names,  proper,  their  importance,  171 
185. 

Nathan,  his  character,  4J0. 

Nations  taught  their  duties  in  the  Old 
'J'estament,4j6  ;  heathen,  how  noticeil 
in  Scripture,  118. 

Natural  history,  utility  of,  219  ;  Botany, 
2Zi-ii  ;  mineralo(,'y  of  Scripiure, 
2JJ-8  ;  particular  examples,  220-2. 

Neander  on  the  J 'arables,  279-80;  on 
church  history,  j  jo  ;  his  motto,  148. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  his  dreams,  529-ji. 

Nehemiah,  book  of,  516  ;  a  model  of 
patriotism  and  piety,  516-18. 

Nero,  by  what  name  called  in  Scripture, 
154 ;  honour  due  to  him,  210 ;  Paul 
Ixrheaded  by  his  order,  6jj. 

New  Testament,  books  of,  376  ;  the  ful- 
filment of  the  Old,  {j8-75;  set  forth, 
in  Christ,  551  ;  to  be  studied  with  com- 
parison, 570-1  ;  sense  of  doctiine.  314. 
(Si-e  Testament.) 

NewUjn,  bisnop,  on  prophecy,  89. 

Newton,  J  no.,  on  systems  of  theology, 
455  ;  on  the  practical  reading  of  the 
IJible,  524. 

Newton,  sir  I.,  on   times  of  prophecy 

JOJ. 

Xicolaifanes,  some  account  of,  586. 
Night,  how  divided  among  the  Jews,  Z49. 
Nile,  156. 
Nineveh,  its  liistory,   534;   predictions 

concerning,  100, 476 ;  state,  m  the  days 

of  Nahum,  491. 
Numbers,  book  of;  t^xjpe  and  contents, 

J  84. 
Numl)ers,  mis-translations  of,  54  ;  liable 

to  errors,  54 ;   peculiarity  in  use  of, 

Oaths,  how  far  allowed,  327. 
Obadiah,  book  of,  505-6. 
Obedience,  evangelical,  motives  to,  608. 
Obsolete   words    of  Englii-h  Scriptures, 

57-8. 

Offerings  under  the  law,  413. 

Oii,  value  of;  how  used  as  mediciiia 
222;  at  feasts,  245. 

Old  Testament— meaning  of  name,  2; 
various  readings  of,  12  ;  our  l^ord's 
testimony  to,  63,  74  ;  a  moral  history, 
117;  still  instructive,  132;  outline  of, 
375;  use  of,  374;  its  importance  and 
inferiority  to  the  New  Testament, 
377 ;  is  the  New  unveiled,  282 ;  its 
temporal  promises  how  far  applicable, 

J2i. 

Olives,  Mount  of,  265-7, 
Oracles  of  God,  what,  3. 
Ordain,  various  meanings  of,  56. 
Origen'fl  Hexapla,  32. 

Palestink,  its  names,  257  ;  extent  and 
divisions,  25H-9;  climate,  261  ;  moim- 
t'tins,  260  ;  puiiulatioii  in  ancient  and 
modern  times,  261. 


INDEX. 


657 


Paley  on  the  Evidences,  86 ;  his  Iloras 
Paulinas,  i  lo  ;  on  devotional  virtues, 
ij6. 

Palm-tree,  an  emblem  of  the  Christian, 
219. 

Papyrus,  22. 

ParableS;  defined,  146 ;  how  differ  from 
tigures,  273  ;  when  used,  274 ;  how 
far  interpretation  may  be  pushed, 
277  ;  scope,  276  ;  of  Old  Testament, 
279;  of  New  Testament  classified, 
279-8  T ;  of  Good  Samaritan  and  Prodigal 
Son,  276 ;  rules  on,  275-9  5  books  on, 
285  ;  why  used  in  our  Lord's  teaching, 
552.    (See  Lisco,  Neander,  Allegory.) 

Paradise,  meaning  of,  20. 

Paragraph  Bible,  389;  Paragraphs,  im- 
portance of  noting,  61. 

Parallel  passages,  importance  of  com- 
paring ;  verbal  parallels,  170-2  ;  paral- 
lels of  icicas,  173;  influence  on  text, 
text,  42 ;  suggest  important  lessons, 
362 ;  importance  of  studying,  illus- 
trated, 170. 

Parallelism,  use  of,  in  interpretation, 
i6j ;  sj-nonymous,  162  ;  antithetic, 
i6j  ;  constructive,  j88. 

Parchment,  21. 

Parentheses,  165. 

Parents,  their  duties ;  examples  of 
godly,  600. 

Pascal  on  the  study  of  Scripture,  148  ; 
on  Scriptiu-e  difficulties,  359. 

I'articles,  importance  of,  165 ;  different 
meaning  of,  51. 

Passover,  402-16-17  ;  when  held,  218  ; 
customs  at,  251  ;  type  of  Christ,  272-8. 

Patience  involved  in  faith,  625. 

Patriarchs,  their  dispensation,  128 ; 
piety  of,  J96  ;  their  regard  for  a  future 
life,  331. 

Paul,  his  character,  apostolic  authoritj', 
598  ;  last  words,  635 ;  his  Epistles — 
authority  and  canonicity  of,  67,  76. 
(See  Felix.) 

Peace,  the  fruit  of  faith,  607  ;  how  culti- 
vated, 610. 

Peace  offering,  416. 

Penance,  209. 

Penny,  58. 

Pentateuch,  its  titles  ;  genuineness,  378- 
80;  first  questioned  by  Hobbes,  j8c; 
authenticity,  380-4;  various  docimaents 
used  in  preparing,  382  ;  peculiar  words 
in,  17. 

Pentecost,  417. 

Perfection,  meaning  of,  160. 

Persian  words  in  Scripture,  20 ;  version, 
37  ;  doctrine  of  evil,  205. 

Peter,  honoured  as  the  instrument  of 
earliest  conversions,  173  ;  his  humility, 
628  ;  his  last  written  words,  633. 

Petra,  history  of,  267. 

Pharaoh  hardened  by  mercy,  316,  401  ; 
kings  so  called,  154. 

Pharisees, — Pharisaism,  545-6-8. 

Philemon,  Epistle  to,  618. 


Philippians,  Epistle  to,  619. 

Philistia,  prophecy  against,  476-7. 

Philosophy,  its  influence,  585-95;  evU 
influence  on  the  early  church,  585-6. 

Phauiciau  language,  13  ;  customs,  205. 

Pingre's  tables,  219. 

Plagues  of  Egypt,  357  ;  their  siguifi- 
cance,  401-2, 

Platonism,  its  influence,  586. 

Plaj-fairs  chronology,  219. 

Plural,  how  used,  152. 

Poetry,  peculiarities  of,  387-9. 

Policy,  worldly,  often  destructive,  467. 

Polyglot,  Complutensian,  5 ;  London, 
25,  30. 

Popery,  novelties  of,  209;  false  interpre- 
tations of,  166-73,  etc. ;  adds  to 
Scripture,  129  ;  mischievous  influence 
of,  136. 

Porter,  Scott,  31,  50. 

Powels  siunmary  of  prophecies,  298. 

Practical  reading  of  Scripture,  suggestions 
on,  360-91  ;  theclogj%  what,  311. 

Prstorium,  what,  265. 

Prayer  of  Christians  asked  for  by 
apostles,  599 ;  how  offered  under  the 
gospel,  615  ;  promoted  by  promise, 
321- 

Precepts,  peculiarity  of  Scripture,  101-4, 
198;  based  on  doctrines,  317;  moral 
and  positive,  320  ;  rules  on,  321.  (See 
I^w.) 

Precious  stones  of  Scripture,  235-6. 

Presumptive  evidence,  87. 

Priests,  meaning  of,  185  ;  their  duties, 
support,  etc.,  411-13. 

Promises,  a  revelation  of  Gods  counsel, 
322 ;  universal  and  particular,  absolute 
and  conditional,  323;  differ  from 
invitations,  324;  ought  to  guide  to 
prayer  and  holiness,  325. 

l^roper  meaning  of  words,  what,  145. 

Prophecy,  revives  in  Samuel,  431  • 
gradual  disclosures  of,  432 ;  moral  les- 
sons of,  119,  303  ;  peculiarities  of,  as  to 
time  and  language,  286-9 ;  the  last  of 
Old  Testament,  519  ;  last  of  the  New, 
649 ;  nature  of,  as  evidence,  92 ;  per- 
vades Scripture,  9}  ;  all  subordinate 
to  one  end,  94 ;  prophecies  concerning 
Christ,  95,  295  ;  pagan  nations,  96 ; 
moral  and  evangelical,  119  ;  double  or 
repeated  applications  of,  291-2,  339  ; 
rules  of  interpretation,  293-5 ;  sanc- 
tioned by  New  Testament,  339 ;  two 
systems,  296;  agreement,  301,  dif- 
ference, 297  ;  prophecies  in  historical 
books,  304  ;  symbols  of,  305  ;  time  in, 
302  ;  books  as  evidence,  89. 
Prophetical    books,  epitomized,    471-2; 

tabular  view  of  472-6. 
Propitiation,  what,  193. 

Proselytes,  549. 

Proverbs,  book  of,  450-5  ;  rules  for  study 

of,  452  ;  examples  of  exposition,  452-5. 

Providence,— of  God  illustrated,  386,  516; 

lessons  of,  538  ;  mystery  of,  367  ;  God 


658 


INDEX. 


in  history,  loj  ;  requires  submission, 
367. 

Psabiis,  name,  Jewish  division  of,  439; 
value,  440 ;  authorship,  4J9  ;  arrange- 
ment of  Townsend,  Tholuck,  etc., 
441 ;  chronological  arrangement, 
442-5  ;  their  titles,  446-7  ;  rules  for 
studying,  447  ;  a  manual  of  devotion, 
127,  4J2;  arranged  as  such,  441. 

Ptolemy,  common  name,  154. 

Publicans,  246. 

Purgatory,  on  what  passage  it  is  sup- 
posed to  rest,  167. 

Purification  under  the  law,  spiritual 
significance  of,  416. 

I'urim,  feast  of,  418. 

Qualities,  how  expressed  in  Hebrew, 
151. 

Questions  in  reading  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 570. 

Quotations  in  the  fathers,  7  ;  influence 
of,  on  the  text  of  LXX.  42  ;  in  New 
Testament  classified,  332  ;  number  of, 
from  Pentateuch,  ja;  variations  in, 
reasons  for,  335  ;  omissions  in,  336 ; 
in  Revelation,  336 ;  truths  taught  in, 
3J7- 

Kahab,  her  faith ;  an  ancestress  of  the 
Messiah,  424. 

Rain  under  God's  control,  269  ;  imusual 
in  harvest,  271  ;  early  and  latter,  272. 

Uarabach's,  "  Institutiones  Hermeueu- 
ticffi,"  372. 

Rather,  meaning  of,  165. 

nationalism,  its  evils,  546. 

Rebecca,  lessons  taught  in  her  history, 
J58. 

Reconciliation,  meaning  of,  19^. 

Redemption,  meaning  of,  194 ;  its  source 
God's  love,  607. 

Relative  duties,  how  taught  and  en- 
forced, 552,  600. 

Religion,  objective  and  subjective,  133  ; 
meaning  of  the  word  in  Scripture,  58  ; 
a  natural  necessity,  611. 

Repentance,  two  meanings  of,  55  ;  ap- 
plied to  God,  142-J  ;  a  gift  and  a  duty, 
311;  needed  but  not  efRcacious,  illus- 
trated by  examples,  278,  329  ;  by  pa- 
rables, J70. 

Resurrection,  doctrine  of,  601  ;  of  Christ, 
its  significance  and  importance,  315  ; 
an  Old  Testament  type  ;  the  first 
fruits,  272. 

Revelation  progressive,  1 24 ;  unity  of, 
150. 

Itevelation,  date  and  contents,  6j9 ;  its 
chief  theme  ;  tlirce  theories  of  ujtor- 
pretation,  642-?  ;  lessons  revealed  in, 
647 ;  dosine  chapters  of,  compared 
with  other  cliapters  of  Scripture,  649. 

Revenue  of  Judjea  in  our  Lord's  day, 
260 ;  different  kinds  of,  how  collecte<l, 
245-6. 


Reverence  needed  in  studying  Scripture 

2,  148,  359- 
Rhemish  Testament,  63. 
Rice,  how  sown,  344. 
Riddles  of  Scripture,  146. 
Ridley,  the  martyr,  on  Scripture  myste 

ries,  J14. 
Righteous,  meaning  of,  164. 
Righteousness  of 'God,  why  justificatioi 

is  so  called,  611. 
Rock  of  the  cliurch,  175  ;  rocks  of  Scrip- 
ture, 234. 
Roman  empire  foretold,  96,  501. 
Romans,  Epistle  to,  scope,  contents  and 

argument,    601 ;     character    of     j^e 

church,   602 ;    various  readings,    1 1 ; 

scope,   169;    reconciled  with   James, 

H9- 
Rossi,  De,  MSS.  of,  5,  jo. 
Rules   of    interpretation,    150-75,    and 

utility  of,  176.  (See  Prophecy,  Parable^ 

etc.) 
Ruth,  lessons  taught  in  her  history,  429 ; 

book  of,  428 ;  place  in  history,  460. 
Ryan  on  the  effects  of  religion,  108. 

Sabbath,  when  instituted;  how  to  be 

ob:-erved,  393  ;    law  of,  mixed,  320 ; 

sabbath-day's  journey,  248. 
Sabbatical  year,  416. 
Sacrifice,  first  mentioned  in  Scriptme, 

393  ;  meaning  of,  under  the  law,  144, 

185,  416;  essential  to  salvation,  132. 
Sadducces,   their   numbers,  tenets,  and 

immorality,  545-8. 
Salutation,  eastern,  251. 
Salvation  by  law  proved  hopeless,  J74  ; 

meaning  of,  157-64-95  ;  man's  need  of, 

607  ;  by  fire,  167. 
Samaria,  the  crown  of  pride,  2O7. 
Samaritan  language,  15  ;  Pentateuch,  15, 

35',  chronology,  212. 
Samaritans,  their  origin  and  views,  468, 

550.  ' 
Sanmel,  books  of,  429-33. 
Sandals,  customs  connected  with,  242. 
Sanhedrim,  how  composed,  549. 
Satan,   his    character   and    personality, 

39J  ;  his  agency,  and  our  duty,  313, 
Satisfaction,  doctrine  of,  195. 
Schmidt's  Concordance,  197. 
Schoetgeniiis  Hor«  Heb.  214. 
Scholiasts,  Greek,  use  of,  191. 
Scholz,  New  Testament,  26. 
Schools  of  the  prophets,  521. 
Science,   ag)-eement  of   Scripture    with, 

122  ;  exceptions,  123  ;  not  to  be  sought 

in  Scripture,  120. 
Scope,    importance   of    marking;    how 

learned,  167  ;  effect  of,  in  fixing  sens", 

168;  in  correcting  discrepancies,  169; 

in  teaching  lessons,  362. 
Scribes,  549. 
Scripture,  study  of,  i,  148-9.    (See  Bible 

Old  lestament.  Written  revelation.'^ 
Sea,  meaning  of,  266. 
Sealing,  253- 


INDEX. 


659 


Seasons  in  Judaea,  270. 

Sects,  enumerated,  545-9  ;  Jewish,  illus- 
trate human  nature,  551. 

Self-deception  illustrated,  135. 

Sense  of  Scripture,  ij8. 

Septuagint.    (See  Greek  version.) 

Sepulchres,  252. 

Servants,  their  duties,  J95;  may  adorn 
the  gospel,  600. 

Seven  ;  seventy,  15J. 

Shall,  double  meaning  of,  56. 

Sheep,  tail  of,  why  oftered  ;  habits  of,  221. 

Shepherds  in  Egypt^  206,  j3t. 

Shew-bread,  410. 

Shiloh,  257. 

Silence  of  Scriptvure,  121. 

Simon  the  Just,  541. 

Simoom,  268. 

Sin  punished,  as  dishonouring  God,  102  ; 
how  described  and  illustrated,  134-5  j 
the  first,  its  destructivencss,  118,  393  ; 
resultSj  313,  393  ;  how  punished  in 
nations,  467  ;  referred  to  in  Job,  385. 

Sinai,  156,  260. 

Sodom,  guilt  of,  209. 

Sohar  of  E.  Simeon,  204. 

Solomon,  his  character  and  reign,  437-8  ; 
his  sin  and  its  results,  210 ;  prophe- 
cies concerning,  431. 

Son,  the  word,  how  used,  151-3. 

Song  of  Solomon,  canonicity  and  spiri- 
tual, 447-50  ;  significance,  abuse  hi  in- 
terpretuig,  449. 

Songs  of  degrees,  i63,  446. 

Spirit,  Holy,  how  revealed,  125,  488  ;  his 
teaching  needed,  148  ;  given  at  Pen- 
tecost, 273 ;  his  personality  and  work, 
578 

Spiritual  truth  revealed  in  figurative  lan- 
guage, 140. 

Spiritual  illumination,  limit  of,  149. 

Spurious,  meaning  of,  5. 

Stoics,  205,  545. 

Substitution,  196. 

Sufis,  546. 

Synagogues,  origin  of,  411. 

Synecdoche,  145. 

Systematic  divmity,  how  framed,  456- 
62 ;  differs  from  interpretation,  458 ; 
e^^l  of  repudiating,  460;  canons  on 
forming,  464  ;  examples  of,  599,  607. 

Tabernacle,  the,  410 ;  feast  of  Taber- 
nacles, 417  ;  custom  at,  252. 

Tables  of  weights,  etc.,  247. 

Talbot's  Bible,  372. 

Talmud,  what,  546. 

Targums,  various,  8  ;  utility,  182,  204  ; 
origin  of,  546. 

Tarshish,  255. 

Taxation,  245-6. 

Taylor's  Hebrew  and  English  Concor- 
dances, 197. 

Temple,  the,  a  type  of  Christ  and  of  the 
church,  289  ;  history  of,  connected  with 
that  of  the  Jews,  438  :  different  names 
of,  56 ;  brief  history  of,  262-3. 


Ten,  usage  as  to,  153. 

Tenses,  translation  of,  jj. 

Tents,  eastern,  238. 

Testament,  New,  551 ;  connection  of  bf  oks 
of,  376;  peculiarities  of,  375-7,  551; 
chief  source  of  doctrine,  312.  (See  O.'d.) 

Textus  receptus,  5. 

Thank-oflerings,  415. 

Then,  therefore,  165. 

Theudotion,  version  of,  9. 

Theology,  what,  179;  dogmatic  and 
practical,  311.  (See  Systematic  Di- 
vinity.) 

Therapeuta;,  546. 

Thessalonians,  Epistles  to,  589-91. 

Thessalonica,  its  character,  589. 

Tholuck  on  religious  insight,  148 ;  and 
grammatical  analysis,  150. 

Thomson  on  relative  importance  of  truth, 

ns- 

Tiberias,  city  of,  266. 

Time  in  prophecy,  302. 

Timothy,  d:ite  and  contents  of  Epistles 

to,  628-30. 
Titus,  date,  scope,  and  contents  of,  630. 
Towns  of  Palestine,  240. 
Tradition,  questions  of,  546. 
Translation  of  Scripture,  early,  8, 31,  etc. 
Authorized  version,  62 
Armenian  version,  8,  34. 
Anglo-Saxon,  35, 
Dutch,  184. 
French,  184. 
Georgian,  34. 
German,  183. 
Gothic,  34. 
Dalian,  184, 
Italic,  old,  32. 
Laiin,  modem,  183. 
Sahidic,  8. 
Slavonic,  34. 
Spanish  184. 

(See  also  Arabic,  English,  Egyptian, 
Ethiopic,  Persian,  Greek,  Script., 
Syriac,  Vulgate.) 
Translations,  utility  of,  for  interpretation, 

184. 
Transubstantiation,  129,  209. 
Tregelles,  piinciple  of  classifying  IISS., 

26. 
Trespass-offerings,  415. 
Trinity,  what,  how  revealed  in  Old  Tes- 
tament, 124-5. 
Trommius  Concordance,  197. 
Tropes,  145-7.    (See  Figurative.) 
Truth,  summaries  of,  131-50,  311,460. 
Types,    143-6,    274-5,    281-4,    411;    di- 
visible   into    (i.)   Personal, — Adam, 
Aaron,  Joshua,    Solomon,   etc. ;    (2.) 
Mistorival,— The  Brazen  Serpent;  (3.) 
Religious      Institutes,  —  Tabernacle, 
Mercy-seat,  Sacrifice,    Passover,    etc. 
See  on  the  general  principle,  275,  85, 
88,  290. 

Unbelief  a  great  sin,  312;  illustroted 
in  the  parable  of  the  rich  man,  371. 


INDEX. 


Uncharitableness,  sin  of,  J87. 

Uucial  MSS.,  27. 

Untranslated  words  of  Scripture,  59. 

Various  readings,  number  of,  11,   12; 

origin  of,  38-44  ;  rules  for  ascertaining 

the  value  of,  44-50,  difiBculties  created 

by,  342-5.    (See  Conjectural.) 
Verbs  of  action,  how  used  in  Scripture, 

154. 
Versions  (see  Translation). 
Vinegar,  what,  244. 
Virtues  have  their  counterfeits,  J97. 
Visiting  the  sins  of  the  fathers  on  the 

children,  3I7-49. 
Voltaire's  abuse    of  Ecclesiastes,  457  ; 

objections  to  Scriptures,  58-128. 
Vulgate,  history  of,  9,  3j;    errors  in 

text,  J3  ;  utility  of,  382-3. 

■yVARBUETON   On   Scrfpture   difficulties, 

359- 

Warfare,  the  Christian,  616. 
Weights,  247. 
Wells,  their  value,  269. 
"Wemyss'   Key   to  the    symbolical  lan- 
guage of  Scripture,  304. 
Wetstein's  New  Testament,  204. 
Whirlwinds,  effects  of,  268. 
AV'hito  stone,  253. 
VVill,  double  meaning  of,  56. 


Wisdom,— is  with  the  meek,  149;  of  ou! 

Lord,  106,  552  ;  mans  to  be  distrusted, 

358-9  ;  worldly,  folly  of,  in  Jeroboam, 

520  ;  tested  by  affliction,  364 ;  inProv. 

and  Eccles.  457. 
Word  of  God,  significance  of  title,  4. 
Words,  common  meanirig  of,  150;  to  bo 

preferred,  178  ;  lessons  taught  by,  361 ; 

use  of  etymology  in  explaining,  186. 
World,  257  ;  elements  of:  course  of,  iCr. 
Worship,  acceptable,  first  recorded  act 

of.  393  ;  public,  among  the  Jews,  410 ; 

a  duty,  608. 
Written  revelation,  advantage  of,   63 ; 

caution  respecting  the  use  of,  64. 

Year,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  249  ;  sab- 
batical, of  Jubilee,  418-19. 

Zeal,  instance  of,  272  ;  inculcated  on 
all,  609. 

Zealots,  who,  548. 

Zechariah,  the  son  of  Bflrachiah,  347. 

Zechariah,  book  of,  512-14  ;  style  ot,  16  ; 
his  name  confounded  with  that  of 
Jeremiah,  512;  Psalms  asciibed  to, 
515  ;  meaning  of  his  predictions,  512. 

Zedekiah,  remarkable  fialfilment  of  pro- 
phecy on,  218. 

Zephaniah,  book  of,  492-3  ;  style  of,  16. 

Zerubbabel,  an  ancestor  of  Christ,  511. 


PHILADEI.Pril.A:      WILLlAAf    5».    *    Af.FKKP    MjVRTTEN. 


V 


Date  Due 

#- 

f 

f) 

